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Polity Fundamentals
Most Fundamental aspects of Polity for UPSC Prelims-2023

By Santosh Gupta
Prelims Coordinator, CivilsDaily
6 times prelims qualified with score>120+
6 UPSC Mains and 3 interviews appeared

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Topics Covered Page No

1. Democracy 3
2. Republic 5
3. Constitutionalism 6
4. Liberty 6
5. Rule of Law 8
6. Due Process of Law 9
7. Principles of natural Justice 10
8. Equality 10
9. Separation of powers 11
10. Parliamentary vs Presidential System 12
11. Power-sharing 14
12. Federalism Vs unitary system 14
13. Justice 15
14. Concept of Rights 16
15. Liberalism 19
16. Socialism, Gandhism and communism 20
17. Nature of State 21
18. Nation and State 22
19. Citizenship 23
20. Types of Society 24
21. Secularism and Communalism 24
22. Feminism 24

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1. Democracy
● Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people.
● In a democracy the final decision making power must rest with those elected by the people.
● A democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair chance of losing.
● In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value.
● A democratic government rules within limits set by constitutional law and citizens’ rights.

Benefits:
● A democracy requires that the rulers have to attend to the needs of the people. A democratic government is a better government because it is a
more accountable form of government.
● Thus democracy improves the quality of decision-making.
● Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts.
● Democracy enhances the dignity of citizens.
● Finally, democracy is better than other forms of government because it allows us to correct its own mistakes.

It is a form of government where people enjoy equal political rights, elect their rulers and hold them accountable. The government is run according to some
basic rules.

Roman Republic is generally considered one of the earliest examples of representative democracy. “In a democracy,” the Greek historian Herodotus wrote,
“there is, first, that most splendid of virtues, equality before the law.” 

Democracy vs Dictatorship
Other forms of government like monarchy, dictatorship or one-party rule do not require all citizens to take part in politics. In fact most non-democratic
governments would like citizens not to take part in politics.

Which of these is not a good argument in favour of democracy?

a People feel free and equal in a democracy.
b Democracies resolve conflict in a better way than others.
c Democratic government is more accountable to the people.
d Democracies are more prosperous than others.

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Democracy’s superior virtue lies in the fact that it calls into activity (UPSC 2017)
(a) the intelligence and character of ordinary men and women.
(b) the methods for strengthening executive leadership.
(c) a superior individual with dynamism and vision.
(d) a band of dedicated party workers.

Which of the following statements about the reasons for conducting elections are false?
a Elections enable people to judge the performance of the government.
b People select the representative of their choice in an election.
c Elections enable people to evaluate the performance of the judiciary.
d People can indicate which policies they prefer.

Types of Democracy:
Direct vs Indirect: India vs Switzerland

Challenges of Democracy:
● Foundational challenge
● Challenge of expansion
● Challenge of Deepening

2. REPUBLIC
The head of the state is an elected person and not a hereditary position. Republic, form of government in which a state is ruled by representatives of the
citizen body. Modern republics are founded on the idea that sovereignty rests with the people.

The term republic came to designate a form of government in which the leader is periodically appointed under a constitution, in contrast to hereditary
monarchies.

Despite its democratic implications, the term was claimed in the 20th century by states whose leadership enjoyed more power than most traditional
monarchs, including military dictatorships such as the Republic of Chile under Augusto Pinochet and totalitarian regimes such as the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea.

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3. Constitutionalism
Q. A constitutional government by definition is a (2020)
(a) government by legislature
(b) popular government
(c) multi-party government
(d) limited government
Even in this question, which is very simple yet requires an understanding of fundamental concepts, many aspirants marked answers such as (a) a
government by the legislature or (b) Popular government confusing constitutionalism with a democratic system.

A constitution is a check against absolutism i.e. government bound by constitutional limitations and does not have absolute power; hence a
constitutional government is by definition limited government.

1. Consider the following statements: A Constitutional Government is one which (2014)

1. Places effective restrictions on individual liberty in the interest of State Authority

2. Places effective restrictions on the Authority of the State in the interest of individual liberty

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Role of Constitution:
< First, it generates a degree of trust and coordination that is necessary for different kind of people to live together;

< Second, it specifies how the government will be constituted, who will have power to take which decisions;

< Third, it lays down limits on the powers of the government and tells us what the rights of the citizens are; and

< Fourth, it expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good society.

Q. Which of these is a provision that a democratic constitution does not have?

a Powers of the head of the state
b Name of the head of the state
c Powers of the legislature
d Name of the country

4.Liberty

1. In the context of polity, which one of the following would you accept as the most appropriate definition of liberty?-2019
(a) Protection against the tyranny of political rulers
(b) Absence of restraint
(c) Opportunity to do whatever one likes
(d) Opportunity to develop oneself fully

Negative and Positive Concept of Liberty:

The concept of liberty comes from the theory of social contract and 3 natural rights- life, liberty and property with origin in the French Revolution in the late
18th century.
French revolution: ‘Cardinal ideas of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity

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A.Negative Liberty (Freedom from): It is a minimum area that is sacred and in which whatever the individual does, is not to be interfered with. The
existence of the ‘minimum area of non- interference’ A free society would be one which enables all its members to develop their potential with the
minimum of social constraints.

B.Positive Liberty (Freedom to): The individual to develop his or her capability must get the benefit of enabling positive conditions in material, political and
social domains and enables the development of the individual.

Both these aspects of freedom — the absence of external constraints as well as the existence of conditions in which people can develop their talents — are
important. Hence, no unreasonable restrictions on the citizens can be tolerated. Freedom is considered valuable because it allows us to make choices and
to exercise our judgement.

How to decide Reasonable Restrictions: (J.S. Mill- On Liberty):

No individual living in society can hope to enjoy total absence of any kind of constraints or restrictions.

J.S. Mill: Distinguishes between ‘self-regarding’ actions, i.e., those actions that have consequences only for the individual actor and nobody else, and ‘other
regarding’ actions, i.e., those actions that also have consequences for others. He argues that with respect to actions or choices that affect only one’s self,
self-regarding actions, the state (or any other external authority) has no business to interfere.
#66A of IT Act---Shreya Singhal Case

Harm principle: The ‘harm caused’ must be ‘serious’. For minor harm, Mill recommends only social disapproval and not the force of law. Ex; Loud Speaker vs
Hate speech

Q. Which one of the following reflects the nicest, appropriate relationship between law and liberty?
(a) if there are more laws, there is less liberty.
(b) If there are no laws, there is no liberty.
(c) If there is liberty, laws have to be made by the people.
(d) If laws are changed too often, liberty is in danger.

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5. Rule of Law: A.V. Dicey

Three principles proposed by A.V. Dicey (“The Law of the Constitution” 1885)
1. Supremacy of Law: No one is Punishable except breach of law 🡪 # removes arbitrariness. Origin in Magna carta.
2. Equality before Law: no man is above law
3. Predominance of Legal Spirit: Constitutional rights are the source of a judicial decision> Applicable to british System not India. In India, Constitution
is the supreme Law of land.
Rule of Law in India
● Article-13(1): Laws in conformity of constitution
● Article 14: Equality before law
● Article 21: due Process (Procedure established by Law) for Protection of Life and liberty
● #Indira Nehru Gandhi vs. Raj Narain, the court held that rule of law is also part of the basic structure
● #Bacchan Singh Case- No arbitrariness in Death Penalty cases: Rarest of rare cases
Principles of Rule of Law: (Evolved over time)
● Supremacy of the law,
● equality before the law,
● accountability to the law,
● fairness in the application of the law,
● separation of powers,
● participation in decision-making,
● legal certainty,
● avoidance of arbitrariness, and
● Procedural and legal transparency.

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Q. Which of the following are regarded as the main features of the “Rule of Law”?- 2018

1. Limitation of powers
2. Equality before law
3. People’s responsibility to the Government
4. Liberty and civil rights

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
6.Due Process of Law :Check Against Arbitrary executive and Legislative
Origin in Magna Carta (1215- rights against the king power): Individuals will not be deprived of life, liberty and Property without notice and opportunity to
defend themselves.
Two types:
Substantive Due Process: USA+ UK- No one be deprived of life, liberty and property without due process (Due process + Due substance). Not only
Procedural rights but protects substance rights also. Ensure that law is Fair, reasonable and justified. It has a larger scope to check the law. It has a broader
scope of judicial review. Protects liberty from both legislative and executive action.
Procedural Due process: Only Procedural rights not substantial rights. IT Checks the process only. Judiciary only checks for competence of the legislature in
bringing the law, not the substance, only executive action.

#Procedure established by law: In India

Article 21 provides a further check against arbitrary executive action by stating that no person shall be deprived of his life or liberty except in accordance
with the procedure established by law.

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#Maneka Gandhi Case (1987): It brought Substantive Due Process in India.

#Proportionality Test ( for Judicial review in case of life and liberty): Legal Sanction, legitimate goal, Proportional to goal and Procedural guarantee
#Aadhar Judgement used Proportionality Test.

7. Principles of natural Justice: “right to a fair hearing.”

Essentially, natural justice requires that a person receive a fair and unbiased hearing before a decision is made that will negatively affect them.

3 Requirements
● Right to Notice
● Right to fair hearing: reasonable opportunity to present their point of view
● No Bias Requirement

All quasi-judicial bodies (Lokpal, Tribunals like NGT, Constitutional bodies, human rights bodies like NHRC) work on principle of natural justice.

8. EQUALITY: Two aspects:

● All are equal before the law.
● Equality of Opportunities: The concept of equality implies that all people, as human beings, are entitled to the same rights and opportunities to
develop their skills and talents, and to pursue their goals and ambitions.

Formal equality and Substantive equality

Q. One of the implications of equality in society is the absence of (2017)
(a) Privileges
(b) Restraints
(c) Competition
(d) Ideology
Ensuring Substantive Equality: Three steps
1. Establish formal equality like enacting constitutional provisions such as Article14- Equality before law and equal protection of law
2. Differential treatment: Special measures such as Article-15(3)- special measures for women and children.

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3. Affirmative action: Reservation Policy

Three main dimensions of equality: political, social and economic.

1. Political inequality: In democratic society’s political equality (equality before law) would normally include granting equal citizenship to all the
members of the state. Equal citizenship brings with it certain basic rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression, movement and
association and freedom of belief.
2. Social Inequality: Affirmative action, untouchability abolition
3. Economic Inequality: Welfare state

Q. Which of the following violate the principles of equality?

(a) Every child in class will read the text of the play by turn.
(b) The Government of Canada encouraged white Europeans to migrate to Canada from the end of the Second World War till 1960.
(c) There is a separate railway reservation counter for the senior citizens.
(d) Access to forest areas only for tribals

9. Separation of powers(SOP):
The term "trias politica" or "separation of powers" was coined by Montesquieu, a French social and political philosopher in his publication, Spirit of the
Laws.

Concept of SOP:

● The same person should not form part of more than one of the three organs of the Government. For example: ministers should not sit in Parliament
● One organ of the Government should not interfere with any other organ of the Government.
● One organ of the Government should not exercise the function assigned to any other organ.

Benefits of SOP:

1. It preserves liberty as the concentration of authority is avoided.

2. The separation of powers doctrine also intends to improve the energy and efficiency of government by allowing each branch to specialize, in effect,
in order to fulfil its unique function.
3. It also encourages democratic deliberation, because competing claims are constantly asserted, dialogue is facilitated, and through preventing a
single body enjoying supremacy,
4. Minimises the possibility of arbitrary excesses by the government.

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5. Rule of law and fairness

6. Each body check and balances one another. According to Lord Acton: “Power corrupts and absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely".

Constitutional Developments for Separation of powers(SOP)

1. The system of checks and balances is one of the most striking aspects of Indian constitutional scheme.
2. The Supreme Court in Ram Jawaya Kapur v. State of Punjab, 1986
“Indian Constitution has not indeed recognized the doctrine of separation of powers in its absolute rigidity but the functions of the different parts or
branches of the government have been sufficiently differentiated”.
3. A rigid separation of powers as under the American Constitution or under the Australian Constitution does not apply to India.
4. NJAC case(2015) : SOP is basic structure.

10. Parliamentary vs Presidential System

In USA, the president does not need the support of the majority of members in the Congress and neither is he answerable to them. He has a fixed tenure of
four years and completes it even if his party does not have a majority in the Congress. This model is followed in most of the countries of Latin America and
many of the ex-Soviet Union countries.

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Given the centrality of the President, this system of government is called the Presidential form of government. In countries like ours that follow the British
model, the parliament is supreme. Therefore our system is called the parliamentary system of government.

The most basic difference between two systems comes from the relation between executive and legislative.
In Parliamentary system, there is no separation of power between executive and legislature as executive i.e. Council of ministers are part of legislature and
responsible to it, while in Presidential system such as USA, there is strict separation of powers between the executive headed by President and legislature
(Congress in USA) and not responsible to legislature. They work on the principle of complete checks and balances.

Q.  In India, separation of judiciary from the executive is enjoined by

(a) the Preamble of the Constitution
(b) a Directive Principle of State Policy
(c) the Seventh Schedule
(d) the conventional practice

Q. The main advantage of the parliamentary form of government is that (2019)

(a) the executive and legislature work independently.
(b) it provides continuity of policy and is more efficient.
(c) the executive remains responsible to the legislature.
(d) the head of the government cannot be changed without election.

Q. A Parliamentary System of Government is one in which (2020)

(a) all political parties in the Parliament are represented in the Government
(b) the Government is responsible to the Parliament and can be removed by it
(c) the Government is elected by the people and can be removed by them
(d) the Government is chosen by the Parliament but cannot be removed by it before completion of a fixed term

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Q. There is a Parliamentary System of Government in India because the (2015)

(a) Lok Sabha is elected directly by the people
(b) Parliament can amend the constitution
(c) Rajya Sabha cannot be dissolved
(d) Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha

11. Power-sharing
Horizontal distribution: It allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers. Power is shared among
different organs of government, such as the legislature, executive and judiciary.

Vertical distribution: Power can be shared among governments at different levels – a general government for the entire country and governments at
the provincial or regional level.

Social Distribution: Power may also be shared among different social groups such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in
Belgium (French Speaking and Dutch Speaking) is a good example of this arrangement. This ‘community government’ is elected by people belonging
to one language community – Dutch, French and German-speaking – no matter where they live.

Political Distribution: Power sharing arrangements can also be seen in the way political parties, pressure groups and movements control or influence
those in power. (Ex; Congress vs League discussion during Shimla Conference, when league wanted all Muslims representatives from league itself).

12. Federalism Vs unitary:

Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.
Distribution happens at all levels: legislative, Executive, financial powers and Judicial powers

USA vs UK vs India:

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● USA: Example of Ideal Federal system, Vertical distribution of executive, Legislative and judicial powers at federal and state’s level
● U.K: Example of Unitary system
● India: Federal system with Unitary bias towards centre, hence called union of states

Two types of creation of federation

A. Coming together: USA
B. Holding together: India

Bases of federation: Linguistic, Geographic, Cultural, Historical and Developmental

● Under the unitary system, either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.
● The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government.
● The federal system thus has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote unity of the country, while at the same time accommodate regional
diversity.

Symmetric and Asymmetric Federalism: Special status, 5 & 6th schedule

Only two tiers in Federalism: inefficient in vast county like India. There is thus a need for power sharing within these States.
Devolution and decentralisation:
When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government, it is called decentralisation. Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)
represent decentralisation through devolution of powers. It also ensures democratic participation through Local self-Government.

13. Justice

Socrates reminded young people that if everyone were to be unjust, if everyone manipulated rules to suit their own interests, no one could be sure of
benefiting from injustice. Nobody would be secure and this was likely to harm all of them. Hence, it is in our own long term interest to obey the laws and be
just. Socrates clarified that we need to understand clearly what justice means in order to figure out why it is important to be just.

Concept of Justice: Justice involves giving each person his due.

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● According to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, human beings possess dignity. If all persons are granted dignity then what is due to each of
them is that they have the opportunity to develop their talents and pursue their chosen goals.
● Justice requires that we give due and equal consideration to all individuals.
● As per J.S. Mill: Justice is something an individual person can claim from us as his moral right.
● JOHN RAWLS’ THEORY OF JUSTICE: -Idea of Veil of ignorance: to ensure fairness and justice both.
Principles of Justice: 3 principles
1. Equal Treatment for Equals
2. Proportional justice
3. Recognition of Special Needs

Q. ‘Economic Justice’ the objectives of Constitution has been as one of the Indian provided in (2013)
(a) the Preamble and Fundamental Rights
(b) the Preamble and the Directive Principles of State Policy
(c) the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy
(d) None of the above
A Just society is that society in which ascending sense of reverence and descending sense of contempt is dissolved into the creation of a compassionate
society. – B.R. Ambedkar
14. Concept of Rights:
A right is essentially an entitlement or a justified claim recognised by society and sanctioned by law. Rights protect minorities from the oppression of
majority.
Purpose of rights
● Protect Dignity
● Well being
● Protection of minorities
● Places limitation on state power.

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Our rights ensure that the authority of the state is exercised without violating the sanctity of individual life and liberty. Civil liberties and political rights
form the basis of a democratic system of government.
Q. .Which one of the following categories of ‘Fundamental Rights incorporated against untouchability as a form of discrimination? (2013 and 2020)
(a) Right against Exploitation
(b) Right to Freedom
(c) Right to Constitutional Remedies
(d) Right to Equality
Relation between Rights AND Responsibilities:
- Work for the common good
-Respect rights of others
-balance among rights (Privacy vs right to expression)
-Be vigilant about rights (Restriction on civil liberties)
Q. In the context of India, which one of the following is the correct relationship between Rights and Duties?
(a) Rights are correlative with Duties.
(b) Rights are personal and hence independent of society and Duties.
(c) Rights, not Duties, are important for the advancement of the personality of the citizen.
(d) Duties, not Rights, are important for the stability of the State.

Q. Which of these statements about the relationship between democracy and rights is more valid? Give reasons for your preference.
a Every country that is a democracy gives rights to its citizens.
b Every country that gives rights to its citizens is a democracy.
c Giving rights is good, but it is not necessary for a democracy.

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Types of Rights:
1.Fundamental rights:
"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" is a well-known phrase in the United States Declaration of Independence. The phrase gives three examples of the
unalienable rights which the Declaration says have been given to all humans by their creator, and which governments are created to protect. These are
justiciable rights.

2.Human rights:
These are rights available to Human beings by virtue of being human ex; UN declaration on Human Rights (1948).

3.Natural rights:
These are Life, Liberty and Property as propounded by John Locke during French Revolution.

4. Constitutional rights:
These are rights not included in fundamental rights but enforceable such as right to property in India.

5.Legal rights:
These are rights apart from fundamental rights guaranteed by the law like right to work ex; NREGA

6.Civil, Political, Social, Economic and Cultural rights:

These are broadest category of rights available to human beings ex: Fundamental rights + DPSP in India

Expanding scope of rights:

International covenant on Civil and Political rights, 1966
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966
Such covenant gives scope for following new age rights such as:
● right to work: opportunity to everyone to earn livelihood by working
● right to safe and healthy working conditions, fair wages that can provide decent standard of living for the workers and their families,
● right to adequate standard of living including adequate food, clothing and housing
● right to social security and insurance

Thus the scope of rights has been expanding and new rights are evolving over time. They are the result of the struggle of the people. New rights emerge as
societies develop or as new constitutions are made. For ex; the Constitution of South Africa guarantees its citizens several kinds of new rights:
1. Right to privacy, so that citizens or their home cannot be searched, their phones cannot be tapped, their communication cannot be opened.

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2. Right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or wellbeing;

3. Right to have access to adequate housing.
4. Right to have access to health care services, sufficient food and water; no one may be refused emergency medical treatment.

Many people think that the right to work, right to health, right to minimum livelihood and right to privacy (Puttaswamy judgment, 2017) should be made
fundamental rights in India as well.

Q. Which of the following is not an instance of an exercise of fundamental right?

a Workers from Bihar go to the Punjab to work on the farms
b Christian missions set up a chain of missionary schools
c Men and women government employees get the same salary
d Parents’ property is inherited by their children

Q. Which of the following freedoms is not available to an Indian citizen?

a Freedom to criticise the government
b Freedom to participate in armed revolution
c Freedom to start a movement to change the government
d Freedom to oppose the central values of the Constitution

Q. Which of these statements about the relationship between democracy and rights is more valid? Give reasons for your preference.
a Every country that is a democracy gives rights to its citizens.
b Every country that gives rights to its citizens is a democracy.
c Giving rights is good, but it is not necessary for a democracy.

15. Liberalism
It is a political ideaology derived from concept of liberty.
Magna Carta (1215) and English Glorious revolution (1688) had denounced the divine rights of the kings. Liberalism is the theory and practice of individual
liberty, juridical defence and the constitutional state. It is an idea committed to freedom, as a method and policy in government. It includes not only
individual liberty but liberty in economic and social aspects.

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Features:
● Individual Liberty
● Individual-centred theory
● Capitalistic Economy: advocates free market economy (Private property, profit motive, capitalist production and market forces, and Limited state
interference)
● Democracy
● Against Traditions: roots in renaissance and reformation
● Welfare measures
Liberalism has Issues of equality vs Liberty; Market forces vs Welfare measures, Market control over state vs Free market, high class inequality among poor
and rich. Hence, there is need for Egalitarian Economy. Hence, there is emphasis of alternative systems like Socialism and Communism.

16.Socialism and communism

The idea is that wealth is generated socially and should be shared equally by society.
● Socialism refers to a set of political ideas that emerged as a response to the inequalities present in, and reproduced by, the industrial capitalist
economy.
● Marxism/communism is the political philosophy of the working class as liberalism is the political philosophy of the capitalist class.

Classless Society:
It is the ultimate aim of Communism.
In periods of deep crisis created by Capitalism, the resistance of the oppressed can culminate in a proletarian revolution which, if victorious, leads to the
establishment of socialism—a socioeconomic system based on social ownership of the means of production. Socialism would be transformed into a
communist society, i.e. a classless, stateless, humane society based on common ownership and distribution based on one's needs.

Steps in formation of classless society:

Capitalist society> Deep Crisis> Socialism (Dictatorship of proletariat)> Communism ( A Classless and Stateless society)

Q. One common agreement between Gandhism and Marxism is (UPSC 2020)

[a) The final goal of a stateless society
[b) Class struggle
[c) Abolition of private property
[d) Economic determinism

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Gandhism: Gandhian Ramrajya is that it is a self-regulating system where everyone is one’s own ruler.
Hence, no need for State which leads to stateless society.

Hence Marxism/ Communism and Gandhism both aim for Classless and Stateless society.Distinction is of means and Ends. Gandhi was no Lenin or Mao.
For Mao or Lenin, ends justify the means; for Gandhi, means justify the ends to achieve a classless society.

#Idea of Trusteeship:
It is based on CLASS COOPERATION rather than class conflict as visualised in Communism by Marx: It cordial relations between the capital and the labour.
Declaring all property to be the property of the community as a whole, Gandhi pleaded that all the employers (industrialists, capitalists and the like) are the
trustees of what they hold.
#Sarvodaya: Sarvodaya Gandhi had visualised the greatest good of all the members of the society. It is the welfare of all. Indian socialism is influenced
from Gandhian socialism and the idea of Trusteeship.

17. Nature of State: Regulatory state vs welfare state 

● Regulatory state: Minimal Role of state under Liberal- Capitalist system.
● Welfare state: Government should regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce socio-economic inequalities.

Which part of the Constitution of India declares the ideal of a Welfare State?(2015)
(a) Directive Principles of State Policy
(b) Fundamental Rights
(c) Preamble
(d) Seventh Schedule
Steps towards Socialism in India:
1936: Socialistic turn of congress
1955: Awadi session
1975: Garibi Hatao

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Sapta Kranti or seven Revolutions: Lohia’s the ideal of socialism.

In India the eminent socialist thinker Rammanohar Lohia, identified five kinds of inequalities that need to be fought against simultaneously:
1. Inequality between man and woman,
2. Inequality based on skin colour,
3. Caste-based inequality,
4. Colonial rule of some countries over others,
5. Economic inequality.
He added two more revolutions to this list:
1. Revolution for civil liberties against unjust encroachments on private life and
2. Revolution for non-violence, for renunciation of weapons in favour of Satyagraha

18. Nation and State

Nation: A nation is to a great extent an ‘imagined’ community, held together by the collective beliefs, aspirations and imaginations of its members. A
nation has following characteristics:
● Shared Beliefs
● History: Civilizational continuity and unity is the basis of the Indian nation.
● Territory
● Shared Political Ideals: democracy, secularism and liberalism.
● Common Political Identity
In common speech, the terms country, nation and state are used as synonyms, but they are different.
● States with nation: It is called nation-state. They are sovereign nations with fixed territory and recognised by other nations. For ex; India, USA etc.
● Nation without states: Ex; Palestine, Tibet etc.
● States- Nation: when multiple nationalities exist within a state. Ex; USSR had many nationalities.

#Most societies are culturally diverse: Hence there is need for NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION. For ex; Basque Nationalists say that their culture is very
different from the Spanish culture. The right to national self-determination has also been asserted by national liberation movements in Asia and Africa when
they were struggling against colonial domination.

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19.Citizenship: T. H. Marshall book: Citizenship and Social Class (1950)

Citizenship has been defined as full and equal membership of a political community. It gives political identity and rights and responsibilities.

Unequal membership: White and black before Civil rights movement against practice of segregation.

Marshall sees citizenship as involving three kinds of rights: civil, political and social.

Civil rights protect the individual’s life, liberty and property. Political rights enable the individual to participate in the process of governance. Social rights give
the individual access to education and employment. Together they make it possible for the citizen to lead a life of dignity.

#Citizenship- The concept of citizenship counters the divisive aspects of class inequality leading to better integrated and harmonious society
#Olga Tellis judgment (1985): “Article 21 of the Constitution which guaranteed the right to life included the right to livelihood.
#FRA-2006: Integration of tribal with mainstream

#Regionalism movements are against the concept of citizenship such as in Assam, Maharastra, Karnataka etc. The women’s movement, the dalit
movement, or struggles of people displaced by development projects, represent only a few of the struggles being waged by people who feel that they
are being denied full rights of citizenship.

State vs Stateless people:

Those with citizenship of particular nation have the identity of that nation, while migrants and refugees form the stateless people ex; Rohingya refugees
are stateless people.

#Citizenship Amendment Act, 2019: Ensure Equal membership of refugees into Indian nation state. It will ensure formal equality and integration of all 6
types religiously persecuted refugees from three nations into mainstream society of India and ensures more rights to them.

#Idea of Global Citizenship of propounded to tackle the issue of stateless and refugees and internationally displaced people.

Citizenship principles:
a. Jus soli : By birth
b. Jus sanguinis: Right of citizenship by descent/blood
c. Jus matrimonii: by marriage
d. Naturalization:
#In India, citizenship can be acquired by birth, descent, registration, naturalisation, or inclusion of territory.

Smash Prelims 2023

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20.Types of Society

● Homogeneous society: A society that has similar kinds of people, especially where there are no significant ethnic differences

● Pluralism: Diversity of language, caste, religion, ethnicity, tribal etc.

● Multiculturalism: Which various ethnic groups collaborate and enter into a dialogue with one another without having to sacrifice their particular
identities.

● Indian society: Gnaga- jamuna Culture, Tribal- caste harmony

● Sinhala vs Tamils in Sri Lanka. Black vs White
● Salad Bowl ( or thali) vs Melting pot: USA vs India ( Integration vs Assimilation debate)

21. SECULARISM vs Communalism

Secularism:
Citizens have complete freedom to follow any religion. But there is no official religion. Government treats all religious beliefs and practices with equal
respect.

Communalism: When religion is seen as the basis of the nation or when two communities feel antagonistic to each other
● Example of Northern Ireland
● France: ban on Burqa/Turban
● Indian vs West Secularism

22.Feminism:

It is a political doctrine of equal rights for women and men. Feminists are those men and women who believe that many of the inequalities we see in society
between men and women are neither natural nor necessary and can be altered so that both women and men can lead free and equal lives. According to
feminists, inequality between men and women in society is the result of patriarchy.

Smash Prelims 2023