Q:What is logic?How logic is important to avoid mistakes.Explain.

In simple words, logic is “the study of correct reasoning, especially regarding

making inferences.” Logic began as a philosophical term and is now used in
other disciplines like math and computer science. While the definition sounds
simple enough, understanding logic is a little more complex. Use logic
examples to help you learn to use logic properly.

Definitions of Logic

Logic can include the act of reasoning by humans in order to form thoughts
and opinions, as well as classifications and judgments. Some forms of logic
can also be performed by computers and even animals.

Logic can be defined as:

“The study of truths based completely on the meanings of the terms they
contain.”

Logic is a process for making a conclusion and a tool you can use.

• The foundation of a logical argument is its proposition, or statement.

• The proposition is either accurate (true) or not accurate (false).
• Premises are the propositions used to build the argument.
• The argument is then built on premises.
• Then an inference is made from the premises.
• Finally, a conclusion is drawn.

Definition of Logic in Philosophy

Logic is a branch of philosophy. There are different schools of thought on logic

in philosophy, but the typical version is called classical elementary
logic or classical first-order logic. In this discipline, philosophers try to
distinguish good reasoning from bad reasoning.

Definition of Logic in Mathematics

Logic is also an area of mathematics. Mathematical logic uses propositional

variables, which are often letters, to represent propositions.
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is
the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating
how conclusions follow from premises in a topic-neutral way.

When a writer makes an unsupported assertion, a reader has no way knowing whether the point is
valid. No matter how well-reasoned the rest of the argument may be, an unsupported assertion
casts doubt on its validity.

You should avoid the use of fallacies in your arguments because they detract from your credibility
and the legitimacy of your message. However, without prior knowledge of fallacious arguments and
careful attention to the details of your argument, you might accidentally use fallacies.

Logic, on the other hand, may be defined as the science that evaluates arguments. All of us
encounter arguments in our everyday life. We read arguments in books, magazines and
newspapers, hear them on television, and formulate them when communicating with friends,
parents, juniors and senior colleagues.

Logic is traditionally defined as the study of the laws of thought or correct reasoning, and is usually
understood in terms of inferences or arguments. Reasoning may be seen as the activity of drawing
inferences whose outward expression is given in arguments.

Q:what are proposition and arguments.Explain.

The proposition is an easy-to-understand reason why a customer should buy a product or service
from that particular business. A value proposition should clearly explain how a product fills a need,
communicate the specifics of its added benefit, and state the reason why it's better than similar
products on the market.

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false (but not both). For instance, the
following are propositions: “Paris is in France” (true), “London is in Denmark” (false), “2 < 4” (true), “4
= 7 (false)”.

An argument is a collection of statements or propositions, some of which are

intended to provide support or evidence in favor of one of the others. A
statement or proposition is something that can either be true or false. We
usually think of a statement as a declarative sentence, or part of a sentence.
An argument is a rationale in which the reason presents evidence in support of a claim made in the
conclusion. Its purpose is to provide a basis for believing the conclusion to be true.

For example, consider the argument that because bats can fly (premise=true), and all flying
creatures are birds (premise=false), therefore bats are birds (conclusion=false). If we assume the
premises are true, the conclusion follows necessarily, and it is a valid argument.

Q:Ambiguity is a problem in language .How symbols help us?

Lexical ambiguity often occurs because words and phrases can have multiple meanings. For
example, the meaning of “We saw her duck” could be either that the writer saw a woman crouch to
avoid a missile or that they saw a duck that belonged to the woman.
A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose
intended meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite
number of steps. (The ambi- part of the term reflects an idea of "two", as in "two meanings".)

Ambiguity in inheritance can be defined as when one class is derived for two or more base classes
then there are chances that the base classes have functions with the same name. So it will confuse
derived class to choose from similar name functions. To solve this ambiguity scope resolution
operator is used “::”.

Symbols

They give a lot of information in a limited space. With the use of symbols,
maps can be drawn easily and are simple to read, even if we don't know the
language of an area and therefore cannot ask someone for directions. We can
collect information from maps with the help of symbols.
Symbols evoke profound emotions and memories—at a very primal level of our being—often
without our making rational or conscious connections. They fuel our imagination. Symbols enable
us to access aspects of our existence that cannot be accessed in any other way. Symbols are used
in all facets of human endeavour

Symbols are a powerful influence on our psychological and spiritual life. Within our inner world, a
symbol can present potential or a calling meant only for your understanding. Humanity has always
used symbols to express its awareness of the Divine - the creative force.

Q:explain Subject and predicate in proposition.

Because a categorical proposition shows how one set relates to another, we

label these two sets the subject and predicate. The subject is the first set, or
the main set, of the statement, while the predicate is the second set where
the statement says how the main set relates to this second set.
In logic, a categorical proposition, or categorical statement, is a proposition that asserts or denies
that all or some of the members of one category (the subject term) are included in another (the
predicate term)..

There are three types of predicates:

• Simple predicate.

• Compound predicate.

• Complete predicate.

The predicate always contains a verb, but it often includes more words than just the verb itself. For
example, in the sentence “The athlete ran,” the predicate is “ran” because it tells us what the athlete
did.

Q:what are types of logic explain them.

4 Main Types of Reasoning or logic are:

 By Michele Mele en, M.S.Ed. ,

Types of Logic With Examples

Generally speaking, there are four types of logic.

Informal Logic

Informal logic is what’s typically used in daily reasoning. This is the reasoning
and arguments you make in your personal exchanges with others.

• Premises: Nikki saw a black cat on her way to work. At work, Nikki got
fired.
Conclusion: Black cats are bad luck.
Explanation: This is a big generalization and can’t be verified.
• Premises: There is no evidence that penicillin is bad for you. I use
penicillin without any problems.
Conclusion: Penicillin is safe for everyone.
Explanation: The personal experience here or lack of knowledge isn’t
verifiable.
• Premises: My mom is a celebrity. I live with my mom.
Conclusion: I am a celebrity.
Explanation: There is more to proving fame that assuming it will rub off.
Formal Logic

In formal logic, you use deductive reasoning and the premises must be true.
You follow the premises to reach a formal conclusion.

• Premises: Every person who lives in Quebec lives in Canada. Everyone

in Canada lives in North America.
Conclusion: Every person who lives in Quebec lives in North America.
Explanation: Only true facts are presented here.
• Premises: All spiders have eight legs. Black Widows are a type of
spider.
Conclusion: Black Widows have eight legs.
Explanation: This argument isn’t controversial.
• Premises: Bicycles have two wheels. Jan is riding a bicycle.
Conclusion: Jan is riding on two wheels.
Explanation: The premises are true and so is the conclusion.
Symbolic Logic

Symbolic logic deals with how symbols relate to each other. It assigns
symbols to verbal reasoning in order to be able to check the veracity of the
statements through a mathematical process. You typically see this type of
logic used in calculus.

Symbolic logic example:

• Propositions: If all mammals feed their babies milk from the mother (A).
If all cats feed their babies mother’s milk (B). All cats are mammals(C).
The Ʌ means “and,” and the ⇒ symbol means “implies.”
• Conclusion: A Ʌ B ⇒ C
• Explanation: Proposition A and proposition B lead to the conclusion, C.
If all mammals feed their babies milk from the mother and all cats feed
their babies mother’s milk, it implies all cats are mammals.

Mathematical Logic

In mathematical logic, you apply formal logic to math. This type of logic is part
of the basis for the logic used in computer sciences. Mathematical logic and
symbolic logic are often used interchangeably.

Q:how analysis and evaluation help in logic?

Logic analysis is useful for improving the intervention or finding alternatives

for achieving intended outcomes; it influences the choice of type of
evaluation to conduct and strengthens the validity of subsequent evaluations.
The aim of logic analysis is to identify the best ways to get where we want to go, that is, to achieve
the desired effects.

Essentially, a logic model helps with evaluation by setting out the relationships and assumptions,
between what a programme will do and what changes it expects to deliver .

System evaluation is required to assess whether the system is meeting the objectives it was
designed to meet, such as: Controlling access; Identifying people in specific areas; Detecting
unauthorized entry
The logic of evaluation is a four-step process that includes: 1) defining the criteria that will be used
to evaluate something; 2) setting standards of performance on those criteria; 3) measuring the
actual performance; and 4) synthesizing the results to reach an evaluative judgment.

Q:what are fallacies in logic or language?

Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of
your argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant
points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their
claim.
A linguistic fallacy is a type of informal fallacy that relates to a language-related defect in an
argument. Linguistic fallacies might involve using words or sentences that have vague, unclear, or
multiple meanings or other inconsistencies.

A fallacy is an illogical step in the formulation of an argument. An argument in academic writing is

essentially a conclusion or claim, with assumptions or reasons to support that claim. For example,
"Blue is a bad color because it is linked to sadness" is an argument because it makes a claim and
offers support for it.

Fallacies are kinds of errors in reasoning. They are most common when
people get overly emotional about an issue. The thing about fallacies is that in
the heat of the moment they can seem persuasive, but they are errors in
reasoning and they do not reliably lead to the truth. So you want to be on the
lookout for them when considering arguments. Below is a brief list of some of
the more common fallacies, along with illustrations of them. It is often helpful
to look these over when trying to think about what is wrong with an argument
(whether it's your own or someone else's!).

NOTE: This is the same list of fallacies and examples given in my paper
"Moral Reasoning In Applied Ethics".

CRITICAL THINKING STUDENTS: If you're in a critical thinking class, be careful about

going by the following definitions. Different textbooks define fallacies differently, and I
have deliberately simplified some things in order to make this page more accessible to
those who are not taking a critical thinking class.

Types of fallacies:

1. Ad Hominem Fallacy
2. Fallacy of False Cause
3. Straw Man Fallacy
4. Appeal to Ignorance
5. Appeal To Emotion
6. Slippery Slope
7. Fallacy of Equivocation
8. Appeal to Popularity
9. Appeal to Tradition

Q: What are Inductive and deductive arguments?

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the act of making generalized conclusions based off of specific
scenarios.
Examples:
• Determining when you should leave for work based on traffic patterns
Rolling out a new accounting process based on the way users interact with the software
• Deciding on incentive plans based on an employee survey
Changing a meeting time or format based on participant energy levels

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the act of backing up a generalized statement with specific
scenarios.
Examples:
• Developing a marketing plan that will be effective for a specific audience
Designing the floor plan and layout of a shop to maximize sales
Determining the most efficient ways to communicate with clients
• Planning out a budget to get the highest output from your investments
indeed career guide