Lecture Notes - Mathematical Analysis - DR Otoo
Lecture Notes - Mathematical Analysis - DR Otoo
MC/EL/CE/RN 260
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
BSc
Compiled
By
HENRY OTOO
(NEW)
JANUARY, 2020
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
MC/EL/CE/RN 260
INSTRUCTOR: Henry Otoo
Email: [email protected] / [email protected]
OFFICE: Mathematics Department / Phone: 0542823234
OFFICE HOURS: 1:00pm - 3:00pm Tuesdays, Wednesdays
AIM: Everywhere in nature and technology one meets motions and processes which
are characterized by functions; the laws of natural phenomena also are usually
described by functions.
This course introduces the concepts of convergence of series and sequences. The
course covers the application of convergence of series in power series. The course
introduces Taylor and Maclaurin’s series, Fourier series and evaluate integrals and
factorial with reference to gamma and beta functions.
ASSESSMENT OF COURSE
Assessment of students
The student’s assessment will be in two forms:
Assessment of Lecturer
At the end of the course each student will be required to evaluate the course and
the lecturer’s performance by answering a questionnaire specifically prepared
to obtain the views and opinions of the student about the course and lecturer.
Please be sincere and frank.
Lectures notes prepared by Henry Otoo (Umat Maths Dept.) Page iii
4.2 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates 64
4.3 Tripple Integrals 67
CHAPTER 5 70
FOURIER SERIES 70
5.1 Periodic Functions 70
5.2 Harmonics 72
5.3 Non-Sinusoidal Periodic Functions 72
5.3.1 Analytical Description of a Periodic Function 73
Table Title
Page
7.1 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.2 Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.3 Eigenfunctions Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure Title
Page
Figure 4.1 Area under the curve 59
Figure 4.2 Area under Rectangular Region 59
Figure 4.3 Graphs of case 1 and case 2 62
Figure 4.4 Bounded Region 63
Figure 4.5 Bounded Region 64
Figure 5.1 Periodic function 70
Figure 5.2 Perriod and amplitude of a periodic function 71
Figure 5.3 Periodic function for the sinusoidal function 72
Figure 5.4 Non-sinusoidal periodic function 1 73
Figure 5.5 Non-sinusoidal periodic function 2 73
Figure 5.6 Non-sinusoidal periodic function 3 73
Figure 5.7 Analytical description of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 1 73
Figure 5.8 Analytical description of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 2 74
Figure 5.9 Analytical description of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 3 74
Figure 5.10 Analytical description of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 4 75
Figure 5.11 Analytical description of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 5 75
Figure 5.12 Analytical description of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 6 75
Figure 5.13 Analytical description of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 7 76
Figure 5.14 Graph of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 1 76
Figure 5.15 Graph of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 2 76
Figure 5.16 Graph of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 3 77
Figure 5.17 Graph of Non-sinusoidal periodic function 4 77
Figure 5.18 A non-sinusoidal periodic 81
Figure 5.19 Graph of non-sinusoidal periodic function 83
Figure 5.20 Graph of non-sinusoidal periodic function 85
CONVERGENCE OF SERIES
Objectives
1.1 Sequence
Before we deal seriously with the convergence of series, there is the need to review
briefly the difference between series and sequence and remind ourselves about some
of the different types of series we have.
(a) 1,3,5,7,...
(b) 1
2 , 2 3 , 3 4 , 4 5 ,...
It could be seen that each list is written down as a definite order and there is a simple
rule by which the terms are obtained. Such list is called Sequence.
A finite sequence contains only a finite number of terms. e.g. 2, 4, 6,8,10 or even
1.2 Series
A series is formed by the sum of the terms in a sequence. Given that 1,3,5, 7,... is a
sequence then the series can be written as 1 3 5 7,... . Other examples are
(2) U1 U 2 ... U n U n
n 1
A series may end after a finite number of terms. Such series is called a FINITE
SERIES or may be considered not to end, and it is then called an INIFINITE
SERIES.
Series like
(i) 1 3 5 ... 99
(ii) 7 11 15 ... 79
(iii) 2 4 6... 16
are Arithmetic series(progression). In such series, it could be seen that any term may
be obtained from the previous term by adding a certain number called common
difference.
The common difference is just the difference between the successive term and the
previous term.
a (a d ) (a 2d ) (a 3d ) ...
Where a the first term of the series and d the common difference.
U n a (n 1)d (1.1)
The Sum of the nth term of Arithmetic Series (Progression)
We have
Sn a (a d ) ... ( L d ) L (1.2)
Sn L ( L d ) ... (a d ) a (1.3)
But we know that for an A.P if the first term is a and the common difference is d then
the nth term L a (n 1)d . Then substituting L a (n 1)d into equation (4) above
we get
n
Sn (2a (n 1)d ) (1.6)
2
Examples
2 10 20 1 4
20
S20
2
S20 10 20 19 4
S20 10 56
S20 560
2) If the 7th term of an A.P is 22 and the 12th term is 37 , find the series and the
sum of the first 30 terms
Solution
a 6d 22 (1.7)
Since U n or L a (n 1)d and n 7
a 11d 37 (1.8)
We solve equations (1.7) and (1.8) simultaneously for the values of a and d .
Thus, subtracting equation (1.7) from (1.8) we have
5d 15
15
d
5
thus
d 3
To determine the series, we substitute the values of a , d and n into the formula
U n or L a (n 1)d .
Hence, the nth terms when
n 2 U 2 4 (2 1)3 7
n 3 U 3 4 (3 1)3 10
n 4 U 4 4 (4 1)3 13
3) The 6th term of an A.P is 5 and the 10th term is 21.Find the sum of the first
30 terms
Solution
a 5d 5 (1.9)
a 9d 21 (1.10)
Substituting d 4 into equation (1.9) we get a 15 the sum of the first 30 terms
becomes
30
S30 2(15) (30 1)(4)
2
15 30 (29)(4)
S30 1290
4) Find an expression for the nth term of the sequence 2, 4,10,16,... and use this
formula to find the 15th term of the sequence and the sum of the first 15
terms.
Solution
a 2 d 6
U n a (n 1)d
U n 2 (n 1)6
2 6n 6
U n 8 6n
15
S15 2(2) (15 1)6
2
15
4 84
2
15
80
2
S15 600
Series like
1 1 1 1 ... 1
2 4 8 512
3 6 12 ... 192
16 8 4 27
...
27 9 3 4
are called geometric series. In such series, the ratio of a term to the previous one is a
constant called common ratio (r). Thus, the common ratios of the above G.P are
1 , 2 and 3 respectively.
2 2
U n ar n1 (1.11)
a ar ar 2 ar 3 ... ar n1
If the first term of a G.P is a and the common ratio is r , we may find the sum of the
first n terms as follows:
Sn rSn a ar n (1.14)
Sn (1 r ) a(1 r n ) (1.15)
a(1 r n )
Sn (1.16)
(1 r )
Alternative the sum of the nth can be written by multiplying the numerator and
denominator by 1 .
Examples
1) For the series 8 4 2 1 1 ... etc . Find the sum of the first 8 terms
2
Solution:
a 8 r
4 2 1
n 8 since r 1 we use the formula
8 4 2
a(1 r n )
Sn (1.17)
(1 r )
S8
2
1 1
2
8 1 1
8
S8 2
1
2
S8 16 1 1
8
2
1
16 1
256
255 255
16
256 16
S8 15 16
15
2) If the 5th term of a G.P is 162 and the 8th is 4374 . Find the series, the 10th term
and the sum of the first 10 terms.
Solution
ar 7 4374
ar 4 162
r 7 r 4 27
r 3 27
r 3 27
r 3
81a 162
162
a
81
a 2
Hence, the first term a 2 and the common ratio r 3 . Substituting the
values of the first term and the common ratio in the formula for nth term
1
1 1 1 1 ... n1 ...
2 4 8 2
Where r 1 and a 1 . The sum of these n terms obtained by the formula for the nth
2
of the G.P is given by
1 n
1 1
2
2 1 1
n
Sn
2
1
1
2
Now as n increases 2n will be very large and thus 1n approaches zero. i.e as n
2
n
1 1
or n 0 .The sum of all the n terms in this infinite series is therefore given by S
2 2
n 1 a(1 r n )
In general, the sum of the geometric progression a ar ar ... ar
2
.
1 r
a(1 r n )
Sum to infinity of series Sn therefore for | r | 1 as n n r n
0 . Thus
1 r
the sum to infinity of a G.P is given by
a
S (1.21)
1 r
Example
1) Write down the sum of the first n terms of the series and deduce it’s sum to
infinity
1 1 1 1 ...
3 9 27
Solution
a 1 r 1
3
a(1 r n )
Sn
1 r
3 1
3 3
Sn 1 1 1 n
n
Thus
1 1 2 3 2 3
3
Therefore, the sum to infinity
a 1 3
S
1 r 1 1 2
3
convergent or divergent. We’ll start with a sequence an n 1 and again note that we’re
starting the sequence at n 1 only for the sake of convenience and it can, in fact, be
anything.
Next we define the nth partial sums of the series (sum of the first n terms) as,
S1 a1
S2 a1 a2
S3 a1 a2 a3
S4 a1 a2 a3 a4
Sn a1 a2 a3 a4 ... an
An infinite series, or just series here since almost every series that we’ll be looking at
will be an infinite series, is then the limit of the partial sums. Or,
a
i 1
i lim Sn
n
(1.22)
If the sequence of partial sums is a convergent sequence (i.e. its limit exists and is
finite) then the series is also called convergent and in this case if lim Sn S then
n
a
i 1
i S . Likewise, if the sequence of partial sums is a divergent sequence (i.e. its
limit doesn’t exist or is plus or minus infinity or oscillates finitely and infinitely) then
the series is also called divergent.
Examples
1 1 1 1
1) The series n(n 1) 1 2 2 3 3 4 ...
n 1
has partial sums
S1 1
2
S2 2
3
S3 3
4
S4 4
5
Which with increasing n tend to unity. Hence the series is convergent with a sum
=1 i.e. S 1 . This result can also be obtained by using the method of difference
to sum the finite series.
Using partial fractions, the nth partial sum (sum of the nth terms) is written as
1 1
Sn
n 1 n n 1
Expanding we have
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn 1 ...
2 2 3 3 4 n 1 n n n 1
Sn 1
1
n 1
but a
n 1
n lim Sn S
n
1
Hence, lim Sn lim 1 1 as before.
n n
n 1
a 1 r n
has an nth partial sum (sum of nth term) given by Sn .
1 r
Hence if | r | 1
a
S lim Sn and the series is convergent.
n 1 r
The series is divergent, however when | r | 1 , since the partial sum S n either
increases without limit as n , or oscillates either finitely as r 1 or infinitely
as r 1
1 3 9 27 81
Solution
This is a G.P thus a 1 r 3
a r n 1 1 3n 1
Sn
r 1 3 1
3n 1
Sn
2
For the series to converge we need to determine whether the sequence of partial
sum is divergent or convergent.
But a
n 1
n lim Sn
n
3n 1
lim
n
2
n
n 1
Solution
To solve this, we need to determine the partial sums of the series. By expanding this
n n
Sn 2 (n 1)1 n 1
2 2
n n 1
Sn
2
n n 1
But a
n 1
n lim Sn therefore lim
n n 2
5) Determine if the series (1)
n 0
n
is convergent or divergent and find the value at
which it converges.
Solution
Expanding the series, we have 1 1 1 1 ... the partial sum is given by
S0 1
S1 1 1 0
S2 1 1 1 1
S3 1 1 1 1 0
Thus the sequence of partial sums is Sn n0 1, 0,1, 0,1, 0,... . The sequence of partial
sum diverges since lim Sn does not exist (there is no definite value, it oscillates). Hence
n
Solution
a(1 r n )
1 1 1 n
3
The sum of the nth terms (partial sum of n term) Sn
1 r 1 1
3
3
3 1 1
n
1 13
2 2 3n
3
Sn 1 1 n
2 3 But a
n 1
n lim Sn S
n
3
lim Sn
n 2
Theorem 1.4.1
Proof (this may be proved by considering the (n 1)th and the nth partial sum)
n 1
Sn1 ai a1 a2 a3 a4 ... an1 (1.23)
i 1
n
Sn ai a1 a2 a3 a4 ..an (1.24)
i 1
Now because we know that a n is convergent, we also know that the sequence Sn n 1
is also convergent and that lim Sn S for some finite value of S . However, since
n
NB: This theorem gives us a requirement for convergence but not a guarantee of
convergence. In other words, the converse is not true. If lim an 0 , the series may
n
1 1 1
diverge. The harmonic series n 1 2 3 ...
n 1
is a good example of this since
although lim an lim 1 0 . The sum of the series is infinite (explain later).
n n n
Theorem 1.4.2
n
If a
i 1
i S , then where k is constant. This follows from the obvious identity
n n
Theorem 1.4.3
If ai S and
i 1
bi T then
i 1
a b S T .
i 1
i i Again this theorem is proved by
considering the identity ai bi ai bi , and then letting n .
i 1 i 1 i 1
Theorem 1.4.4
If ai S then
i 1
a S a
i 1
i 0 where a0 is any number. This theorem shows that any
new term may be introduced at the beginning of series without affecting the
convergence of the series.
2) If f x dx is divergent so is a n .
k
nk
There are a couple of things to note about the integral test. First, the lower limit on the
improper integral must be the same value that starts the series.
Second, the function does not actually need to be decreasing and positive everywhere
in the interval. All that’s really required is that eventually the function is decreasing
and positive. In other words, it is okay if the function (and hence series terms)
increases or is negative for a while, but eventually the function (series terms) must
decrease and be positive for all terms.
There is one more very important point that must be made about this test. This test
does NOT give the value of a series. It will only give the convergence/divergence of the
series. That’s it. No value.
Example 1
Solution
The function is f ( x) 1
continuous, positive and decreasing on 2, therefore
x ln x
we can apply the Integral Test: in this case the function we’ll use is,
1
f ( x)
x ln x
This function is clearly positive and if we make x larger the denominator will get larger
and so the function is also decreasing. Therefore, all we need to do is determine the
convergence of the following integral.
1 1
dx lim dx using u ln x
2 x ln x t 2 x ln x
lim ln ln x |t2
t
lim ln ln t ln ln 2
t
The integral is divergent and so the series is also divergent by the Integral Test.
Example 2
ne
n2
n 0
Solution
1 2 x
x2
f ( x) e 2
This function has two critical points (which will tell us where the derivative changes
sign) at x 1
2
since we are starting at n 0 we can ignore the negative critical point.
Picking a couple of test points we can see that the function is increasing on the interval
0,
1
2
and it is decreasing on
1
2
, . Therefore, eventually the function will be
decreasing and that’s all that’s required for us to use the Integral Test.
x2 t x2
0
xe dx lim xe dx
t 0
Using u x2
1 x2 t
lim e |
t
2 0
1 1 t2 1
lim e
t 2 2 2
The integral is convergent and so the series must also be convergent by the Integral
Test.
Proof
1
Case I : If p 0 , then lim 1p therefore
n n
n
nk
p diverges by the Divergent Test.
1
Case II : If p 0 then 1
n n
1
n n
1
lim p lim 0 lim 1 therefore
n 1
n
nk
p diverges by the
Divergent Test.
Remark: As before, when we use the p-Test it is not necessary to start the series at n =
1:
Example 1:
1 1 1
(a) (b) 2
(c ) , 0
1
n 1 n n 1 n n 1 n
Solution
1 1
The series diverges by the p-test for series, since p 1 1 . The series n 2
n 1 n n 1
1
diverges by the p-test for series, since p 2 1. The series n
n 1
1 converges by the p-
test p 1 1
Example 2
Determine if the following series are convergent or divergent.
1 1
(1)
n4 n
7
(2)
n 1 n
Solution
(a ) In this case p 7 1 and so by this fact the series is convergent
In other words, we have two series of positive terms and the terms of one of the series
is always larger than the terms of the other series. Then if the larger series is
convergent the smaller series must also be convergent. Likewise, if the smaller series
is divergent then the larger series must also be divergent. Note as well that in order to
apply this test we need both series to start at the same place.
Do not misuse this test. Just because the smaller of the two series converges does not
say anything about the larger series. The larger series may still diverge. Likewise, just
because we know that the larger of two series diverges we can’t say that the smaller
series will also diverge! Be very careful in using this test
Example 1
Use the Comparison Test to determine whether the following series converge or
diverge.
ln n 1
(a) (b) 3
n 1 n n2 n 1
Solution
1 ln n
Since ln n 1 then
n n
n 1 n
diverges by the p-test with p 1 it follows that
n 1 n
also
diverges.
1 1 1
Again similarly, since 3
n 1
3
n
and
n 1
3
n
diverges by the p-test with p 1 it follows
3
1
that
n 1
3
n 1
also diverges.
If a n is a series and lim an 0 , then the series diverges. This is a necessary condition
n
Example
n2
2n 7
n 0
Solution
Let an n 2
2n 7
n2 n 2
lim lim n n as n , n2 0, 7n 0
n 2n 7 n 2 n 7
n n
n2 1
lim 0
n 2n 7 2
An alternating series is any series a n , for which the series terms can be written in
an (1) n bn bn 0
an (1) n 1 bn bn 0
There are many other ways to deal with an alternating sign, but they can all be written
as one of the two forms above
1) lim bn 0 and
n
Example
(1)n 1
Determine if the series is convergent or divergent.
n 1 n
Solution
(1)n1 1 1
n 1 n
(1)n1
n 1 n
bn
n
Now, all that we need to do is to run through the two conditions in the first test.
1
lim bn lim 0
n n n
1 1
bn bn 1
n n 1
Both conditions are met and so by the Alternating Series Test the series must converge.
Example
cos(n )
n2 n
Solution
cos(n ) (1)n
cos(n ) (1)n 1
n2 n
n2 n
from this bn
n
1
lim bn lim 0
n n
1 1
bn bn 1
n n 1
The two conditions of the test are met and so by the Alternating Series test the series
is convergent.
NB
It should be pointed out that the rewrite we did in the example above only works
because n is an integer and because of the presence of the . Without the we
couldn’t do this and if n wasn’t guaranteed to be an integer we couldn’t do this.
Facts
Example
Solution
This is the alternating harmonic series and we saw in the previous example under
alternating series that it is convergent.
(1) n
1
n 1 n
n 1 n
This is the harmonic series and we know from integral test where f ( x) 1
x
1
1 x
dx
(1) n 2
(b)
n 1 n2
Solution
In this case let’s just check absolute convergence first since if it’s absolutely convergent
we won’t need to bother checking convergence as we will get that for free.
(1) n 2
1
n 1 n 2
2
n 1 n
p 2 1
This series is convergent by the p-series test and so the series is absolute convergent.
Note that this does say as well that it’s a convergent series.
Note:
When we first discussed the convergence of series in detail we noted that we can’t think
of series as an infinite sum because some series can have different sums if we rearrange
their terms.
Facts
1 If is absolutely convergent and its value is s then any rearrangement of will also have
a value of s. a n
rearrangement of a
n whose value will be r.
an 1
L lim (1.27)
n an
Then
1. If L 1 the series is absolutely convergent is absolutely convergent (and hence
convergent)
2. If L 1 the series is divergent
3. If L 1 the series may be divergent, conditionally convergent or absolutely
convergent. In this case the ration test is worthless and we need to resort to
other test methods to determine the convergence of the series
Example
Solution
This will be easier when dealing with fractions as we’ve got here. So
(10) n 1 42 n 1 (n 1)
L lim 2 n 3
n 4 (n 2) (10) n
10(n 1)
lim
n 42 (n 2)
10 n 1
lim
16 n n 2
10
1
16
Thus L 1 and so by the ratio Test the series converges absolutely and hence will
converge.
Example 2
Determine if the following series is convergent or divergent.
n!
5
n0
Solution
Now that we’ve worked one in detail we won’t go into quite the detail with the rest of
these. Here is the limit.
an 1 1
L lim lim an 1.
n an n an
(n 1)! 5n ( n 1)!
lim .
n 5n 1 n ! 5n !
In order to do this, limit we need to eliminate the factorials. We simply can’t do the
limit with factorial in it.
To eliminate the factorial, let recall some examples of factorial.
n! n(n 1)(n 2).....3 2 1
Therefore
5! 5(5 1)(5 2)! 5 4 3!
Hence we can write
(n 1)! (n 1)n!
Thus
(n 1)n !
L lim
n 5n !
n 1
L lim 1
n 5
The series converges by the ratio test.
Try
(1)n
Determine if the series
n 1 n
2 1 is convergent or divergent, absolutely convergent,
nn
(a)
n 1 3
1 2 n
Solution
There really isn’t much work to the problem other than computing the limit and using
the root test.
1
nn n n
L lim 1 2 n lim 1 2
n 3 n
3 n 32
n
5n 3n3
(b)
n 1 7 n 2
3
Solution
1
n n
5n 3n 3
5n 3n3
L lim 3 lim
n
7n 2 n 7 n3 2
5n 3n3 5
3 3
3 2 3
L lim n 3 n lim n
n 7 n 2 n 2 7
3
3 7 3
n n n
3
1
7
Therefore, by the Root test this series converge absolutely and hence converges.
1. With a quick glance does it look like the series terms don’t converge to zero in
the limit, i.e. does lim an 0 ? If so, use the Divergence Test. Note that you
n
should only do the Divergence Test if a quick glance suggests that the series
terms may not converge to zero in the limit.
1
2. Is the series a p -series p or a geometric series ar n or ar n 1 ? If so
n n 0 n 0
use the fact that p -series will only converge if p 1 and a geometric series will
7. Can the series terms be written in the form an bn ? If so, then the Root Test
n
may work.
8. If an f n for some positive, decreasing function and f x dx is easy to
a
Exercise
3x 2 5 x 4
2. Finding the limiting values of as x
5x2 x 7
n n
(a) (b)
n 1 n 2 n 1 n 1
2
A power series about a, or just power series, is any series that can be written in
the form,
cn ( x a)n
n 1
or c x
n 0
n
n
(2.1)
where a and cn are numbers. The cn ' s are often called the coefficients of the series.
The first thing to notice about a power series is that it is a function of x. That is different
from any other kind of series that we’ve looked at to this point. In all the prior sections
we’ve only allowed numbers in the series and now we are allowing variables to be in
the series as well. This will not change how things work however. Everything that we
know about series still holds.
In the discussion of power series convergence is still a major question that we’ll be
dealing with. The difference is that the convergence of the series will now depend upon
the values of x that we put into the series. A power series may converge for some values
of x and not for other values of x.
First, as we will see in our examples, we will be able to show that there is a number R
so that the power series will converge for x a R , and will diverge for x a R . This
number ( R ) is called the radius of convergence for the series. Note that the series
What happens at these points will not change the radius of convergence?
Secondly, the interval of all x’s, including the endpoints if need be, for which the power
series converges is called the interval of convergence of the series.
These two concepts are fairly closely tied together. If we know that the radius of
convergence of a power series is R then we have the following
Before getting into some examples let’s take a quick look at the convergence of a power
series for the case of x a . In this case the power series becomes,
cn ( x a)n cn (a a)n
n 0 n 0
(2.2)
c0 (0) c1 (a a)1
0
(2.3)
n 1
c0 0 c0 (2.4)
Example
Determine the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence for the following
series.
(1)n n
n 1 4 n
( x 3)n
Solution
Okay, we know that this power series will converge for x 3 , but that’s it at this point.
To determine the remainder of the x’s for which we’ll get convergence we can use any
of the tests that we’ve discussed to this point. After application of the test that we
choose to work with we will arrive at condition(s) on x that we can use to determine
which values of x for which the power series will converge and which values of x for
which the power series will diverge. From this we can get the radius of convergence
and most of the interval of convergence (with the possible exception of the endpoints).
With all that said, the best tests to use here are almost always the ratio or root test.
Most of the power series that we’ll be looking at are set up for one or the other. In this
case we’ll use the ratio test.
an 1
L lim
n an
(1)n1 (n 1) n 1 (1)n n
an1 n 1
( x 3) , an n ( x 3)n
4 4
Therefore
(n 1)( x 3)
lim
n 4n
Before going any farther with the limit let’s notice that since x is not dependent on the
limit it can be factored out of the limit. Notice as well that in doing this we’ll need to
keep the absolute value bars on it since we need to make sure everything stays positive
and x could well be a value that will make things negative. The limit is then,
(n 1)
x 3 lim
n 4n
x3 1
Hence L or x3
4 4
So the ratios test tells us that if L 1 the series converges, with L 1 , series diverges
and if L 1 we don’t know what will happen. Therefore, we have
1
x 3 1 x 3 4 (Series converges)
4
1
x 3 1 x 3 4 (Series diverges)
4
Now, let’s get the interval of convergence. We’ll get most (if not all) of the interval by
solving the first inequality from above.
4 x 3 4
7 x 1
x 7
In this case the series
(1)n n(7 3)n (1)n n(4)n
n 1 4n
n 1 4n
(1)n n(1)n (4) n
n 1 4n
(1)n (1)n
n 1
But
When x 1
(1)n n(4)n
n 1 4 n
(1)n n
n 1
This series is also divergent by the divergent test since lim(1)n n doesn’t exist.
n
You can also use the alternating series to evaluate (1) n which will give us the same
n 1
n
answer.
Thus, the interval of convergence is then
7 x 1
Example
Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence for the power series
Solution
an 1
L lim
n an
2n 1 (4 x 8) n 1 n
L lim . n
n n 1 2 (4 x 8) n
2(4 x 8)n 2n
lim 4 x 8 lim Since x is not dependent on the limit we can factorize
n n 1 n n 1
L 2 4x 8
2 4 x 8 1 (Series diverges)
of the absolute value bars in order to get the correct radius of convergence. Doing this
gives,
1
8 x 2 1 x 2 Series converges
8
1
8 x 2 1 x 2
8
2n (1) n
n 1 n 2n
(1) n
n 1 n
(1)n
This is an alternating series with an . But we know from previous examples
n 1 n
that this alternating series is convergent and therefore we make the endpoint x 15
8
inclusive.
When x 17 :
8
n
2n 1 2n 1n
n 1 n 2 n 1 n 2
n
1
n 1 n
This is the harmonic series and it is divergent hence the endpoint is not inclusive
17
x .
8
Hence the interval of convergence is given by
15 17
x
8 8
about xa
f ( x) cn ( x a)n c0 c1 ( x a)1 c2 ( x a)2 c3 ( x a)3 c4 ( x a)4 ... (2.5)
n 0
Next, we will need to assume that the function f ( x) , has derivatives of every order
and that we can in fact find them all.
Now that we’ve assumed that a power series representation exists we need to
determine what the coefficients cn are. This is easier than it might at first appear to be.
f (0) 2 f (0) x3
f ( x) f (0) f (0) x x ...
2! 3!
f (0) e(0) 1
f ( x) e x f (0) 1
f ( x) e x f (0) 1
f ( x) e x f (0) 1
Hence the Taylor series is given by
x 2 x3 x 4
f ( x) 1 x ...
2! 3! 4!
xn
i.e. f ( x)
n 0 n !
Example 2
1
Find the Taylor series for f ( x) at x 0
(1 x)2
Solution
f (0) 2 f (0) x3
f ( x) f (0) f (0) x x ...
2! 3!
1
f (0) ( x) f (0) 1
(1 x) 2
f ( x) 2(1 x) 3 f (0) 2
f ( x) 6(1 x) 4 f (0) 6
f ( x) 24(1 x) 5 f (0) 24
f ( x) 120(1 x) 6 f (0) 12
Substituting the values of the derivatives the Taylor series becomes
Example 3
Exercise
1. Find the Taylor series f ( x) centred at the given value of a
(a) f ( x) e x , a 3
(b) f ( x) sin x,
a
2
(c) f ( x) x 4 , a 2
(c) n x
n 1
n n
3.1.1 Definition
The Gamma function ( x) is defined by the integral
( x) t x1et dt for x0 (3.1)
0
( x 1) (0 0) x t x1et dt (3.5)
0
The integral at the right hand side of equation (3.5) is the same as equation (3.1)
et
et
1 0
0
e e0 0 1 1
(1) 1
Examples
Evaluate the following
(1) (7) (6 1) 6! 720
(2) (8) (7 1) 7! 5040 or
(7 1) 7(7) 7 720 5040
(3) (9) (8 1) 8! 40320
(8 1) 8(8) 8 5040 40320
We can also use the recurrence relation of the gamma function in a reverse order
( x 1)
( x 1) x( x) ( x) (3.10)
x
Example 1
Given that (7) 720 , we can determine (6)
1
PROOF OF
2
1 1 1
t 2 1et dt t 2 et dt
2 0 0
2 0
2 eu du
2
eu du
2
It is difficult to integrate
0
Therefore, we let I e x dx then also I e y dy
2 2
0 0
I2 e ( x y2 )
2
dxdy (3.11)
0 0
Thus, for the above integration to cover the same region as before the limit ranges
from
r 0 to r and 0 to since it covers the first quadrant
2
0 0 0 2 0
1 2
I
2
d
2
0
2 20
I2
4
I
4 2
But
I e x dx therefore e x dx
2 2
0 0 2
Hence
1
2 e x dx
2
2 0
1 1
2
2 2 2
Again, using the recurrence relation ( x 1) x( x) we obtain the following
3 1 1 1 1
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
5 3 3 3 3 3
1
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
7 5 5 5 5 3 15
1
2 2 2 2 2 4 8
Also at x 1
2
1
1
1 2 12
2
2
1
1
1
2 2 2
At x 3
2
3 1
1
3 1
2
2
but 2
2
3
3 2
2 2
3 2 4
2
2 3 3
Solved examples
Evaluate
0
x7 e x dx
Solution
We can recognize that this is gamma function when we change the variable of the
exponent.
(v) x v 1e x dx
0
(8) x81e x dx x 7 e x dx
0 0
Solution
Comparing it to the general formula for gamma functions we have (v)
0
t v 1et dt .
This indicates that we have to reduce the power of the function in the question to that
of the general formula.
Since we want the power of the exponent to be a single value, we can use y 4t .
Doing this will affect the entire function but not the limits
dy
y 4t dy 4dt dt
4
Again making x the subject of y 4 x , we have x y . Substituting these values into the
4
equation we have
y
3
y y dy
3 3
y
y dy 1
0
4
e
4
0 3
4
e
4
0 44
e y dy 4
4
0
y 3e y dy
1 1
0
t 3e4t dt
4 4
(4) 4 (3 1) 3!
4
6 6 3
4
4 256 128
But
1
B(m, n) u m1 (1 u)n1 du
0
Therefore
B(m, n) B(n, m)
1
x
m1
Alternative form of the beta function B(m, n) (1 x)n1 dx
0
Proof
We have
m 1
I m,n Im 2,n (3.18)
mn
mn
Alternatively,
2
sin m xco s n 2 xdx
2
0 0
n 1
i.e. I m,n I m,n 2 (3.19)
mn
Now B(m, n) 2 sin 2 m1 cos 2 n1 d and if we apply equation (3.18) to
2
0 (2m 1) (2n 1) 0
m 1
m n 1 0
2
sin 2 m3 cos 2 n 1 d (3.20)
Again, using equation (3.19) with the right –hand integral of equation (3.20)
m 1 (2n 1) 1
sin 2 m1 cos 2 n1 d
2
. I
0
m n 1 (2m 3) (2n 1) 2m3,2n3
m 1 (2n 2)
m 1 2(n 1)
m 1 2(n 1)
m 1 (n 1)
Therefore
(3 1)(2 1)
B(3, 2) B(3 1, 2 1)
(3 2 1)(3 2 2)
(2)(1)
B(2,1)
(4)(3)
Next, we find B(2,1) using the alternate formula B(m, n) 2 sin cos d
2 m 1 2 n 1 2
But
sin 4 2 2
2
2
4
sin sin(0)
4 0 4 2
1
2
1
B(2,1)
2
31 B(3,1)
5 4
Again using the beta function formula we have
sin 6 2 1
B(3,1) 2 sin cos d 2
5
2
0
0 3
Thus
B(5,3)
4 2 311 2 4!2! (We add 2 two to denominator and
7 6 5 4 2 7!
the denominator)
In General
(m 1)!(n 1)!
B(m, n)
m n 1!
Note that
1 1
2 2 0
1 1
2 1 1 2 1 1
2 2 0 0
2 d 2 02
2
(m)(n) 0
x m1e x dx
0
y n 1e y dy
Note that the integration is carried out over the first quadrant of the xy plane.
4 u 2 m2 v 2 n 2 e ( u v2 )
2
vududv (3.28)
0 0
4 u 2m1v 2n1e(u v2 )
2
dudv (3.29)
0 0
Next, we convert to polar coordinate since we cannot easily integrate the right-hand
side.
0 0
4 r 2 m1 cos2 m1 r 2 n1 sin 2 n1 e r rdrd
2 2
0 0
4 r 2 m 2 n 2 cos 2 m 1 sin 2 n 1 e r rdrd
2 2
0 0
4 r 2 m 2 n 2 cos 2 m 1 sin 2 n 1 e r rdrd
2 2
0 0
4 r 2 m 2 n 2 e r cos 2 m 1 sin 2 n 1 rdrd
2 2
0 0
0 0 2r
0 0
(m)(n)
B(m, n) (3.32)
( m n)
Example
3 1
Evaluate B ,
2 2
2 2
Example
1
I x5 (1 x)4 dx
Evaluate 0
Solution
First you compare the given integral with beta function formula. Where
m 1 5 6 n 1 4 n 5 .
Example
Evaluate
1
I x 4 1 x 2 dx
0
Solution
Comparing this to the beta function we observe that x 2 is in the root instead of a single
x
dy 2
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
Objectives
b
a
f ( x)dx (4.1)
we think of x’s as coming from the interval a x b . For these integrals we can say
that we are integrating over the interval a x b . Note that this does assume that
a b , however, if we have b a then we can just use the interval b x a .
Now, when we derived the definition of the definite integral we first thought of this
as an area problem. We first asked what the area under the curve was and to do this
we broke up the interval a x b into n subintervals of width x and choose a point,
Each of the rectangles has height of f xi* and we could then use the area of these
To get the exact area we then took the limit as n goes to infinity and this was also the
definition of the definite integral
f x dx lim f xi* x
b n
a n
i 1
(4.3)
R a, b c, d ( x, y) R 2 : a x b, c y d
represents the volume of the region under S (and above the xy-plane of course).
The following theorem gives a way to compute a double integral over a rectangle.
Fubini’s Theorem
The theorem can be expressed as follows:
(b) 2 x 4 y dA,
3
R 5, 4 0,3
R
(c) x
2
y 2 cos x sin y dA, R 2, 1 0,1
R
1
(d) 2 x 3 y 2
dA, R 0,1 1, 2
R
(e) xe
xy
dA, R 1, 2 0,1
R
Solution
(a)
Solution 1
4
2 6 xy 2 dy dx 4 2 xy 3 2 dx 414 xdx 7 x 2 4 84
R 2 1 2 2
2
6 xy dA
1 2
Solution 2
2
4 6 xy 2 dx dy 2 3 x 2 y 2 4 dy 4 36 y 2 dy 12 y 3 2 84
R 1 2 1 2
2
6 xy dA
2 1
(b)
2 x 4 y dA 2 x 4 y dydx 2 xy y
4 3 4 3
3 3 4
dx
5 0 5 0
R
(c)
x3 y 2 1 sin x x sin y
1 1
1
3 dy
0 2
y 2 sin y dy 79 y 3 1 sin y 79 2
1
1
7
0 3 0
1
2 x 3 y 2x 3y dxdy 12 2 x 3 y
2 2 1 2 2 1 2
dA dy 12 1
31y dy
1 0 1 0 1 23 y
R
12 13 ln 2 3 y 13 ln y 1 16 ln 8 ln 2 ln 5
2
(e) In this case it will be significantly easier to integrate with respect to y first as we
will see.
2 1
xe dA
xy
xe xy dydx
1 0
R
e 2 2 e 1 1
2 2
xe dA e xy dx e x 1dx e x x
xy 1 2
1 0 1 1
R
e2 e1 3
f x, y dA g x h y dA g x dx h y dy
b d
a c
(4.5)
R R
Solution
2 2 2 0
2 cos 2 y dy 1 x 2 3 1 2 1 cos 2 y dy
x cos y dA
3
2 0
2
xdx
R
5
52 12 y 12 sin 2 y
2
0 8
Case 2
D x, y | h1 y x h2 y , c y d (4.7)
a g1 x
D
c h1 y
D
3. If the region D can be split into two separate regions D1 and D2 then the
integral can be written as
f x, y dA f x, y dA f x, y dA
D D1 D2
Example 1 Evaluate each of the following integrals over the given region D.
Solution
(a) Applying the formula above
2 y3 2 y3 2
e dA e dxdy ye dy ye y ye1 dy
x x x 2
y y y
1 y 1 y 1
D
2
1 2 1 1
e y y 2e1 e4 2e1
2 2 1 2
(b) In this case we need to determine the two inequalities for x and y. The best way
to do this is the graph the two curves.
0 x 1 x3 y x
Therefore,
4 xy y 3dydx 2 xy 2 14 y 4
1 x 1 x
4 xy y dA
3
dx
0 x3 0 x3
D
solution
2 x 2, x2 y 8 x2
The volume is then given by,
D
2 x 2 2
dx
To this we would have to determine a set of inequalities for x and y that describe this
region. These would be,
2 x 2, 4 x2 y 4 x2
and then integral would become,
4 x2
f x, y dA f x, y dydx
2
D
2 4 x 2
x r cos , y r sin , r 2 x2 y 2
We are now ready to write down a formula for the double integral in terms of polar
coordinates.
h2
f x, y dA
D
h1
f r cos , r sin rdrd (4.10)
It is important to not forget the added r and don’t forget to convert the Cartesian
coordinates in the function over to polar coordinates.
Let’s look at a couple of examples of these kinds of integrals.
Example 1
Evaluate the following integrals by converting them into polar coordinates.
(a) 2 xydA , D is the portion of the region between the circles of radius 2 and radius
D
Solution
(a) First let’s get D in terms of polar coordinates. The circle of radius 2 is given by
r 2 and the circle of radius 5 is given by r 5 . We want the region between them so
we will have the following inequality for r.
2r 5
Also, since we only want the portion that is in the first quadrant we get the following
range of 's .
0 2
D
Don’t forget to do the conversions and to add in the extra r. Now, let’s simplify and
make use of the double angle formula for sine to make the integral a little easier.
5
1 4
r 3 sin 2 drd r sin 2 d
5
2 xydA
2 2
D
0 2 0 4 2
609 609 2
609
sin 2 d cos 2
2
0 4 8 0 4
(b) In this case we can’t do this integral in terms of Cartesian coordinates. We will
however be able to do it in polar coordinates. First, the region D is defined by,
0 2 , 0 r 1
In terms of polar coordinates the integral is then,
2 1
e dA rer drd
x2 y 2 2
0 0
D
Notice that the addition of the r gives us an integral that we can now do. Here is the
work for this integral.
1
2 2 1 r2 2 1
e 1 d e 1
1
e dA rer drd e d
x 2
y2 2
D
0 0 0 2 0
0 2
Example 5
Evaluate the following integral by first converting to polar coordinates.
cos x 2 y 2 dxdy
1 1 y 2
0 0
Solution
First, notice that we can not do this integral in Cartesian coordinates and so converting
to polar coordinates may be the only option we have for actually doing the integral.
Let’s first determine the region that we’re integrating over and see if it’s a region that
can be easily converted into polar coordinates. Here are the inequalities that define the
region in terms of Cartesian coordinates.
0 y 1, 0 x 1 y2
and this looks like the right side of the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin. Since
the lower limit for the x’s is x 0 it looks like we are going to have a portion (or all) of
the right side of the disk of radius 1 centered at the origin.
The range for the y’s however, tells us that we are only going to have positive y’s. This
means that we are only going to have the portion of the disk of radius 1 centered at the
origin that is in the first quadrant.
So, we know that the inequalities that will define this region in terms of polar
coordinates are then,
0 , 0 r 1
2
Finally, we just need to remember that,
dxdy dA rdrd
and so the integral becomes,
2
0 0 0 2 0
0 2 4
f ( x, y, z)dV
E
Solution
3 1 2
I ( x 2 y z )dxdydz
1 1 0
2
3 1 x2
1 2 2 xy xz dydz
1
0
1
2 4 y 2 z dydz 1 2 y 2 y 2 2 yz 1dz
3 1 3
1 1
2 2 2 z 2 2 2 z dz
3 3
(4 4 z )dz
1 1
3
4 z 2 z 2 (12 18) (4 2) 8
1
Example 2
2 3 1
(p q 2 r 2 )dpdqdr
2
Evaluate
1 0 0
Solution
2 3 1
I (p
2
q 2 r 2 )dpdqdr
1 0 0
1
2 p3 3
pq 2 pr 2 dqdr
1 0
3 0
2 3 1
q 2 r 2 dqdr
1 0 3
3
2 q q3 2
3 3 qr dr
1
0
2
(1 9 3r 2 )dr
1
2
10r r 3 (20 8) (10 1)
1
12 9 3
Example 3
Solution
2 3 1
8 xyzdV 8 xyzdzdxdy
B
1 2 0
2 3
4 xyz dxdy
1
0
1 2
2 3
4 xydxdy
1 2
2
2 x y dy 2 3
2
1
2
10 ydy 15
1
FOURIER SERIES
Objectives
A function f(x) is said to be periodic if its function values repeat at regular intervals of
the independent variable. The regular interval between repetitions is the period of the
oscillation.
Example 1
For y sinx , the function goes through its complete range of values while x increases
Amplitude 5
360
period
2
This has a period of and there are 2 cycles in 360 . This shown in the diagram below
Trial Questions
Define analytically the periodic function shown below
Exercises
Sketch the graph of the following inserting relevant values.
(1) f (x) 4 0 x 5 (3) f (x) 2sin x , 0 x
(2) f (x) 3x x 2 , 0 x 3
f (x) 0 5 x 8 f (x) 0 x 2
f (x) f (x 3)
f (x) f (x 8) f (x) f ( x 2 )
x
(4) f (x) , 0 x
2
x
f (x) x 2
2
f (x) f ( x 2 )
Answers:
1.
From equation (1) c1 sin x 1 is the first harmonic and cn sin nx n is the n th
harmonic.
Also each sine term can be expanded as
cn sin nx n cn sin nx cos n sin n cos nx
1
f x a0 a1 cos x a2 cos 2 x a3 cos 3x ... an cos nx ...
2 (5.7)
b1 sinx b2 sin 2 x b3 sin 3x ... bn sinnx ...
1
f x a0 an cos nx bn sinn x (5.8)
2 n 1
It is in this form that we use the series and our main concern is to find the values of
the coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ,... and b1 , b2 , b3.... so that the series shall accurately
represent the given periodic function. We can, of course, always combine sine and
cosine terms into compound sine terms if necessary.
infinite series in x1 and the value of this should converge to the value of f x1 as more
and more terms of the series are evaluated. For this to happen, the following
conditions must be fulfilled.
a periodic interval.
b) cos nxdx sin nx 1 sin n sin n 0
(5.10)
n n
1 cos 2nx dx x
1 1 sin 2nx
c) n 0
2
sin 2 nxdx (5.11)
2 2n
d) cos nxdx 1 1 cos 2nx dx 1 x sin 2nx n 0
2
(5.12)
2 2 2n
1
0 0 0 from result (a) with nm
2
1
0 0 0 (a) n m and
2
n m
1
0 0 0 (a) n m and
2
n m
5.5 Fourier Coefficent
We have defined Fourier series in the form
1
f x a0 a1 cos x a2 cos 2 x a3 cos 3x ... an cos nx ...
2 (5.16)
b1 sinx b2 sin 2 x b3 sin 3x ... bn sinnx ...
This is sometimes written in the form
1
f x a0 an cos nx bn sinn x (5.17)
2 n 1
Now, at last, we are in a position to obtain expressions for the various coefficients.
a0 x 0 0
1
2 from (a) and (b) in the useful integrals.
n 1
1
a0x a0
f (x) dx (5.19)
f (x) cosnxdx
1
2 (0) a n 0
1
an f (x) cosnxdx (5.20)
Again
When nm f (x) cosmxdx 0 0 0 0
f (x)sinmxdx 0 0 0 0
When nm
f (x)sinnxdx 0 0 bn
1
bn
f (x)sinnxdx (5.21)
Summary
1
(a) a0
f (x) dx
(b) an 1 f (x) cosnxdx
Example 1
Solving for a0
2 2 2
1 x2
a0
1
f (x) dx
1
x
2
dx
4
1
4
4 2 0
0 0 0
a0
Solving for an
2 2
1 1 x
an
0
f (x) cosnxdx
2 cosnxdx
0
2
1
2 xcosnxdx
0
1 1 1
an 0 0 0 0 0
2 n 2
an 0
Solving for bn
2 2
1 1 x
bn
0
f (x)sinnxdx
2 sinnxdx
0
2
1
2 xsinnxdx
0
1
2
1 cos nx 2 2 cos nx
bn
2 0 xsinnxdx 2 x
n 0 0
n
dx
2
1 1 1 sin nx
2 0
2 n n n 0
1 2 1 2 1
bn 0
2 n n 2 n n
1
bn
n
1 1
f x 0 cos nx sinn x
2 n 1 n
1 1 1
f (x) sin x sin 2 x sin 3x sin 4 x ... there is no cos term
2 2 3 4
Normally
1
a0
f (x) dx
Since we have different values of the function at different intervals of x we evaluate all
of them together.
Solving for a0
1
2 2
a 0 0dx 4dx 0dx
2
2
1 2
4
4dx 2 2
2
Solving for an
Normally
1
an f (x) cosnxdx
1
2 2
an 0cosn xdx 4cosn xdx 0cosn xdx
2
2
1
2
an 4 cosm xdx
2
1 4 2 4 n 4 n
an sin nx sin sin
n 2 n 2 n 2
Since sin( ) sin( )
Hence
8 n
an sin
n 2
Solving for bn
1
2 2
bn 0sinnx dx 4sinn xdx 0sinn xdx
2
2
1
2
4sinn xdx
2
1 4 2 4 n 4 n
bn cos nx cos cos 0
n 2 n 2 n 2
but cos( ) cos
bn 0
Thus the Fourier series representing the periodic function is given by
1
f x a0 an cos nx bn sinn x
2 n 1
Exercise
Find the Fourier series defined by
Objectives
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:
find the gradient of a function
find the divergence of a vector function
determine the curl of a function
region, then f is a differentiable scalar field. The " del " vector operator, . May be
applied to scalar fields and the result f , is a vector field. It is called the gradient of
f.
f f
gradf x, y f x, y i j (6.2)
x y
The gradient function is a vector field. It is obtained by applying the vector operator
to the scalar function f x, y . Such a vector field is called a Gradient (or
conservative) vector field.
f f
f x, y i j
x y
a. 2 xi 3 y 2 j
b. x 2i y 3 j
c. 2 xy3i 3x 2 y 2 j
d. y 3i x 2 j
The definition of the gradient may be extended to functions defined in three
dimensions f x, y, z :
f f f
f x, y i j k ` (6.3)
x y z
Exercise calculate the gradient of the following functions
(a) f x, y x 3 y 2
(b) f x, y x 2 y 2
(c) f x, y, z 3x 2 y cos 3z
1
(d) f x, y , z
x2 y 2 z 2
4y
(e) f x, y
x2 1
f x, y, z sin x e y ln z
It is obtained by taking the Scalar product of the vector operator applied to the
vector.
The divergence of a vector field is a scalar field.
Example 2
F1 F2
F x, y
X y
3x 2 2 y 6 x 2
x y
x
QUIZ Select the Divergence of F x, y i 2x 3 y j
y
1 x 1 x
(a) 3 (b) 2 2 (c) (d) 2
y y y y2
The definition of the divergrnce may be directly extended to vector fields defined in
three dimensions F x, y, z Fi
1 F2 j F3k :
F1 F2 F
F x, y , z i j 3k (6.5)
x y z
(a) F xi yj
(c) F 3x 2i 6 xyj
(d) G x2i 2 zj yk
4y
(e) G i sin y j 3k
x2
(f) G e xi ln xy j e xyz k
F x, y, z F x, y, z ,i.e.:
F F F F F F
F x, y , z 3 2 i 3 1 j 2 1 k
y z x z x y
i j k (6.6)
x y
F1 F2 F3
It is obtained by taking the vector product of the vector operator applied to the
vector field F x, y, z . The second line is again a formal shorthand. The curl of a
i j k
F
x y z
3x 2 2z x
x 2 z x 3x 2 z 3x 2
2
i j k
y z x z x y
0 2 i 1 0 j 0 0 k
2i j
6.3 Quiz
Choose the solutions from the options given
a. 2i 2k
b. 2i 2 j
c. 4i 4 j 2k
d. 2i 2k
4. Select the irrational vector field (i.e, whose curl is zero)
Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 1(a)
F1 x , F2 y
Exercise 1(b) the vector field y 3i xyj has components and its divergence is
F1 F2
F x, y
x y
2
3x 6 xy 6 x 6 x 0
x x
N.B. A vector field with vanishing divergence is called a Solenoidal vector field.
Exercise 1(d)
The vector field G x2i 2 zj yk has components
F F F F F F
3 2 i 3 1 2 1 k
y z x z x z
z y z x y x
i j k
y z x z x y
0i 0 j 0k
0
Therefore, the vector field F xi yj zk is an irrational vector field.
Exercise 2(b)
The components of the vector field F y3i xyj zk are F1 y3 , F2 xy, F3 z
And its curl is:
z xy z y xy y
3 3
F
i j k
y z x z x y
0i 0 j y 3 y 2 k
1 z zy yz
And similarly, 3 . Thus the i component of the curl is 3 3 0.
z r r r r
It may be checked that the j and k components of the curl also vanish
Exercise 2 (d)
The components of the vector field F x2i 2 zj yk are F1 x2 , F2 2 z, F3 y and
its curl is
F F F F F F
F 3 2 i 3 1 2 1 k
y z x z x y
y 2z y x 2z x
2 2
i j k
y z x z x y
1 2 i 0 0 j 0 0 k
3i
Exercise 3(a)
The formula f x3 4 y , must be incorrect of a scalar function is a vector field by
definition, while the expression on the right hand side of.
this equation is a scalar
Exercise 3(b)
The equation F i x2 yj zk must be incorrect because the divergence of a vector
field must be a scalar by definition but the right hand side of the equation is a vector.
Zill, D. (2012), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Jones and Barlett Learning, 5th
Edition, 914 pp.