Advanc1 1 PDF
Advanc1 1 PDF
Jaroslav Beran
Martin Bílek
Petr Žabka Editors
Advances in
Mechanism
Design II
Proceedings of the XII International
Conference on the Theory of Machines
and Mechanisms
Mechanisms and Machine Science
Volume 44
Series editor
Marco Ceccarelli
LARM: Laboratory of Robotics and Mechatronics
DICeM: University of Cassino and South Latium
Via Di Biasio 43, 03043 Cassino (Fr), Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8779
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Jaroslav Beran Martin Bílek
•
Petr Žabka
Editors
Advances in Mechanism
Design II
Proceedings of the XII International
Conference on the Theory of Machines
and Mechanisms
123
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Editors
Jaroslav Beran Petr Žabka
Textile Machine Design Department Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Technical University of Liberec Technical University of Liberec
Liberec Liberec
Czech Republic Czech Republic
Martin Bílek
Textile Machine Design Department
Technical University of Liberec
Liberec
Czech Republic
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Preface
The international conference on the theory of machines and mechanisms has been
held since 1973 in regular four-year intervals. The expert agenda of the conference
focuses on a wide range of problems including theoretical and practical findings
related to theories pertaining to machines and mechanisms. A person involved in
the creation of this conference was important personality and leading expert in
mechanics and mechanism theories doc. Ing. Jaroslav Charvát, CSc. He was not
only a renowned expert regarding mechanism theories, but he was also an excellent
teacher and promoter of mechanics for the professional and lay public. He
impressed students with his lectures and boosted their enthusiasm for the study
field. His scientific and research activities were focused to a great extent on
mechanisms of textile machines. He has regularly contributed to expert magazines.
He is the author of many monographs and scripts, and he has actively attended
conferences and seminars. He has been responsible to a significant extent for the
development of young technical intelligence and has contributed to the develop-
ment of the field of textile machine mechanics.
The 12th international conference on the theory of machines and mechanisms
was held from September 6–8, 2016, at the Liberec Technical University, Liberec,
Czech Republic. The conference was organized under the auspices of the Czech
National Committee for Theories of Machines and Mechanisms IFToMM, the
Czech Society for Mechanics and VUTS a.s. Liberec. The lectures focused par-
ticularly on the areas of analysis, synthesis of articulated, cam, planar and spatial
mechanisms.
A major part included a focus on problems related to the dynamics of machines
and mechanisms as well as mechatronics and biomechanical systems. Robotic
systems were another major focus on the conference.
During the conference, the Meeting of the Technical Committee for Linkages
and Mechanical Controls of IFToMM and the Meeting of the Czech Society for
Mechanics took place.
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vi Preface
In this book, contributions from the conference have been included into six main
parts.
• General Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Analysis and Synthesis of Planar
and Spatial Mechanisms, Linkages and Cams, Robots and Manipulators
• Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms, Rotor Dynamics
• Computational Mechanics
• Vibration and Noise in Machines
• Optimization of Mechanisms and Machines, Mechanisms of Textile Machines
• Mechatronics, Control and Monitoring Systems of Machines
As it has for more than 48 years, this volume of proceedings offers both a broad
perspective on the state of the art in the field and an in-depth look at its leading edge
research. It is our privilege to be able to offer this collection and we express our
sincere thanks to the contributing authors for making this series a continuing
success.
We appreciate the interest in this conference and believe it will bring many
suggestions for further extension of knowledge in the field of machines and
mechanisms theory and will provide new ideas for international cooperation in this
field.
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Scientific Committee
J. Beran—Chairman (CZ)
M. Bílek—Secretary (CZ)
V. Arakelyan (FR)
M. Ceccarelli (IT)
B. Corves (DE)
J.C. Garcia-Prada (ES)
A. Gronowicz (PL)
J. Horáček (CZ)
T. Leinonen (FI)
M. Lima (PT)
E.CH. Lovasz (RO)
K.H. Modler (DE)
V. Natarajan (IN)
L. Pešek (CZ)
Š. Segľa (SK)
J. Stadnicki (PL)
I. Tempea (RO)
H. Terada (JP)
D. Tesar (US)
M. Václavík (CZ)
J. Vimmr (CZ)
J. Zapoměl (CZ)
V. Zeman (CZ)
vii
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viii Scientific Committee
IFToMM
International Federation for the Promotion
of Mechanism and Machine Science
http://www.iftomm.org
Czech National Commitee of IFToMM
Institute of Thermomechanics AS CR, v. v. i.
Czech Society of Mechanics Dolejškova 5
Dolejškova 5 182 00 Praha 8
182 00 Praha 8 Czech Republic
Czech Republic http://www.it.cas.cz/IFToMM-TC-NO/
http://www.csm.cz
VÚTS, a.s.
Svárovská 619
460 01 Liberec 11
Czech Republic
http://www.vuts.cz
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Contents
ix
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x Contents
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Contents xi
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xii Contents
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Contents xiii
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Part I
General Theory of Machines
and Mechanisms, Analysis and Synthesis
of Planar and Spatial Mechanisms,
Linkages and Cams, Robots
and Manipulators
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IFToMM in MMS Developments
Marco Ceccarelli
Abstract The paper presents IFToMM and its activity as influential in Mechanism
and Machine Science (MMS) and its future developments. IFToMM is the interna-
tional federation of a worldwide community working in MMS with achievements in
research, formation, practice and technological transfer. The role of IFToMM is
discussed as influential not only in aggregating people with commonly shared
activities but also in leading international collaboration for innovative trends in MMS.
1 Introduction
Two main facts can be highlighted in order to claim that MMS (Mechanism and
Machine Science) is still necessary with a strong activity in formation, research, and
practice, namely they are:
– Human beings operate and interact with their environments and using many
systems with actions of mechanical nature so that mechanical systems will
always be an essential part of systems that assist or substitute human beings in
their actions and other tasks.
– There is a continuous need to update problems and solutions in Technology since
Society continuously evolves with new and updated needs and requirements so
that even mechanical systems are expected to be updated for new and/or updated
functioning through a continuous evolution and update of knowledge, means,
and operation for the successful applications of mechanical systems.
M. Ceccarelli (&)
University of Cassino and South Latium, Cassino, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
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4 M. Ceccarelli
The meaning of MMS can be clarified by looking at IFToMM terminology with the
terms [6]:
– Mechanism and Machine Science: Branch of science, which deals with the
theory and practice of the geometry, motion, dynamics, and control of machines,
mechanisms, and elements and systems thereof, together with their application
in industry and other contexts, e.g. in Biomechanics and the environment.
Related processes, such as the conversion and transfer of energy and informa-
tion, also pertain to this field.
– Machine: mechanical system that performs a specific task, such as the forming
of material, and the transference and transformation of motion and force.
– Mechanism: system of bodies designed to convert motions of, and forces on,
one or several bodies into constrained motions of, and forces on, other bodies.
Today, a modern machine is understood as a combination of systems of different
natures and this integration has led to the modern concept of Mechatronics, Fig. 1.
Thus, most of the recent advances in machinery are sometimes considered to be in
fields other than MMS. But Mechanism Design can still be recognized as a fun-
damental aspect for developing successful systems that operate in the mechanical
world of human beings.
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IFToMM in MMS Developments 5
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6 M. Ceccarelli
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IFToMM in MMS Developments 7
A service task can be understood as the ultimate goal of the design and operation
of a service machine, that can be conceived not only as a robot. A service task may
be identified with well defined properties and by a large variety of situations. The
multi-disciplinary for a service system is much wider than in any other engineering
fields, since it includes technical aspects, human attitudes (of operators and/or
users), human-machine interactions, and environment issues. Indeed, in developing
and operating service robots, other than technical expertise, it is more and more
necessary that competences from other fields of human life and environmental
considerations be incorporated.
Referring to technical aspects, Fig. 2 summarizes the multi-disciplinary in terms
of interactions with the environment and human beings, and in terms of a careful
consideration of the environment. Those interactions should be understood not only
in terms of engineering issues (mainly mechanical ones) but by looking at more
general aspects, such as for example psychological attitudes and social impacts.
In particular, the main flow of technical design activity is indicated in the central
streamline as referring to data identification in both technical and non-technical
aspects, considerations of technical constraints/issues, analysis of service operation
and goal, design activity and system programming, with final checks by operators
and users. The core character on technical design activity is indicated by aspects
and activities that are grouped in the two lateral blocks concerning with interactions
with human beings and the environment, respectively. Each block will refer to
aspects that even with non-technical concerns must be included in the machine
development with proper models and problem formulation.
All the above considerations can be considered as attaining also to the process of
building and transferring innovation, which will be understood not only as a
technical advance but more widely as an enhancement of the quality of life in all its
aspects with the help and support of technical means.
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8 M. Ceccarelli
The names of IFToMM and MMS are related to fields of Mechanical Engineering
concerning with mechanisms in a broad sense.
The developments in TMM have stimulated cooperation around the world at
various levels. One of the most relevant results has been the foundation of IFToMM
in 1969, Fig. 3. IFToMM was founded as a Federation of territorial organizations
but as based on the activity of individuals within a family frame with the aim to
facilitate co-operation and exchange of opinions and research results in all the fields
of TMM. Many individuals have contributed and still contribute to the success of
IFToMM and related activity, (see IFToMM webpage: www.iftomm.org) under a
coordination of IFToMM Presidents over time [5].
The foundation of IFToMM was the result of an intense activity for stimulating
and promoting international collaboration, more than what had been done previ-
ously. The process started in the late 1950s’, as documented by several letters that
are stored in the IFToMM Archive at CISM in Udine, Italy. A first World Congress
on TMM (Theory of Mechanisms and Machines) was held in 1965 in Varna,
Fig. 3 The foundation act of IFToMM, the International Federation for the Theory of Machines
and Mechanisms, in Zakopane (Poland) on 27 September 1969 (courtesy of IFToMM Archive)
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IFToMM in MMS Developments 9
Bulgaria during which the foundation of IFToMM was planned as later it was
agreed during the Second World Congress on TMM in Zakopane, Poland. The
Congress series was immediately recognized as the IFToMM World Congresses
and in 2015 we have celebrated the 14th event with the participation of delegates
from 47 Member Organizations and from more than 50 countries.
IFToMM activity has grown in many aspects, as for example concerning the
number of member organizations (from the 13 founder members to the current 47
members), the size and scale of conference events (with many other conferences,
even on specific topics, at national and international levels, in addition to the MMS
World Congress), and the number and focus of technical committees working on
specific discipline areas of MMS.
IFToMM was founded in 1969 and today a fourth generation of IFToMMists
starts to be active. Knowing the History of IFToMM and how we arrived at today’s
modus operandi gives a greater awareness of community identity and significance
[2, 3, 5].
The IFToMM community evolved from a family-like structure of few enthusi-
astic pioneers/visionaries and founders into a scientific worldwide community
through the following generations:
• 1950’s–’79 First generation: founding fathers and their friend colleagues up to
the 4-th IFToMM World Congress in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1975 with prof.
Leonard Maunder as Congress Chair.
• 1980–95 Second Generation: students and people educated by founding fathers
and their friend colleagues; up to the 9-th World Congress in Milan in 1995 with
prof. Alberto Rovetta as Congress Chair.
• 1996–2011 Third Generation: educated people in the frame of IFToMM and
within IFToMM activity with 48 national organizations as IFToMM members,
with Prof. Carlos Lopez-Cajùn. As General Chair for 2011 Congress.
• Today–Fourth Generation: educated people in local frames with international
activities that are linked to IFToMM and within IFToMM activity through 47
organizations as IFToMM members.
IFToMM officers (who are the Chairs of IFToMM Member Organizations, the
Chairs of TCs and PCs, and the members of the Executive Council) have con-
tributed and still contribute as leaders for the mission of IFToMM, which is stated
in the 1-st article of the Constitution as: ‘The mission of IFToMM is the promotion
of Mechanism and Machine Science’. A complete list of IFToMM officers over
time is available in [7] and updates in the IFToMM webpage.
The structure of IFToMM is summarized in Fig. 4 with the IFToMM Bodies that
are indicated in IFToMM constitution according to IFToMM mission to provide
leadership for cooperation and development of modern results in the Mechanism
and Machine Sciences by assisting and enhancing international collaboration.
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10 M. Ceccarelli
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IFToMM in MMS Developments 11
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12 M. Ceccarelli
4 Conclusions
1. Ceccarelli, M.: From TMM to MMS: a vision of IFToMM. Bull. IFToMM Newsl. 10(1).
(http://www.iftomm.org) (2001)
2. Ceccarelli, M.: President Report for IFToMM General Assembly. IFToMM Archive, Udine
(2011)
3. Ceccarelli, M.: Problems and issues for service robots in new applications. Int. J. Soc. Rob. 3
(3), 299–312 (2011)
4. Ceccarelli, M.: Twenty-five years of activity in IFToMM. J. Theory Mech. Mach. (http://tmm.
spbstu.ru) St. Petersburg State University 11(2), 3–14 (2013)
5. Ceccarelli, M.: A short account of history of IFToMM and its role in MMS. Mech. Mach.
Theory 89, 75–91 (2015)
6. IFToMM 2003: Special Issue ‘Standardization and Terminology’, Mechanism and Machine
Theory, vol. 38(7–10) (2003)
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IFToMM in MMS Developments 13
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General Algorithm for Computing
the Theoretical Centering Precision
of the Gripping Devices
Abstract The paper shows a study about the theoretical centering precision for
gripping devices. The deviation of the absolute axial centering is taken into account
as a centering precision parameter and a general computing algorithm is developed
for it. For previously developed gripping devices, using parallelogram and four-bar
linkages with coupler driven jaws is computed the variation of the axial centering
deviation.
1 Introduction
The industrial gripping devices usually use a reduced number of jaws 2 or 3 with
equivalent dexterity of 40–90 % in comparison with the human hand having 5
fingers [1]. In [2], the gripping devices are classified in regard with the motion type
of the jaws in translating, rotating (oscillating), planar motion and combinations of
them. Konstantinov in [3] systematized the mechanisms used in gripping devices,
which contains structural linkages, gears and screw-nut mechanisms. In [4] are
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16 E.-C. Lovasz et al.
shown some examples, which use in addition cam mechanisms in the structure of
the gripping devices.
For all of these gripping devices an important industrial characteristic is the
capability of centering precision. The centering precision is implicitly fulfilled in
the case of the translational jaws and can be minimized for other motion types of the
jaws. This aim is pursued by Qingsen in [5], and Brukher in [6], through proper
designing of the gripping device mechanism provided by Pankin in [7] or through
shaping the jaws. Recent researches develop special gripping devices used in soft
robotics for performing gentle tasks [8] or for handling highly elastic objects [9].
For simple or complex anthropomorphic structures, underactuated grasping devices
are used [10, 11], etc.
In [5], Qingsen presents a study of designing a grooved cam profile for
increasing the centering precision. Simionescu in [12] shows a study of the cen-
tering precision of a conveniently chosen four-bar linkage used for acting a gripping
device.
The centering is defined as the property of the gripping device to superpose the
characteristic axis of the grasped object with his characteristic axis. The centering
precision implies the computation of the axial centering deviation between the
characteristic axis of the cylindrical grasped object and the characteristic axis of the
grasping device. For this purpose it is considered the bisecting line of the prism in
the top point M of the prism-jaw. The absolute axial centering deviation is the
distance from the intersection of the bisecting line with the Ox-axis to the origin of
the reference system axes xOy, identical with the characteristic axis of the grasping
device (see Fig. 1).
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General Algorithm for Computing the Theoretical Centering … 17
The coordinates xM and yM of the top point of the prism-jaw M and the pose
angle ϑ of the coupler connecting element depend on the structure of the gripping
mechanism. The prism angle of the jaw α (usually α = 120°) and the connection
angle β of the coupler with the jaw are imposed by design conditions.
From the Eq. (1) can be computed the radius of the grasped object and the
corresponding absolute axial centering deviation:
sinða=2Þ
r ¼ yM ;
sinð# b a=2Þ
ð2Þ
r
Dx ¼ xM þ cosð# b a=2Þ:
sinða=2Þ
#ðuÞ ¼ p ð3Þ
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18 E.-C. Lovasz et al.
This type of gripping device (see Fig. 3) contains also 2 symmetrical four-bar
linkages with coupler driven motion of the jaws and using symmetrical actuating
chains [1, 14].
The positional analysis of the four-bar linkage, used for acting the coupler jaws,
allows the computing of the coordinates of the top point M according to the
kinematic parameters of the linkage. The vector equation of the four-bar linkage
A0ABB0 in its own coordinate system, shown in Fig. 3, is:
By considering the complex conjugate equation of the vector Eq. (3) follows the
coupler (5) positional angle ϑ depending on the rocker (4) angle φ:
Fig. 3 Kinematic schema of the grasping device using four-bar linkages with coupler jaws
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General Algorithm for Computing the Theoretical Centering … 19
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
B1 ð/Þ þ A1 ð/Þ þ B1 ð/Þ C1 ð/Þ
#ð/Þ ¼ d þ : ð7Þ
A1 ð/Þ C1 ð/Þ
with:
The coordinates of the coupler point M of the four-bar linkage in the gripping
device coordinate system xOy follows from the vector equation:
in the form:
3 Numerical Examples
The numerical examples show the variation of the absolute axial centering devia-
tion in respect with the grasped object radius Δx(r) for the both grasping mechanism
devices, presented in Sects. 2.1 and 2.2.
The considered radii of the grasped cylindrical object are in the range of
2.5–35 mm and the angle of the jaws prisms is chosen α = 120° for both examples.
The geometrical parameters of the gripping device using parallelogram linkages are
shown in Table 1.
In Fig. 4a is represented the variation of the absolute axial centering deviation
symmetrically distributed for the considered mechanism. The centering condition is
fulfilled only for one radius of the grasped object (r = 26.66 mm), as expected.
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20 E.-C. Lovasz et al.
Fig. 4 Absolute axial centering deviation for parallelogram (a) and four-bar (b) linkage
The geometrical parameters of the gripping device using four-bar linkages are
shown in Table 2 and the design assembly was patented in [15].
Figure 4b shows the variation of the absolute axial centering deviation for the
four-bar linkages. The centering condition is fulfilled for four radii of the grasped
cylindrical object. For these radii the four-bar linkage was computed by using four
pose synthesis in [1, 14].
4 Conclusions
The paper presents a general algorithm for computing the absolute axial centering
deviation, as theoretical precision parameter. Some known gripping devices were
considered and numerically analyzed to validate the proposed algorithm.
References
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General Algorithm for Computing the Theoretical Centering … 21
3. Konstantinov, M.S., Galabov, W.B.: Kriterien zum Entwurf von Greifmechanismen für
maniupulatoren und Industrieroboter, Maschinenbautechnick, pp. 534–535 (1978)
4. Ceccarelli, M.: Fundamentals of Mechanics of Robotic Manipulation. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht (2004)
5. Qingsen, H.: A linkage mechanism for concentric gripping cylindrical components. In:
Proceedings of the 12 National symposium on Industrial Robots and the 6th International
Symposium on Robotised Technologies, Paris, 9–11 June 1982
6. Brukher, E.: Maschinell betatigte Zange zum Greifen von Rundkorpen, Deutschland, Patent
3717091, 21 May 1987
7. Pankin, E.P.: Universalnoe zahvatnoe ustroino. Mehanizatiea i avtomatizatiea proizvotsva 11,
10 (1989)
8. Zhou, X., Majidi, C., O’Reilly, O.M.: Soft hands: an analysis of some gripping mechanisms in
soft robot design. Int. J. Solids Struct. 64–65, 155–165 (2015)
9. Tilli, J., Brando, A., Fantoni, G.: Gripping device for heavy and deformable materials
handling: concept, design, selection and test. Proc. CIRP 21, 373–378 (2014)
10. Wu, L., Carbone, G., Ceccarelli, M.: Design an under actuated mechanism for a 1 active DOF
finger operation. Mech. Mach. Theory 44(2), 336–348 (2009)
11. Butterfass, J., Grebenstein, M., Liu, H., Hirzinger, G.: DLR-Hand II: next generation of a
Dextrous robot hand. In: Proceedings of the IEEE, International Conference on Robotics and
Automation, Seoul, Korea (2001)
12. Simionescu, I., Ionescu, C.: Optimum design of self centering grippers. UPB Sci. Bull. Ser.
D 73(1), 43–52 (2011)
13. Kovacs, F.W., Varga, S., Pau, V.-C.: Introduction in Robotics (Introducere în robotică).
Printech Publisher, Bucharest (2000)
14. Mesaroş-Anghel, V., Lovasz, E.-C., Gruescu, C.M., Moldovan, C.E.: Optimal Design of a
Grasping Device through Simplified Pose Synthesis of a Four-Bar Linkage, MTM & Robotics
2016. Series: Mechanisms and Machine Science. Springer (2016)
15. Mesaroş-Anghel, V., Mesaroş-Anghel, T., Groza, I.-R., Cioabă, V., Mareş, A., Czika, Z.:
Grasping device with centering (Dispozitiv de prehensiune cu centrare), Brevet
nr.102291/26.06.1989, Romania (1989)
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Design and Development of a Heddle Shaft
Mechanism for Air-Jet Weaving Machines
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24 F. Schwarzfischer et al.
1 Introduction
Weaving is one of the oldest techniques for the production of fabric. Sets of yarns
are interlaced at right angles to form cloth. Nowadays weaving is no longer
handcraft but executed automatically by weaving machines. Figure 1 shows the
basic structure of a weaving machine. The warp yarns are unrolled from the warp
beam. Then they are guided through the weaving machine in longitudinal direction.
Each warp yarn is threaded through one heddle eye. The heddle eyes are part of the
heddles, which are mounted on the heddle frames.
The minimum number of heddle frames is two, as shown in Fig. 1. In case of
complex weaving patterns, more heddle frames are required. The heddle frames
move the warp yarns in vertical direction in order to create the shed. At maximum
displacement of the heddle frames, the shed is called “open shed”. The filling yarn
is then inserted at right angle to the warp yarns into the open shed. The reed
performs a rotating motion and beats the filling yarn against the woven cloth that
has already been formed. The heddle frames switch position and the filling yarn is
inserted into the newly opened shed. A new cycle starts. The cloth take-up roll
serves to wind up the woven cloth [1].
Weaving machines can be classified with respect to the method of the insertion
of the filling yarn. Common methods are shuttle weaving, projectile waving, rapier
weaving and jet weaving. Jet weaving uses a fluid to transport the filling yarn
through the open weaving shed and can be subdivided into water-jet and air-jet
weaving. In the latter method the filling yarn is accelerated by a main nozzle and
guided through the open shed by relay nozzles [1].
reed
heddle
heddle
eye
sley
warp
warp beam cloth take-up
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Design and Development of a Heddle Shaft Mechanism for … 25
To measure the movement of the reed and the current heddle frame movement an
optical coordinate-measuring device was utilized. The measured reed movement
was used as an input for an existing kinematic model of the weaving machine. The
necessary heddle frame movement to allow the application of the new HVLP relay
nozzles was determined. The input of the measured heddle frame movement into
the kinematic model of the weaving machine showed the need to change the heddle
frame movement. However, the high operating speed should be maintained.
In order to develop the heddle frame mechanism, the motion task was split into
subtasks. This step was carried out according to the procedures outlined in [3].
Following the procedure in [4], a morphological box containing solutions for the
different subtasks was set up. Combining the solutions of the subtasks, solutions for
the complete system were derived. The different solutions for the complete system
were compared using qualitative evaluation criteria. In order to reduce the number
of solutions, only the best assessed solutions were considered for the following
steps. In the next steps, mechanism synthesis had to be carried out for the
subtask-solutions containing mechanisms.
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26 F. Schwarzfischer et al.
The mechanism synthesis can be subdivided into the structural and the dimensional
synthesis. The determination of mechanisms that in principle can fulfil the motion
task is the objective of the structural synthesis. The structural synthesis is followed
by the dimensional synthesis. It contains the step of defining the dimensions of the
mechanism, which means choosing the length of the links and the positions of the
joints. The methods described in [5–7] are used to carry out the dimensional
synthesis. In order to determine the dimensioning of cam disks, the Hodograph-
Procedure described in [8] is employed. The result of the procedure is the position
of the axis of rotation of the cam disk as well as its transfer function. The transfer
function of the cam disk is then modified following the procedure outlined in [9,
10]. A so-called high-speed (HS) profile is calculated. Contrary to the normal disk
cam profile, the HS transfer function is continuous as it is built up by a finite
number of harmonics.
3 Results
The motion task of the heddle frame mechanism is defined by the rotational input
motion and the desired output motion, the vertical movement of the heddle frame
(s). Figure 2 shows the structure of the motion task.
The complete heddle frame mechanism is shown in Fig. 3. The vertical motion
of the heddle frame is created by two guiding mechanisms. These mechanisms are
Fig. 2 Structure of the motion task for the heddle frame mechanism
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Design and Development of a Heddle Shaft Mechanism for … 27
two four-bar linkages C0–D–E–E0 and C0′–D′–E′–E0′. Both mechanisms are cou-
pled by a four-bar linkage C0–F–G–C0′ to assure a parallel motion. The heddle
frame is connected to the coupler points K and K’. As the four-bar linkages C0–D–
E–E0 and C0′–D′–E′–E0′ are almost similar to the Chebyshev lambda mechanism, K
and K′ perform an approximate straight-line motion. The guiding mechanisms are
driven by another four-bar mechanism B0–B–C–C0. The link B0–B of this mech-
anism is driven by a cam disk, which transfers the input motion.
In order to decrease vibrations of the heddle frame, a harmonic synthesis of the
heddle-frame motion was carried out. Figure 4 shows the heddle frame motion and
its amplitude spectrum.
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28 F. Schwarzfischer et al.
4 Conclusion
Newly developed low pressure relay nozzles can contribute to energy savings in
air-jet weaving. However, the application of these relay nozzles requires changes in
the heddle frame movement of the weaving machine. The design and development
of a suitable heddle frame mechanism was outlined in this paper. The mechanism is
able to fulfil the requirements for the application of the new relay nozzles. In order
to allow the application also for very high operating speeds, transfer function of the
heddle frame mechanism was optimized using a HS cam disk.
References
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On Transfemoral Prosthetic Knee
Design Using RRSS Motion
and Axode Generation
Abstract In this work, equation systems for RRSS motion generation and RRSS
axode generation are applied to produce a concept transfemoral prosthetic knee.
First, an RRSS linkage is synthesized to approximate a series of tibial positions
during knee flexion. Next, the fixed and moving axodes of the synthesized RRSS
linkage are generated. Because the coupler motion of an RRSS linkage can be
replicated by rolling its moving axode over its fixed axode, the axodes for the
synthesized RRSS linkage are incorporated as gearing in the concept prosthetic
knee. The resulting prosthetic knee approximates the natural spatial motion of the
tibia during knee flexion and extension (unlike prosthetic knee designs that include
simple pin joints).
1 Introduction
Knee motion in the human leg can be described by three rotations and three
translations in the principle planes of motion, namely the coronal or frontal plane,
the sagittal or side plane and the transverse or horizontal plane (Fig. 1). Natural
knee motion initially was characterized by purely planar motion in the sagittal plane
[1]. It is now well understood natural knee motion doesn’t occur solely in this
plane. A complex motion of the principal rotations and translations has been
J. D’Alessio
Onkos Surgical, Parsippany, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Russell (&) R.S. Sodhi
New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
R.S. Sodhi
e-mail: [email protected]
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30 J. D’Alessio et al.
documented [2, 3]. Additionally, research has shown that these rotations and
translations can be described by showing how the tibia undergoes screw motion
about the femur [4–7]. The same research has also shown that the position and
orientation of this screw axis (called the finite helical axis) changes continuously
throughout knee motion due to the complex 3D motion occurring in all three
planes.
Because knee motion is helical over a continuously-changing axis and does not
occur entirely in the sagittal plane, representing the knee as a simple pin or even a
polycentric joint (where motion is restricted to pure rotation) in a transfemoral
prosthetic leg design results in a prosthesis that does not achieve the natural spatial
motion of the tibia. The user of this type of prosthesis will exhibit an unnatural gait
to compensate for the unnatural prosthetic knee motion.
Figure 2 illustrates the three stages in the prosthetic knee design process and the
output from each stage. First, a series of tibial position data are acquired over a
determined knee motion range. Next, this data is incorporated in a model to syn-
thesize a spatial revolute-revolute-spherical-spherical or RRSS linkage to
approximate the tibial positions. After this, the dimensions for the synthesized
RRSS linkage are incorporated in a model to generate its fixed and moving axodes
over the calculated RRSS motion range. Lastly, the fixed and moving axodes are
incorporated into geometry (as gearing) to produce the cam components in the
prosthetic knee.
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32 J. D’Alessio et al.
Shen et al. [9] presented a model to generate the fixed and moving axodes for the
RRSS linkage. As illustrated in Fig. 2, the RRSS linkage dimensions produced in
stage 2 are used as input for stage 3. Given RRSS linkage dimensions and driving
link rotations, the RRSS axode generation model will calculate the corresponding
fixed and moving axodes. The coupler motion of the RRSS linkage (and subse-
quently the tibial positions achieved by this linkage) is replicated precisely by
rolling the moving axode over the fixed axode [9].
Lastly, the fixed and moving axodes generated in stage 3 are incorporated into
the geometry of a transfemoral prosthetic knee to replicate natural tibial motion.
3 Example
A series of tibial positions was measured using the approach in Sect. 2. Table 1
includes the spatial Cartesian coordinates measured for five tibial positions over
approximately 37.5° of knee flexion (Fig. 4). This flexion range is adequate to
describe the normal range for a standard gait cycle [2].
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On Transfemoral Prosthetic Knee Design Using RRSS … 33
Table 2 Initial and calculated RRSS linkage dimensions and link rotation values
Variable Initial values Calculated values
a0 −5, −30, −9 −8.277, −30.438, −9.119
a1 −5, −15, 5.5 −2.525, −15.192, 4.150
ua0 1, 0, 0 0.962, −0.194, −0.194
ua1 1, 0, 0 0.962, −0.194, −0.194
b0 −5, −2.8, −6.3 −5.447, −2.581, −5.130
b1 −5, −22, 14.5 −3.407, −18.896, 14.761
θ2–θ5 10°…10° 0.723°, 3.027°, 8.609°, 15.387°
α2–α5 5°…5° −5.062°, −18.387°, −42.512°, −65.086°
Next, the measured tibial position coordinates were used to synthesize an RRSS
linkage to approximate these coordinates. Table 2 includes the initial and calculated
values for the RRSS linkage using the RRSS motion generation model [8]. Table 3
includes the actual tibial position coordinates achieved by the synthesized RRSS
linkage (Fig. 5).
Following RRSS motion generation is RRSS axode generation. Figure 5 also
includes the fixed and moving axode sections generated using the RRSS axode
generation model [9]. The tibial positions in Table 3 are perfectly replicated by
rolling the moving axode section over the fixed axode section.
Lastly, the axodes are incorporated in prosthetic knee geometry. In Figs. 5 and 6,
the axodes are expressed as noncircular gears (to eliminate slip during knee flexion
and extension). Figure 6 also includes the Table 3 tibial positions achieved by the
transfemoral prosthetic knee.
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34 J. D’Alessio et al.
Fig. 5 Synthesized RRSS linkage with fixed and moving axode sections (left) and exploded view
of transfemoral prosthetic knee (patent pending) with axode sections as gearing (right)
Fig. 6 Assembly view of transfemoral prosthetic knee (patent pending) (left) and achieved tibial
positions in Table 3 (right)
4 Conclusions
Here, the design procedure for a prosthetic knee to achieve natural tibial motion is
presented. Given a group of tibial positions, a defect-free RRSS linkage is first
synthesized to approximate these positions. The fixed and moving axodes of the
synthesized motion generator are calculated next. Lastly, these axodes are incor-
porated as gearing into a prosthetic knee design.
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On Transfemoral Prosthetic Knee Design Using RRSS … 35
References
1. Frankel, V.H., Burstein, A.H., Brooks, D.B.: Biomechanics of internal derangement of the knee.
J. Bone J. Surg. 53-A(5), 945–977 (1971)
2. Benoit, D.L., Ramsey, D.K., Lamontagne, M., Xu, L., Wretenberg, P., Renström, P.: In vivo
knee kinematics during gait reveals new rotation profiles and smaller translations. Clin.
Orthop. Relat. Res. 454(1), 81–88 (2007)
3. Dennis, D.A., Mahfouz, M.R., Komistek, R.D., Hoff, W.: In vivo determination of normal and
anterior cruciate ligament-deficient knee kinematics. J. Biomech. 38(2), 241–253 (2005)
4. Blankevoort, L., Huiskes, R., De Lange, A.: Helical axes of passive knee joint motions.
J. Biomech. 23(12), 1219–1229 (1990)
5. Hart, R.A., Mote, C.D., Skinner, H.B.: A finite helical axis as a landmark for kinematic
reference of the knee. J. Biomech. Eng. 113(2), 215–222 (1991)
6. Sheehan, F.T.: The finite helical axes of the knee joint (a non-invasive in vivo study using
fast-PC MRI). J. Biomech. 40(5), 1038–1047 (2007)
7. Van Den Bogert, A.J., Reinschmidt, C., Lundberg, A.: Helical axes of skeletal knee joint
motion during running. J. Biomech. 41(8), 1632–1638 (2008)
8. Russell, K., Shen, Q.: Expanded spatial four-link motion and path generation with order and
branch defect elimination. Inverse Prob. Sci. Eng. 19(2), 251–265 (2011)
9. Shen, Q., Russell, K., Lee, W., Sodhi, R.S.: On cam system design to replicate spatial four-bar
mechanism coupler motion. Inverse Prob. Sci. Eng. 19(2), 251–265 (2011)
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On Approach Based on Lie Groups
and Algebras to the Structural Synthesis
of Parallel Robots
1 Introduction
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38 L. Rybak et al.
such mechanisms—an approach based on the use of graph theory, screw theory and
group theory.
Freudenstein first proposed the use of graph theory for synthesis purposes [1]. He
has developed a graph scheme in which vertices correspond to communication
mechanisms, and ribs—the hinges. The first graph theory to the development of new
architectures of parallel robots applied Earle [2]. But when working with parallel
robots graph theory has two major drawbacks: (1) an isomorphism, i.e., the use of
compressed graphs, which implies the absence of a direct correspondence between
the mechanism and its graph, and (2) the widespread use of the mobility of the
formulas are often inapplicable to many spatial arrangements (e.g., parallelograms).
Another currently applied approach is based on the use of groups of motions.
Many movements, representing the rigid body, has the structure of a particular
group, the group of displacements. Such a group uniquely corresponds to a special
matrix of the Euclidean group SE(3). SE(3)—continuous group, and any open set
elements SE(3) uniquely corresponds to an open set in R6. In mathematical terms,
SE(3)—differentiable manifold, called a Lie group. An exhaustive list of subgroups
gave Hervé movements [3]. The importance here is the intersection operation is
obtained when subjected to one of several solid elements subgroups. Movements
Lie subgroups generated kinematic chains, called generators movements subgroups.
These generators play an important role in determining the possible architectures of
parallel mechanisms.
Synthesis of parallel robots based on the theory of groups is based on the following
basic principles: (1) the definition of what is a subgroup of S must have a working
body to provide a predetermined number of degrees of freedom; (2) The definition
of all possible subgroups with the relevant kinematic chains, which may consist of a
robot support, the intersection of which gives a subgroup of S; (3) the definition of
motion generator for these subgroups: they are kinematic chains of the robot.
This approach has been used by various researchers, for example, [4–7].
Synthesis based on group theory, it is still an open area of research, as not all groups
of structures are developed.
An approach based on group theory, resulted in the opening of many new possible
structures. However, the group of motions has a specific properties are not reflected
in its structure of a Lie group. Accordingly, an approach based on the theory of
groups hard to apply for specific mobility cases, such as paradoxical mechanisms.
It is possible to extend the concept of the group, considering the tangent space at
the identity element, which is a vector space, called the Lie algebra of a Lie
group. As we proceed from the SE(3), the corresponding Lie algebra se(3) is a
vector space of instantaneous velocity, whose elements—the 6-dimensional vectors
of the form ðX; vÞ, where X—the angular velocity of a rigid body, and v—its linear
speed. These elements are called kinematic screws. Based on the theory of screws
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On Approach Based on Lie Groups and Algebras … 39
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40 L. Rybak et al.
to the axis and the linear movement along said; T^u1 ;^u2 ;^u3 —linear motion along three
mutually orthogonal axes; G^u1 —linear motion in a plane perpendicular to the axis
^u1 and rotating around this axis; SO —arbitrary rotation in three-dimensional space
around the fixed center O; Y^u1 ;p —linear displacement in a plane perpendicular to the
axis ^
u1 and a helical movement along this axis with a parameter p; X^u1 —linear
motion in space and moving along the screw axis ^u1 (Schoenflies movement).
Consider a parallel mechanism consisting of the movable platform and the sta-
tionary base, connected by a k serial kinematic chain. When the type synthesis of
parallel mechanisms consider the case when the mobile platform speed relative to
the fixed base forms a subalgebra of the Lie algebra se(3) of the group of motions of
Euclidean space SE(3). In this case, you can select the type of parallel mechanisms,
for which the required subalgebra AR seð3Þ is the intersection of subalgebras
generated by a series of connected chains and all these subalgebras are equivalent.
Let AR seð3Þ—required subalgebra for a given movement. Then
T m=b m=b
AR ¼ Am=b
a ¼ kj¼1 Aj , respectively, Am=b
a Aj ; j ¼ 1; 2. . .; k
In this case, the required equivalent subalgebra all subalgebras generated serial
kinematic chains,
m=b
AR ¼ Aj ; j ¼ 1; 2. . .; k ð1Þ
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On Approach Based on Lie Groups and Algebras … 41
4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation, the agreement
No. 16-19-00148.
References
1. Freudenstein, F., Dobrjanskyj, L.: On a theory for the type synthesis of mechanisms, invited
contribution. In: Proceedings of Eleventh International Congress of Applied Mechanics,
Springer, Berlin, pp. 420–428 (1966)
2. Earl, C.F., Rooney, J.: Some kinematics structures for robot manipulator designs. J. Mech.
Transm. Autom. Des. 105(1), 15–22 (1983)
3. Herve, J.M.: Group mathematics and parallel link mechanisms. In: 9th World Congress on the
Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, pp. 2079–2082, Milan, 30 Aug–2 Sept 1995
4. Angeles, J.: The qualitative synthesis of parallel manipulators. ASME J. Mech. Des. 126(4),
617–624 (2004)
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42 L. Rybak et al.
5. Herve, J.M.: Parallel mechanisms with pseudo-planar motion generators. In: Lenarcic, J.,
Galletti, C. (eds.) Advances in Robot Kinematics, pp. 431–440. Kluwer, Alphen aan den Rijn
(2004)
6. Karouia, M., Herve, J.M.: A family of novel orientational 3-dof parallel robots. In: 14th
RoManSy, pp. 359–368, Udine, 1–4 July 2002
7. Li Q.-C., Huang, Z.: Mobility analysis of a novel 3–5R parallel mechanism family.
ASME J. Mech. Des. 126(1), 79–82 (2004)
8. Fang, Y., Tsai, L.-W.: Structure synthesis of a class of 3-DOF rotational parallel manipulators.
IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom. 20(1), 117–121 (2004)
9. Frisoli, A., et al.: Synthesis by Screw Algebra of Translating Inparallel Actuated Mechanisms.
ARK, Piran, 25–29 June 2000
10. Gao, F., et al.: New kinematic structures for 2-,3-,4- and 5- dof parallel manipulator designs.
Mech. Mach. Theory 37(11), 1395–1411 (2002)
11. Huang, Z., Li, Q.C.: Type synthesis of symmetrical lower mobility parallel mechanisms using
the constraint synthesis method. Int. J. Robot. Res. 22(1), 59–79 (2003)
12. Kong, X., Gosselin, C.M.: Type synthesis of 3 DOF translational parallel manipulators based
on screw theory. ASME J. Mech. Des. 126(1), 83–92 (2004)
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Life Estimation of the Contact Surfaces
Abstract A life estimation of the contact surfaces is an important part of the cam
mechanisms design. The aim of this article is to compare available methods of the
life estimation. Every theory has its own experimental constants. Their influence on
the resulting life estimation is considerable. The real life of the contact surfaces can
be markedly different according to used theory. A solving can be to refine the
theories. It is possible to improve the experimental constants by means of the
experimental testing.
1 Introduction
VÚTS, a.s. deals with the design of cam mechanisms and cams production more
than thirty years. This provides us a lot of experience in design and calculation of
both axial and radial cams. In this context, currently we solve the methodology of
the life prediction of the cam surface. On this basis, we can determine the life of the
cam mechanism respectively time when damage occurs. It is possible to use several
methods for life estimation of the cam contact surface. This article deals with two
most used available methods.
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44 M. Hejnová and J. Ondrášek
6 6
Micropitting, steel 14 220, 11x10 cycles Macropitting, steel 14 220, 202x10 cycles
Fig. 1 Pitting
2 Surface Fatigue
The surface fatigue [1], called rolling contact fatigue, occurs in functional surfaces
that are exposed to repeated loading during movement of functional surfaces of
machine components. It may be a relative rolling movement or a combination of
sliding and rolling, what is more common in practice.
Pitting is the mechanism of damage, which can lead to the fatigue fracture damage.
This type of failure occurs in machine elements, which are cyclically loaded [1].
Micropitting [1] is manifested by the presence of microscopic pits on the material
surface in the contact. They are produced due to the repeated cyclic loading of the
contact at which occurs to rolling and sliding and they are formed by plastic defor-
mation of the surface asperities. Micropitting is more often observed at materials with
higher surface hardness [1]. The micropits are small relative to the size of the contact
zone (see Fig. 1), typically 10–20 μm deep and usual size smaller than 100 μm.
Macropitting is presented by cracks formed in a certain depth under the surface
[1], where the shear stress is maximal due to Hertzian pressure. It [1] causes the
formation of large pits (about 1 mm) on the material surface in the contact. These
arise due to the spread of subsurface cracks that leads to flaking larger parts of the
material from the surface.
There are another types of the damage mechanisms, e.g. spalling, galling, scuffing,
scoring and their combinations. Description of these types of damage is in [1].
The commonly used theoretical models are based on the Hertz’s contact theory. On
its basic is given the value of the Hertzian pressure, which is decisive at the
determining of the save load. At this load it will not occur damage of the functional
surfaces of the cam and roller.
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Life Estimation of the Contact Surfaces 45
F
f ¼ ð1Þ
l
The deflection between two bodies in contact may produce a flat of width 2b and
length l (see Fig. 2) with coordinates O, x, y, z located in its centre. The flat is
situated at the coordinate plane xy where the axis x coincides with the contact area of
non-loaded bodies. Contact load distribution p(y) along the elliptic cylinder is (2).
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
y 2ffi
2f
p¼ 1 ð2Þ
pb b
Unlike the positive radius of curvature of the roller follower 1ρy, the radius of
curvature of the cam surface in contact 2ρy may attain both, positive or negative
values. Actually this fact is defined in relation (3) by quantity |2ρy|.
1 l21;2
d1;2 ¼ ð4Þ
E1;2
Fig. 2 Contact of cylindrical bodies with parallel axes and pressure distribution in contact
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46 M. Hejnová and J. Ondrášek
The quantities δ1, δ2 are the characteristics of elasticity of the elements in the pair
(4), where the Poisson’s ratio and the modulus of tension elasticity are denoted as μ1,2
and E1,2 respectively. Rearranging relation (3) we get the bisected contact area (5).
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
f ð d 1 þ d 2 Þ 1 qy 2 q y
b¼2 ð5Þ
p 2 qy 1 qy
The next step is to calculate a reduces stress [2]. The reduced stresses σred (ψ, ς)
are limited by the actual strength condition, written in the form (6), where ψ is an
angular cam displacement and w 2 h0; 2pÞ. and 1 ¼ jzj=b 0.
For steel are the usual values rc 0:33 Rm and Re ð0:550:8ÞRm . However,
since the transitory stress limit is rh 2rc 0:66 Rm , the relation (6) may be
replaced by the inequality (7), where w 2 h0; 2pÞ and 1 ¼ z=b 0. This equation
states that no destructive action of elastic deformation is produced in the general
pair under operation.
3.1 Model A
There were derived equation for values of Hertzian pressure pH and reduced stress
σred(ψ, ς) in Chap. 5. In the literature [2] is given a condition, when it will not occur
damage of the contact surface body in form (8),
K
pH f ðH Þ; K ¼ 4777 MPa ð8Þ
N 1=6
HB
f ðH Þ ¼
1000
ð9Þ
HRC HRC HRC
f ðH Þ ¼ 0:251 þ 2:74 1:22 0:6
100 100 100
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Life Estimation of the Contact Surfaces 47
3.2 Model B
An approach based on a load distribution in the plane contact area of the cylindrical
bodies is in the literature [3]. In this model the main compressive stress rz takes the
highest value for y ¼ 0 mm (10).
2f
rz ðy ¼ 0Þ ¼ pH ¼ ð10Þ
pb
Substituting of equation for bisected contact area b (5) and Eq. (10) and rear-
ranging we get Eq. (11).
fE
r2z ¼ ð11Þ
pRe
For the relative load f is valid (12), where the parameter KI is the experimental
load-stress factor (13).
pRe 2
f ¼ r ¼ KI Re ð12Þ
E z
p 2
KI ¼ r ð13Þ
E z
Parameter KI is used to determine safe load F for given number of cycles or for
number of cycles which we can expect to destruction at the given load. There is
dimension of the equivalent modulus of elasticity E and main compressive stress
rz given by MPa in Eq. (13).
Parameter KI is possible to use in the equation of the load/life curve, called S-
N curve to finding of the expected number of the cycles N at the given load (14).
f log10 N
log10 ð145:03789 KI Þ ¼ ð14Þ
k
Stress factors f and k in the Eq. (14) express a slope and an intersection in the S-
N diagram in logarithmic coordinates. The S-N diagram is made from a large
amount of the test data. The constant 145:03789 expresses conversion of the metric
to anglo-american measurement system. Parameter KI is in [3] given in KI ðpsiÞ.
On basis of Eqs. (13) and (14) we can write the condition for the load level, at
which does not occur to damage of the body surface in contact (15).
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
f 1k
E 10
pH : ð15Þ
145:03789 p N
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48 M. Hejnová and J. Ondrášek
There is a lot of the tested materials in [3]. In this chapter are presented results for
material 12 024. Material properties of the steel 12 024 are in Table 1. Model A is
calculated by Eq. (8), Model B by Eq. (15). Results are in graph on Fig. 3.
We can see a considerable difference in used methods results in the graph (see
Fig. 3) for load/life curves. Model A [calculation by Eq. (8)] is more on side of the
safety.
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Life Estimation of the Contact Surfaces 49
4 Conclusions
We have used in most cases only Model A for determination of the material for cam
producing in VÚTS. Model A is more on the side of safety and this give a space for
increasing of the load. Our experience indicate in last time that life estimation only
in dependence on surface hardness is not optimal. This article shows that at the
choice of the material for cam producing is necessary to take into account another
parameters too. On the other side it is difficult to get concrete material parameters,
because experimental test for life testing are very time consuming.
Acknowledgments The research work reported here was made possible by FR-TI4/801- project
supported by the Ministry of Industry and Trade.
References
1. Hejnova, M.: Service life assessment of the cam mechanisms. Procedia Eng. 96, 157–163
(2014). doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2014.12.135. Avaliable from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S1877705814031944
2. Koloc, Z., Václavík, M.: Vačkové Mechanismy. SNTL—Nakladatelství technické literatury,
Praha (1988). 379 s
3. Norton, R.L.: Cam design and manufacturing handbook. Industrial Press Inc., New York
(2009). ISBN 978-0-8311-3367-2
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Calculation of the Contours of a Radial
Double Cam Based on an Approximate
Course of the 2nd Derivative
of the Displacement Law
of a Working Link
Abstract This paper deals with requirements for the production of cam mecha-
nisms or cams that reliably operate in manufacturing machines even for several
decades and currently, it is necessary their replacement due to wear. Those
machines are usually unique in their construction and they meet the demanding
technological requirements of the production even today. The effort of producers or
users is to overhaul those machines and so continue to use them. We meet today
with the requirements for the manufacture of years proven cam mechanisms with an
insufficient or incomplete production documentation. The paper focuses on one
such characteristic case.
Keywords Radial cam and double cam Cam mechanism Kinematic analysis
and synthesis Approximation
1 Introduction
A significant expansion of cams and cam mechanisms occurred in the seventies and
eighties of the last century with the mass deployment of NC machine tools. At that
time, the use of computer technology was very limited and it concentrated in
research centers or at major manufacturers, for example, at those producing
machine tools. The situation in computer technology corresponded to that time with
its unique hardware and software components. The conventional and today wide-
spread PC was not in the world. At that time, VÚTS used calculators and first
computers from Hewlett-Packard and Olivetti. The same situation was also among
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52 P. Jirásko and M. Václavík
VÚTS developed the methodology and the associated software to address these
cases. It is a system of two communicating sw means that are APROX programs
(approximation of a discreetly or numerically defined displacement law with an
equidistant step) and KIN (kinematic analysis and synthesis of compound cam
mechanisms).
Using the APROX program, it can be approximated a function which is defined
in a one or several discrete intervals—blocks. Inside the selected block, there are
chosen intervals or boundary of intervals. In the intervals, the given function will be
approximated using a polynomial of the fifth or seventh degree. The courses of the
polynomials can be influenced by the position of boundary points or interval
boundaries, boundary values of polynomials or a degree of a polynomial. The
position of the boundary points will be chosen, the boundary values are determined
by the program and they can be then corrected. The correction is to be performed in
the boundary points of the blocks always there when it is necessary to ensure the
mutual sequence of the blocks (in all derivatives according to the degree of the
polynomial).
By kinematic analysis of the basic cam mechanism with conventional cam it is
understood determination of the movement (kinematic quantities) of the working
link with rotary (rocker) or sliding (follower) movement for the given movement at
the input and the defined dimensions of a cam mechanism including the theoretical
profile (path of the roller center). Thus, by an analysis it is determined the motion
function of the working link (rocker, follower) in dependence on time or dis-
placement law depending on the angle of rotation of the cam at a constant angular
velocity equal to 1 (rad/s). The block diagram is in Fig. 1.
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Calculation of the Contours of a Radial Double Cam Based … 53
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54 P. Jirásko and M. Václavík
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Calculation of the Contours of a Radial Double Cam Based … 55
of the independently variable and the geometry of the double cam mechanism
(length of the frame, lengths of the rockers of the master and slave cams, roller
diameters).
Due to a limited extent of the paper, we will present only essential documents. Data
of the acceleration polygon (see Figs. 4 and 5) are interpolated and subsequently
per sections twice numerically integrated. The thus obtained data file is to be
approximated per selected sections (sw APROX) by polynomials of the 5th or 7th
degree with the check of a positional deviation according to Fig. 6. The file of
analytic relations describing the displacement law of the rocker (15 sections of the
polynomials) enters the kinematic synthesis of the KIN program according to
Fig. 7. The result of the synthesis is the polar coordinates of any arbitrary
equidistances of both cams (master and slave) according to the scheme in Fig. 2.
Fig. 6 Positional error with respect to the course of the 2nd derivative of the displacement law of
the double cam rocker (15 sections), X-axis (deg), Y-axis (mm)
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56 P. Jirásko and M. Václavík
4 Conclusion
The double cam was produced in the required quality and delivered to full satis-
faction of a customer from Western Europe who requires maximum quality. The
contract value was in the order of thousands of euros. It was a double cam made
from the blank of a diameter of 600 (mm) and a weight of about 350 (kg). The
mentioned case is not unique, contracts of a similar type on the basis of insufficient
documentation or based on specific worn cams are becoming more common.
According to Fig. 8, the creation of the double cam production coordinates is from
the measured contour of the master cam by combining kinematic analysis and
synthesis. This can be done even with worn double cams to which no drawing and
calculation documentation is available.
References
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The Elastic Compression in the Contact
Region of a Cam Mechanism General
Kinematic Pair
J. Ondrášek
Abstract The paper deals with the elastic compression in the contact region of a
general kinematic pair. In the case of a general cam mechanism, the general
kinematic pair is formed of the contact of the working surfaces of a cam and a
follower. In technical practice, the contact of the cam and the follower is created by
the cylinders in contact with the parallel axes for one thing and for another, by the
cylinder and the three-dimensional body, which is described locally in contact with
the orthogonal radii of curvature. This issue is solved on the basis of the contact
mechanics. For both cases, the relations for calculating the elastic compression in
the contact regions were defined. This mathematical model is verified through the
experimental identification, the general kinematic pair is carried out using a testing
device. The aim of the tests was to determine the mutual approach of distant points
in the two three-dimensional solids in contact.
1 Introduction
J. Ondrášek (&)
VÚTS, a.s., Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
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58 J. Ondrášek
Three ways exist for the creation of mathematical models: theoretical, experi-
mental and combination of both. A theoretical mathematical model of the general
kinematic pair requires knowledge of some parameters, i.e. a normal displacement
and a normal stiffness in a contact region. These parameters may be determined on
the basis of a Hertzian contact theory or FEM. In this case, FEM is ineffective.
This section gives only basic information on how to determine the compression of
two solids in contact. The Hertzian contact stress theory deals with this issue and
this theory is described in detail in [1].
When two three-dimensional body are brought into contact they touch initially at
a single point or along a line. Under the action of a slightest load, they will deform
and contact is made over a finite area which is small compared with the dimensions
of both bodies. On the basis of a theory of contact, the shape of the contact area is
predicted and the components of deformation and stress in both bodies are calcu-
lated in the vicinity of the contact region. For the Hertzian contact stress theory, the
fundamental assumptions are, see [1]:
– The shape of each surface in the contact region can be described by a homo-
geneous quadratic polynomial in two variables:
1 1 2 1 2
zi ¼ x þ y ; i ¼ 1; 2; ð1Þ
2 qxi qyi
where ρxi and ρyi are the principal radii of curvature of the surface at the
rectangular coordinate system origin, see Fig. 1.
– Contact stresses and deformations satisfy the differential equations for stress and
strain of homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic bodies in equilibrium. The pressure
distribution on the contact area is given by equation:
Fig. 1 Contact of two non-conforming bodies and contact of two cylindrical bodies
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The Elastic Compression in the Contact Region … 59
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pðx; yÞ ¼ pH 1 ðx=aÞ2 ðy=bÞ2 ; ð2Þ
where a and b are respective major and minor semi-axes of the elliptical contact
area and a maximum value pH is called Hertzian pressure. In the case of the
contact of two cylindrical bodies, the variable y is constant and Eqs. (1) and (2)
are the functions just of the variable x.
– Both contacting surfaces are smooth and frictionless.
– The size of the contact area is small compared with the size of both bodies.
The compressive contact of two bodies is caused by application of a normal load
F and a contact area is formed. Remote parts T1 and T2 of the bodies are approached
each other by a distance δ. Points S1 and S2 on the approaching contact surfaces are
elastically displaced by amount uz1 and uz2, as shown in Fig. 2.
On the basis of the Hertzian contact stress theory, the equation of the normal
displacement of two non-conforming bodies is derived in the following form:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3F
d ¼ d1 þ d 2 ¼ KðeÞ; e¼ 1 ðb=aÞ2 ; a [ b; ð3Þ
2paE
where K(e) is complete elliptic integral of the argument e [2], which expresses the
eccentricity of the contact ellipse and E* is the effective modulus of elasticity. The
normal stiffness of the contact region is obtained by differentiating the deflection
with respect to load F to get compliance, then inverting:
1
@d K ð eÞ 1 l21 1 l22
k¼ ¼ ; E ¼ þ ; ð4Þ
@F paE E1 E2
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60 J. Ondrášek
where Ei and μi are the respective Young’s modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio
of the individual solids. In the case of the two cylindrical bodies contact, the normal
displacement δ and the normal stiffness k are expressed as:
N 1 l2i 4Li
d ¼ d1 þ d 2 ; di ¼ 2 ln 1 ; i ¼ 1; 2; ð5Þ
2b pEi a
1
@d 2bp
k¼ ¼ n1l2 4L
4L
o; ð6Þ
@F 1
2 ln 1
1 þ
1l22
2 ln a 2 1 E1
pE 1 a pE 2
where variable a denotes the half width of the contact area and the constant Li is the
width of the individual bodies, which may be not equal to the length of the contact
area 2b.
3 Testing jig
To the verification of the validity of the Eqs. (3) and (5) and thus the verification of
a general kinematic pair mathematical model, a testing jig has been designed and
implemented, see Fig. 3. The aim of the experiments was the determination of the
vertical distance change of two fitting pins, which are approached under the action
of a normal load F. The lower pin is assigned to the stationary cylindrical body
which represents a cam with the radii of curvature ρx2 = 50 mm and the width
L2 = 25 mm and the upper pin to the body which represents a cylindrical or
crowned cam rollers with the set of diameters d = {30, 35, 47, 62, 80, 90}.
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The Elastic Compression in the Contact Region … 61
The vertical displacement of the upper pin was determined by using the Instron
3369 universal testing machine. The testing jig with the appropriate cam roller and
with the connected uniaxial extensometer Instron 2620-601 to pins was placed
between its compressive jaws. Load cycles carried out between compressive forces
F1 and F2, then strain values were recorded in the interval ee 2 hee1 ; ee2 i [–]. The
measured deformation of the contact region of the cam and the roller is defined by
the equation: δe = l0εe, where l0 = 12.5 mm denotes the distance of extensometer
contact tips. The percentage deviation between measured δe and theoretical δ values
of the deformation is defined by the equation:
Dde de2 de1
p¼ 1 100 % ¼ 1 100 %
Dd d2 d1
de ðF2 Þ de ðF1 Þ
¼ 1 100 %: ð8Þ
dðF2 Þ dðF1 Þ
The typical load cycles are shown in Figs. 4 and 5 where arrows show the
process of the loading. From these two examples, the hysteretic characteristic of the
load cycle is evident. This is due to the fact that the contacting surfaces are not
smooth and frictionless. In the case of the cylindrical cam rollers, the shape of the
load cycle lower section is caused by the sum of a manufacturing inaccuracy of
individual parts, see Fig. 4. Examples of calculated and measured data are pre-
sented in Table 1.
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62 J. Ondrášek
4 Conclusions
The Hertzian contact theory is an important tool for analysis in cam mechanism
design. It allows for the prediction of compression and stiffness of a contact region
in a general kinematic pair under a load. Then they are used in the definition of a
model of the real general kinematic pair of the cam mechanism using the software
MSC.ADAMS.
To the verification of the general kinematic pair mathematical model, a testing
jig has been designed and implemented. On the basis of measurements, it is evident
that the measured data are characterized by a greater value than the calculated data
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The Elastic Compression in the Contact Region … 63
because the real contact area is formed smaller than the theoretical contact area
under the action of a normal load. This is due to the fact, that the contacting
surfaces are not smooth and frictionless and the real parts of the testing jig are
characterized by a certain degree of manufacturing inaccuracies.
Acknowledgments This paper was created within the work on the project FR-TI4/801—Project
supported by the Ministry of Industry and Trade.
References
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Design of a Legged Walking Robot
with Adjustable Parameters
Abstract In the past decades, an extensive research has been focused on legged
walking robots. One of the most attractive trends in the design of walking robots is
the development of biped robots with reduced number of degrees of freedom. This
paper deals with a new solution of a legged walking mechanism with reduced
number of degrees of freedom. It consists of a driven cam system mounted on the
body frame and connected with feet via pantograph mechanisms. The introduced
adjustable parameters allow one to generate two different steps with variable
heights as well as allow the robot to climb stairs. The efficiency of the suggested
design principle of the legged walking robot is illustrated by numerical simulations
carried out via ADAMS software.
1 Introduction
It is well known that legged locomotion is more efficient, speedy, and versatile than
the one by track and wheeled vehicles when it operates on a rough terrain, steeps,
stairs or avoid obstacles. This research field has attracted great interest of
many research groups and companies in the past few decades.
The pioneering works in the field of legged robots were achieved around 1970
by two famous researchers, Kato [1–3] and Vukobratovic [4, 5]. Both works were
characterized by the design of relevant experimental systems. In Japan, the first
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66 Y. Zhang et al.
2 Mechanism Design
The typical walk consists of a repeated gait cycle. The cycle itself contains two
phases: a propelling phase and non-propelling phase [18]. In Fig. 1, the thicker line
represents the supporting leg (right leg) in propelling phase and the thin line rep-
resents the swing leg (left leg) in non-propelling phase. It is known that for design a
one-DOF leg mechanism with back-forth and up-down motion capability, the foot
point should generate an ovoid curve, which is composed of a straight-line segment
and a curved segment (see Fig. 1). The straight-line segment is related to the pro-
pelling phase when the corresponding leg touches the ground and could guarantee
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Design of a Legged Walking Robot … 67
stable propelling of the body. The curved segment is related to the non-propelling
phase, which is produced by leg when it swings from back to forth [18].
Such a trajectory can be produced by various linkages (Watt, Evans, Chebichev,
etc.).
However, these linkages produce only one type of steps with a constant length
and height. In addition, in many cases, they provide walking motion only on a
horizontal surface.
Therefore, in this paper the proposed one-DOF leg mechanism consists of a cam
mechanism with variable angle of inclination connected with a pantograph mech-
anism permitting to amplify the input motion.
Two adjustable parameters are included in the proposed walking robot: an angle
of inclination of the cam mechanism permitting the robot to climb stairs and a
pantograph mechanism having the possible to be fixed in two different axes.
Figure 2 shows motions of the proposed leg mechanism with two different
points of fixation. As seen from Fig. 2a, b, for the same input trajectories of the
point C of the cam mechanism two output trajectories are produced.
The pantograph mechanism is used to amplify the input trajectory of the point C
into output trajectory with the same shape of point A. In the suggested design
concept, the fixed point can be either B1 or B2 . Changing the position of the fixed
point Bi ði ¼ 1 or 2Þ on the body frame allows one to obtain two output trajectories
with different magnitudes. The amplified ratio of the pantograph mechanism
depends on the length of links.
For the first case shown in Fig. 2a, the amplify ratio is k1 ¼ B1 A=B1 C and for
the second case shown in Fig. 2b, the amplify ratio is k2 ¼ B2 A=B2 C. Thus, given
the need of walking, two different possible steps can be produced with small or
large stride length. The choice of adjustable parameters Bi ði ¼ 1 or 2Þ can be
carried out taking into account the size of the obstacles and the imposed speed of
walking.
The second adjustable parameter is the angle of inclination of the cam mecha-
nism. The rotation of the axis a-a of the cam mechanism at an angle of α (Fig. 3)
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68 Y. Zhang et al.
allows one to change the orientation of the input trajectory. Such an adjustment
allows the walking robot to climb stairs.
The value of the angle α depends on the stair’s parameters (height and width).
Based on the stair’s parameters, the walking robot can be adjusted with inclination
angle α as well as with small or large stride length.
To illustrate the efficiency of the suggested walking robot let us consider CAD
simulations carried out via ADAMSA software.
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Design of a Legged Walking Robot … 69
3 Numerical Simulations
The CAD model of the legged walking robot was created by CATIA and it was then
imported to ADAMS. For the pantograph mechanism, when B1 is the fixed point, the
amplify ratio was 4, and when B2 is the fixed point, the amplify ratio was 1.
The first two simulations were performed when the robot was walking on the
plain road and the fixed point of pantograph mechanism was on B1 or B2 respec-
tively. The two motions were inputted on each side of the rolling bars with a speed
of 36°/s. The power consumption of input motion during leg’s stand phase and
swing phase are shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
The second two simulations were performed when the robot was climbing stairs.
The two motions were executed on each side of the rolling bars with a speed of
36°/s, the angle between two cams and main body of the robot was adjusted to 20°.
Figures 6 and 7 show the power consumption of input motion during leg’s stand
phase and swing phase.
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70 Y. Zhang et al.
4 Conclusions
In this paper, a one-DOF legged walking robot based on pantograph mechanisms with
adjustable parameter is proposed. The introduced adjustable parameters allow one to
generate two different steps with variable heights as well as allow the robot to climb
stairs. Simulation results showed that the change of fixed point position of pantograph
mechanism can significantly change the speeds of walking and climbing stairs, and it
also can change the power consumption as well. It means the proposed robot can change
its speed and switch to “save energy mode” in some circumstances. On the other hand,
the variation of the angle between cams and main body can let the robot be able to climb
stairs, and the angle can be adjusted to adapt the slope of stairs. Finally, it is important to
note that in the proposed design concept a special attention should be given to the
determination of the pressure angle in cam mechanisms to ensure smooth motion.
References
1. Kato, I., Tsuiki, H.: The hydraulically powered biped walking machine with a high carrying
capacity. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Extremal Control of
Human Extremities, Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, pp. 410–421, Sept 1972
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Design of a Legged Walking Robot … 71
2. Takanishi, A., Ishida, M., Yamazaki, Y., Kato, I.: Realization of dynamic walking by the
biped walking robot WL-10RD. In: Japan Industrial Robot Association, N°8, pp. 459–466
(1985)
3. Takanishi, A., Egusa, Y., Tochizawa, M., Takeya, T., Kato, I.: Realization of dynamic biped
walking stabilized with trunk motion. ROMANSY 7, 68–79 (1988)
4. Vukobratovic, M., Juricic, D.: Contribution to the synthesis of biped gait. IEEE Trans.
Biomed. Eng. 16(1), 1–6 (1969)
5. Vukobratovic, M.: Legged locomotion robots and anthropomorphic mechanisms (in English),
Mihailo Pupin Institute, Belgrade (1975) (also published in Japanese, Nikkan Shimbun Ltd.
Tokyo, 1975; in Russian, “MIR”, Moscow, 1976 in Chinese, Beijing, 1983)
6. Raibert, M.H.: Legged robots that balance. MIT Press, Cambridge (1986)
7. Gubina, F., Hemami, H., McGhee, R.B.: On the dynamic stability of biped locomotion. IEEE
Trans. Biomed. Eng. BME 21(2), 102–108 (1974)
8. McGhee, R.B.: Vehicular legged locomotion. In: Saridis, G.N. (ed.) Advances in Automation
and Robotics, pp. 259–284. JAI Press, New York (1985)
9. Waldron, K.A.: Force and motion management in legged locomotion. IEEE J. Robot. Autom.
2(4), 214–230 (1986)
10. Waldron, K.J., McGhee, R.B.: The adaptive suspension vehicle. IEEE Contr. Syst. Mag. 6, 7–
12 (1986)
11. Song, S.M., Waldron, K.J.: Machines that walk: the adaptive suspension vehicle. The MIT
Press, Cambridge (1989)
12. McGeer, T.: Passive dynamic walking. Int. J. Robot. Res. 9(2), 62–82 (1990)
13. Carbone, G., Ceccarelli, M.: Legged Robotic Systems, pp. 553–576. Cutting Edge
Robotics ARS Scientific Book, Wien (2005)
14. Funabashi, H., Horie, M., Tachiya, H., Tanio, S.: A synthesis of robotic pantograph
mechanisms based on working spaces and static characteristics charts. JSME Int. J. Ser. III, 34
(2) 239–244 (1991)
15. Shieh, W.B., Tsai, L.W., Azarm, S.: Design and optimization of a one-degree-of-freedom
six-bar leg mechanism for a walking machine. J. Robot. Syst. 14(12), 871–880 (1997)
16. Ottaviano, E., Lanni, C., Ceccarelli, M.: Numerical and experimental analysis of a
pantograph-leg with a fully-rotative actuating mechanism. In: Proceeding of the 11th World
Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Tianjin, China, 18–21 Aug 2004
17. Ottaviano, E., Ceccarelli, M., Tavolieri, C.: Kinematic and dynamic analyses of a
pantograph-leg for a biped walking machine. In: 7th International Conference on Climbing
and Walking Robots CLAWAR, Madrid, Paper A019 (2004)
18. Ling, C., Ceccarelli, M., Takeda, Y.: Operation analysis of a one-DOF pantograph leg
mechanism. In: Proceedings of the RAAD 2008, Ancona, Italy, 15–17 Sept 2008
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Positioning Control of a Micro
Manipulation Robot Based
on Voice Command Recognition
for the Microscopic Cell Operation
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74 H. Terada et al.
1 Introduction
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Positioning Control of a Micro Manipulation Robot … 75
Fig. 1 Microscopic cell operation system with a micro manipulation robot based on voice
command recognition
Voice recognition
PC Contact head
Position command Linear motion
voltage
Feed-back signal
of linear motion
Fig. 3. The resolution of an input signal is the 0.7 μm, and the required resolution
of an operation is 2.0 μm. In case of a ramp function, the pipette on the X-axis can
move very smoothly at 13.0 μm/s, and in case of a step function, the pipette on the
X-axis can move very smoothly, too. Then, both time constants are less than 0.5 s;
these performances are enough to the human response speed. Furthermore, in cases
of the Y-axis and the Z-axis, these response characteristics are the same. However,
this motion speed is not enough for the expert operator, so the voice command
recognition has to be simplified or to be predicted a command.
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76 H. Terada et al.
50 50
Command displacement Command displacement
of a piezo actuator of a piezo actuator
40 40
Time constant:
Displiacement [µm]
Displacement [µ m]
30 30 0.46sec.
20 20
Time constant:
0.44sec. 10
10 63.2%
Pipette motion Pipette motion
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-10 -10
Time [sec.] Time [sec.]
Fig. 3 Response characteristics of an oil hydraulic actuator. a Input motion of a step function.
b Input motion of a ramp function
Japanese language is a phonogram, and it can be divided to the single set of speech
sounds or the small syllable, and this language has a unique grammar. Therefore,
other language recognition method which is different from the English recognition
has to be investigated. To solve this problem, it is popular that the open-source
software of Japanese large vocabulary continuous speech recognition is used for the
academic research. This open-source is called as “Julius” [6, 7]. It incorporates
major speech recognition techniques, and it can perform a large vocabulary con-
tinuous speech recognition task in real-time. The command voice is converted to
the feature vectors sequence which is shown Mel-Frequency Cepstrum Coefficient
[8]. Then, these vectors are matched with the statistic acoustic models. When the
vector is matched with that pattern, the motion signal voltage of the commanded
axis direction is output.
A flowchart of the voice command recognition is shown in Fig. 4. Especially,
under the microscope, the fundamental motion of a pipette is a rectangular coor-
dinate motion, and the arbitrary direction motion on the horizontal plane to adjust
the holding position of the cell is sometimes used. In addition, there is some
hysteresis loss of each axis motion, and the motion length needs to be compensated.
Therefore, in a magnification adjustment, compared with the direction of previous
operation and the next operation, the compensation length and direction are
determined. Considering this point, the voice command of a robot arm motion is
defined as Table 1. In this case, the arbitrary direction on the horizontal plane is
commanded using the clock direction. Especially, considering the resolution of
D/A, the motion of diagonal direction is approximated by the pulse ratio of the
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Positioning Control of a Micro Manipulation Robot … 77
START
END
horizontal pulse to the vertical pulse. Furthermore, the correct motion rate of each
motion is shown, too. Almost direction commands do not have recognition errors.
However, the commands of the speed and the motion range are affected by the word
order, and the error rate of voice recognition sometimes increases. It is similar to the
individual differences in pronunciation, too. Therefore, another word order has to be
investigated.
Table 1 Main command of a robot arm motion and the correct motion rate
Class Command Command Correct Class Command Command Correct
in motion in motion
Japanese rate (%) Japanese rate (%)
Speed Quickly ha-ya-ku 90.0 Arbitrary One hi-to-ji 100.0
Slowly yu-q-ku-ri 73.3 horizontal Two fu-ta-ji 100.0
direction
Three Sa-N-ji 100.0
Motion Larger mo-q-to 60.0 Four yo-ji 100.0
range Smaller su-ko-shi 83.3 Five go-ji 100.0
Six ro-ku-ji 93.3
Direction Right mi-gi 86.7 Seven na-na-ji 100.0
Left hi-da-ri 100.0 Eight ha-chi-ji 100.0
Up u-e 100.0 Nine ku-ji 100.0
Down shi-ta 100.0 Ten ju-ji 100.0
High ta-ka-ku 100.0 Eleven ju-i-chi-ji 100.0
Low hi-ku-ku 76.7 Twelve ju-ni-ji 100.0
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78 H. Terada et al.
Lighting lens
End point
Objective lens
b) Measurement of a pipette motion on the horizon-
a) Rectangular coordinate type robot arm tal plane using the microscopic image processing
Fig. 5 Prototype system. a Rectangular coordinate type robot arm. b Measurement of a pipette
motion on the horizontal plane using the microscopic image processing
4 Conclusions
To realize the multi micro manipulation pipettes operation, the micro manipulation
robot based on voice command recognition has been developed. It is con-firmed
that the operator can control third pipette by voice command smoothly. In future
work, to improve the voice recognition rate and to consider the individual differ-
ences in pronunciation, we have to optimize the word order. Then, to realize higher
response speed, the voice command recognition has to be simplified.
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Prof. T. Wakayama, Mr. Y. Kitai and Mr.
K. Nakagawa for cooperating to make a control algorithm.
References
1. Wakayama, T.: The technique of “Takumi” to make a clone. Riken-NEWS 303, 5–7 (2006)
2. NarishigeScientificInstrumentLab.:Three-axisHangingJoystickOilHydraulicMicroma-nipulator.
http://products.narishige-group.com/group1/MMO-202ND/injection/english.html
3. Kudoh, K., Gotoh, T., Sato, K., Yamagata, Y., Furutani, K., Higuchi, T.: Development of piezo
micromanipulator for cell micromanipulation. J. Mamm. Ova Res. 7(1), 7–12 (1990)
4. Miura, M., Kashiwagi, K., Niwa, T.: On the automatic micro manipulator system MMS-10.
Shimadzu Rev. 44(1), 51–58 (1987)
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Positioning Control of a Micro Manipulation Robot … 79
5. Kojima, N.: Development of micromanipulator for cell operation. Memoirs Inst. Sci. Technol.
Meiji Univ. 31(5), 67–76 (1992)
6. Kawahara, T., et. al.: http://julius.sourceforge.jp
7. Kawahara, T., et al.: Free software toolkit for Japanese large vocabulary continuous speech
recognition. Proc. Int. Conf. Spoken Lang. Process. 4, 476–479 (2000)
8. Sahidullah, Md, Saha, G.: Design, analysis and experimental evaluation of block based
transformation in MFCC computation for speaker recognition. Speech Commun. 54(4),
543–565 (2012)
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Spherical Ultrasonic Motor for Space
Abstract In resent years, space satellites have been widely used in the world. They
cause the space debris, which has become a problem because they may collide each
other in space. In our study, we have developed a Spherical UltraSonic Motor
(SUSM) with 3 DOF in space use to drive the satellite thruster and resolve the space
debris problem. When the satellites enter the atmosphere at the end of the life,
SUSM controls thrusters for the right direction in falling down to the earth to burn
in the air. We have made experiments to evaluate torque, durability and lifetime. It
shows that the torque and lifetime meets target value. But durability does not meet
the target lifetime. To resolve it, we have applied a new stator lining materials and
shifted frequency with 0.4 kHz from resonant frequency. Finally we have
succeeded in durability-required specifications.
1 Introduction
Recently many countries launched a lot of space satellites. So, space debris has
become a problem in the world. It is because the space debris causes collision of
satellites. In our research, we apply our 3DOF Spherical UltraSonic Motor (3DOF
SUSM) to resolve this problem. For the use of our motor in outer space, it is
necessary to meet space use specifications such as required output torque and
durability in the high vacuum. Especially heat is serious problem. By reducing
generated heat of the motor by lining material and resonance frequency shift, we are
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82 U. Nishizawa et al.
able to rotate the motor under high vacuum environment more than 120 min. The
specifications of the motor in this research (high vacuum 10−3 Pa, room tempera-
ture) is as follows; maximum output torque 25 mN m, continuous working time
120 min, cycles of working more than 300 times.
The temperature changes from −120 to 200 °C in space. It is very important
specification for the motor. However, it requires not only improvement of materials
but also control method and heat design of it. So, the movement in high or low
temperature is the discussion on next stage. In this research, the authors focus on
durability of vacuum use in only room temperature. It is also important for special
use in space, for example, in the temperature controlled satellite.
The 3DOF SUSM used in this study consists of one spherical rotor and three
ring-shaped stators. Figures 1 and 2 show an overview of the 3DOF SUSM and the
characteristics. The stator consists of a metallic elastic body and piezoelectric
elements. When an AC voltage is applied to the piezoelectric vibrator, a standing
wave is generated on the elastic body. By applying two AC voltages with some
phase difference to the positive and negative sections of the piezoelectric elements,
a traveling wave is generated due to combination of the two standing waves. The
amplitude of the traveling wave is controlled by the phase difference of these two
standing wave; phase difference 0 is standing wave and phase difference 90° is
traveling wave with maximum velocity. The velocity of the traveling wave can be
controlled by phase difference precisely with every 1°.
The stators and the rotor are in pressure contact with each other. Three stators are
aligned with 120° each other, but with 7° under horizontal plane. It is because that
the sum of velocity vectors generated by each stator can make arbitrary vector, that
is, the motor can rotate about specified vector in three dimensional space with
specified speed [1–5]. It has three degree of freedom of rotation. However, exactly
speaking, the rotational velocity of the rotor is less than the vector sum due to
friction loss.
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Spherical Ultrasonic Motor for Space 83
106 degree
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84 U. Nishizawa et al.
120
100
60
40 Atomosphere Vacuum
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [min]
It shows that lifetime is only 4 min in the vacuum environment and maximum
speed is degenerated 17 % comparing to the case in air. But the output torque
increased 20 %. It is because that some materials on the surface of the rotor and
stator are vapored out and the frictional force increased.
We have improved the motor materials for use of space. Firstly, we have applied the
new lining material on the surface of rotor as follows; Original (Normal), #1A
(Molybdenum disulfide, Type A), FS-1140 (Fluorine resin, Type B), #815-4
(Fluorine resin, Type C), S-6100 (Fluoridation graphite, Type D). These materials
have good characteristics suited for space use such as low wear, high frictional
force and high durability under high temperature. The experimental results are
shown in Fig. 5. The lifetime is extended. But it is much less than required spec-
ifications (120 min). It is because that generated heat changes the resonant fre-
quency and stator cannot vibrate nor drive the rotor. All motors generated higher
output torque than required specifications.
In order to make lifetime longer, we have applied near resonant frequency
(0.4 kHz higher shift) to the stators so that it may make the vibration amplitude
smaller to resolve frictional heat. The results are shown in Fig. 6. We have found
that it meets the specifications of lifetime.
Generally speaking, the heat source of this motor is contact surface and inside of
piezoelectric ceramics. The contact surface of stator and rotor with high pressure
produces heat by friction. The improved lining materials reduce the frictional heat.
On the other hand, heat generated in the ceramics by inner friction loss with small
grains is reduced by the shift of the resonant frequency to suppress the amplitude of
the vibration.
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Spherical Ultrasonic Motor for Space 85
160
Vacuum(without lining material)
140 Vacuum(FS-1140)
Vacuum(#1A)
120
Vacuum(S-6100)
Vacuum(#815-4)
100
Rotation speed [rpm]
Atmosphere
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [min]
Fig. 6 Durability experiment. Type C (S-6100), Type D (Fs-1140), Normal (no lining material)
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86 U. Nishizawa et al.
4 Conclusions
We have developed a new spherical ultrasonic motor for space use. Applying new
lining materials and resonant frequency shift to the stators, it meets the space
specifications, that is, maximum output torque 25 mN m, continuous working time
120 min, cycles of working more than 300 times. We have succeeded in showing its
potentials for space use.
References
1. Takesue, N., et al.: Position control methods of spherical ultrasonic motor. In: Proceedings of
IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, p. 3061 (2010)
2. Sashida, T., Kenjo, T.: An Introduction to Ultrasonic Motors. Oxford Press, Oxford (1993)
3. Purwanto, E., Toyama, S.: Control method of a spherical ultrasonic motor. In: IEEE/ASME
International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM 2003), pp. 1321–1326
(2003)
4. Mashimo, T., Awaga, K., Toyama, S.: Development of a spherical ultrasonic motor with an
attitude sensing system using optical fibers. In: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and
Automation (ICRA2007), p. 4466 (2007)
5. Mashimo, T., Toyama, S., Ishida, H.: Development of an MRI compatible surgical assist
manipulator using spherical ultrasonic motor (1st report)-prototype of the spherical ultrasonic
motor. J. Japan Soc. Precis. Eng. 73(2), 275 2007 (in Japanese)
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Part II
Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms,
Rotor Dynamics
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Multi-physical Analysis of the Forces
in the Flexible Rotor Supported
by the Magnetorheological Squeeze
Film Dampers
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90 P. Ferfecki et al.
1 Introduction
The main parts of MR squeeze film dampers (Fig. 1a) for rotordynamic applications
are two concentric rings between which there is a layer of MR oil. The outer ring is
mounted with the stationary part directly, and the inner one is connected with the
squirrel spring carrying the ball bearing. The spring enables the oscillation of the
inner damper ring in the radial direction and prevents its rotation together with the
shaft. In the damper body the electric coil generating magnetic flux passing through
the lubricating oil is imbedded. As its resistance against the flow depends on
magnetic induction, the change of the electric current makes it possible to control
the hydraulic damping force.
Fig. 1 The scheme of a MR squeeze film damper (a) and the damper (xyz) and the fluid film
(XYZ) coordinate systems (b)
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Multi-physical Analysis of the Forces in the Flexible Rotor … 91
_
h3 p03 3ðh2 sy 4ghZÞp 02
4s3y ¼ 0 for Z [ 0: ð1Þ
The upper and lower signs in (1) hold for the pressure gradients p′ < 0, p′ > 0,
respectively. Z is the axial coordinate (Fig. 1b), h is the oil film thickness [4], τy, η
are the yield shear stress and viscosity of the Bingham liquid, and () denotes the
first derivative with respect to time. The details on derivation and solution of the
modified Reynolds equation (1) can be found in [1].
The stationary value of the yielding shear stress of the MR fluid needed for
solving the modified Reynolds equation (1) can be approximated with sufficient
accuracy by a power function
sy ¼ ky Bny : ð2Þ
B is the magnetic induction in the damper gap, and ky, ny are the material constants
of the MR oil.
The mutual interaction between the damper rings is accomplished by the
hydraulic and magnetic forces. The hydraulic force is produced due to squeezing
the MR oil film and pushes the rings one from another. Its components are obtained
by integration of the hydraulic pressure distribution around the circumference and
along the length L of the damper
Z 2 Z2p Z 2 Z2p
L L
FMRy, FMRz are the y and z components of the hydraulic force, RI is the inner ring
radius, pd is the pressure distribution in the MR oil film, and φ denotes the cir-
cumferential coordinate (Fig. 1b). In cavitated areas, the pressure of the medium is
assumed to be constant and equal to the pressure in the ambient space.
Contrary to the hydraulic damping force, the magnetic force is attracting and is
induced by the magnetic flux generated in the electric coils.
The 3D approach uses a spatial distribution of the magnetic flux to determine
magnetic induction in the damper gap and the force acting between the rings. As the
damper permanent magnetization is avoided, the saturation of the magnetic flux and
hysteresis are not taken into account. The magnetostatic problem is assumed to be
linear and the finite element method was applied for its solving. The discretization
of the damper body and the surrounding air environment is evident from Fig. 2a.
The total magnitude of the magnetic force acting between the rings in the direction
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92 P. Ferfecki et al.
5
1D
3D, approximated
4 3D
Magnetic force [ N ]
3
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
a b Relative eccentricity [ - ]
Fig. 2 Discretization of the damper model (a) and the magnetic force in dependence on the
relative eccentricity (b)
of the line of the center was calculated by means of the Maxwell stress tensor and is
drawn in Fig. 2b.
At the lowest distinguishing level (1D approach), the inner and outer damper
rings can be considered as a divided core of an electromagnet. The semi-analytical
relations for the magnetic induction and the magnetic force are based on magnetic
reluctance [5] of the MR fluid film of a sufficiently small angular segment between
two coaxial cylinders
I B2i aLðRI þ RO Þ 2p
Bi ¼ kB l0 lr ; FMA;i ¼ ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; ð4Þ
hi 4l0 lr a
Bi is the magnetic induction in the center of the damper gap and in the center of the
angular segment, FMA,i is the magnetic force between the angular segment of the
inner and the outer damper rings, I is the electric current, RO is the outer damper
ring radius, hi is the oil film thickness in the center of the angular segment of the
damper gap, kB is the design parameter, α is the angular segment of the damper gap
(Fig. 2b), μ0 is the vacuum permeability (4π × 10−7 H m−1), and µr is the magnetic
permeability of the MR fluid.
The design parameter was determined from the value of magnetic induction in
the middle of the oil film obtained by application of the 3D approach to solve the
magnetic problem for the case when the damper rings take a concentric position.
The dependence of the total magnetic force acting between the centers of the
inner and outer damper ring computed by application of the 1D approach on the
relative eccentricity is drawn in Fig. 2b. It is evident that the difference between the
values (Fig. 2b) provided by the 3D and 1D approaches is less than 15 % in the
relative eccentricity range 0.0–0.2 in which the MR damper operates.
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Multi-physical Analysis of the Forces in the Flexible Rotor … 93
The investigated rotor system (Fig. 3) consists of a flexible shaft (SH) and two discs
(D1, D2). The rotor is mounted on a rigid frame (FP), and the squeeze film MR
dampers (MR1, MR2) are inserted into its supports.
The task was to investigate the influence of the magnetic attractive and carrying
hydraulic damping forces on the vibration amplitude of the rotor.
The rotor turns at constant angular speed, is loaded by its weight, and excited by
imbalance of the discs. The mass, diameter, and axial moments of inertia of the
discs are considered. The squirrel springs of both dampers are prestressed to be
eliminated their deflection caused by the rotor weight.
In the computational model the shaft is considered as flexible and is represented
by a beam-like body discretized into finite elements. The discs are assumed to be
absolutely rigid and the MR dampers are represented by springs and nonlinear force
couplings.
Lateral vibration of the investigated rotor system is described by the equation of
motion that takes the form
€ þ ðB þ gV KSH þ x GÞ q_ þ ðK þ x KC Þ q ¼ f A þ f PS þ f MR þ f MA :
Mq ð5Þ
The frequency responses depicted in Fig. 4a is referred to the center of D1 disc. The
responses were determined for the cases when no oil was supplied to the dampers
(no damping), and when the MR oil was solidified (over damped).
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94 P. Ferfecki et al.
2 250
overdamped 1D-with magnetic force
Vibration amplitude - y [ mm ]
Vibration amplitude - y [ µ m ]
no damping 3D-with magnetic force
200 3D-without magnetic force
1.5
150
1
100
0.5
50
0 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 0 1 2 3 4
Speed of rotation [ rad/s ] Current [ A ]
a b
Fig. 4 The frequency responses (a) and the vibration amplitude (b) in the horizontal direction
5 Conclusions
It was shown that the magnetic attractive force in the MR damper is much smaller
than the hydraulic damping one. The main contribution of this article is the
development of a more accurate mathematical model of a short MR squeeze film
damper and the procedures for determining the magnetic force based on solving a
spatial magnetostatic problem utilizing the finite element method and on application
of a semi-analytical relation.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports
from the National Programme of Sustainability (NPU II) project “IT4Innovations excellence in
science—LQ1602”, and by the Czech Science Foundation 15-06621S.
References
1. Zapoměl, J., Ferfecki, P., Forte, P.: A computational investigation of the transient response of
an unbalanced rigid rotor flexibly supported and damped by short magnetorheological squeeze
film dampers. Smart Mater. Struct. 21, 105011 (2012)
2. Zapoměl, J., Ferfecki, P.: A 2D mathematical model of a short magnetorheological squeeze film
damper based on representing the lubricating oil by bilinear theoretical material. In: Proceedings
of the 14th IFToMM World Congress, Taipei, Taiwan (2015)
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Multi-physical Analysis of the Forces in the Flexible Rotor … 95
3. Wang, G.-J., Feng, N., Meng, G., Hahn, E.-J.: Dynamic performance and control of squeeze
mode MR fluid damper-rotor system. Smart Mater. Struct. 14, 529–539 (2005)
4. Krämer, E.: Dynamics of Rotors and Foundations, Springer, Berlin (1993)
5. Knoepfel, H.E.: MAGNETIC FIELDS A Comprehensive Theoretical Treatise for Practical Use.
Wiley, New York (2000)
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Experimental Evaluation of a Rotor Model
Based Foundation Identification
Procedure
1 Introduction
Correct modelling of a RBFS is an invaluable asset for the balancing and efficient
running of turbomachinery. A major problem is to properly identify the foundation
of existing installations [1]. The approach investigated here requires an accurate
rotor model and uses motion measurements at select points on the foundation to
identify the modal parameters of an equivalent foundation. Such an approach is
M. Yu
Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
N. Feng
Shandong University, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
E. Hahn (&)
The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
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98 M. Yu et al.
2 Notation
e
F Harmomic excitation force amplitude vector
I Identity matrix
m Modal mass matrix (diagonal); mk = modal mass of the kth mode
e
X Displacement amplitude vector
U Foundation modal matrix; Uk ¼ kth column of U
k Eigenvalue matrix (diagonal); kk ¼ kth eigenvalue = x2k
X Excitation frequency
x Natural frequency matrix (diagonal); xk ¼ kth natural frequency
n Damping ratio matrix (diagonal); nk ¼ kth element of n
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Experimental Evaluation of a Rotor Model … 99
4 Experimental Procedure
Full details of the rig are given in Ref. [5] so only a brief summary is given here.
The rig in Fig. 1 consists of a three disc rotor driven via a flexible coupling by a
variable speed AC motor. The motor end of the rotor is supported by ball bearings;
the other end by a plain journal bearing. Both bearings are mounted in aluminium
pedestals which are bolted to an aluminium block which in turn is flexibly con-
nected via steel bars to a heavy steel table. Steel weights bolted to the aluminium
block allowed for some tuning of foundation natural frequencies. Motion mea-
surements used appropriately positioned displacement transducers and accelerom-
eters. Figure 2 shows the accelerometer locations and measurement directions.
Displacement transducers were mounted at the bearings and facing a notch at the
rotor end. Rotor speed, journal bearing oil temperatures and orbit size were mon-
itored. Signals were processed using in house data processing software.
The natural frequencies of the foundation were determined by hammer tests. Six
natural frequencies were found in the frequency range from 0 to 512 Hz with
resolution of 0.125 Hz as shown in Table 1. None of the accelerometers was able to
find all six. There was no longitudinal vibration frequency below 512 Hz. These
natural frequencies formed the yardstick frequencies of the yet to be identified
Fig. 2 Accelerometer
locations and directions [5]
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100 M. Yu et al.
foundation. Also, a finite element model (FEM) of the foundation was used to
estimate the first six undamped natural frequencies and corresponding mode shapes
of the foundation. Table 1 compares the hammer test and FEM natural frequencies.
As expected, agreement is only approximate owing to the limited number of ele-
ments which could be accommodated in the FEM; but the results are close enough
to provide a qualitative yardstick for the mode shapes. These mode shapes clearly
showed that the aluminium block exhibited minimal rotation about the Z axis till the
fifth mode and minimal flexure till the sixth mode [5].
The proposed identification procedure presumes a sufficiently accurate dynamic
model of the rotor. A discretized rotor model which assumed zero rotor damping
was initially accepted as adequate [5] since it had previously proved satisfactory
[4]. However, in Ref. [4] all natural frequencies of the rotor were outside the
operating speed range, whereas here the first natural frequency of the simply
supported rotor (64.73 Hz) is within the operating speed range, necessitating the
inclusion of damping in the rotor model to avoid inaccurate excitation force
‘measurements’ at speeds close to this frequency. With the rotor simply supported
in its bearings, its damping ratio was estimated from hammer test signals in the
frequency domain, resulting in a value of 0.020267 for the logarithmic decrement of
internal shaft damping [6]. This value specified the damping in the updated rotor
model.
5 Input Data
Fig. 3 Magnitude of
displacement differences [5]
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Experimental Evaluation of a Rotor Model … 101
Fig. 4 Magnitude of
excitation force differences
Fig. 4 shows the magnitudes of the transmitted force differences for both the
undamped rotor model (used to obtain the preliminary results in Ref. [5]) and the
now updated rotor model. Hereafter, for the sake of brevity, displacement differ-
ences and force differences will simply be referred to as displacements and forces.
In Fig. 4 one can see the significant effect (at speeds near the rotor natural
frequency) of updating the rotor model on the transmitted forces, and hence on the
force input ‘measurements’. In Fig. 3, it can be seen the longitudinal displacement
of the foundation (curve LX) is very small. The FEM analysis indicated that the
longitudinal natural frequency was well above 512 Hz. Hence, accelerometer 1
signals could be ignored. Also, since x6 (430.75 Hz) was well above the upper
bound of the operating speed range (73 Hz), x6 could also be ignored leaving the
equivalent foundation to have at most 5 DOF. Also, there is minimal difference in
the transverse horizontal displacements at the bearing connection points (curve LZ)
and (curve RZ) so that one has, in effect, a 4 DOF foundation. As indicated in
Fig. 3, peaks in the transmitted forces still occur around the rotor natural frequency
and can be as high as 50 N. To allow for error in the calculated hysteretic damping
in the rotor, acceptable data was restricted to speeds at which the transmitted forces
were less than 10 N. Also, the selected speeds had speed spacings in excess of
2 rad/s to reduce error bias, leaving data for 42 speeds.
The identification procedure outlined in Ref. [2] was then applied to identify a 4
DOF equivalent foundation. The identified parameters and actual natural frequen-
cies are given in Table 2. Figure 5 compares the predicted unbalance responses
with the measured responses using Eq. (1). The agreement between actual and
predicted responses is quite reasonable though there are large discrepancies
between the responses around the fourth natural frequency (60–65 Hz), suggesting
incorrectly identified damping coupled with error in the identified natural fre-
quency. Even so, the agreement between the responses is far better than that
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102 M. Yu et al.
Fig. 5 Measured (EXP) and identified (ID) unbalance responses of the foundation
obtained in Ref. [5] where neither rotor damping nor foundation damping were
properly accounted for.
The results in Table 2 and Fig. 5 suggest that the identification procedure needs
further improvement and/or that there is too much error in the measurement data to
enable better identification. The identified natural frequencies should agree better
with the yardstick values since foundation damping is small. Negative damping
ratios and modal masses indicate excessive round off error, exacerbated by errors in
measurement data. To better understand these results, all modal parameters were
reidentified using a different iterative procedure. Again, some of the identified
damping ratios and modal masses were negative. The difficulty of identifying the
damping ratio is highlighted in this alternative iterative procedure, where the other
modal parameters are identified independently of the damping ratio. Its evaluation
then involves subtracting two relatively large numbers both of which required
extensive computation. Hence further work on perfecting the identification proce-
dure is needed before it can be confidently applied in practice.
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Experimental Evaluation of a Rotor Model … 103
7 Conclusions
References
1. Lees, A., Sinha, J., Friswell, M.: Model-based identification of rotating machines. Mech. Syst.
Signal Process. 23(6), 1884–1893 (2009)
2. Yu, M., Feng, N., Hahn, E.: An equation decoupling approach to identify the equivalent
foundation in rotating machinery using modal parameters. J. Sound Vib. 365, 182–198 (2016)
3. Yu, M., Feng, N., Hahn, E.: Experimental evaluation of a modal parameter based system
identification procedure. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 68–69, 302–315 (2016)
4. Feng, N., Hahn, E.: Identification of pedestal parameters in rotor-bearing-pedestal systems using
known unbalance, In: Proceedings of ASME DETC’01, 9 p (2001)
5. Yu, M., Feng, N., Hahn, E.: Experimental evaluation of a modal parameter based foundation
identification procedure. In: Proceedings of the 9th IFToMM International Conference on Rotor
Dynamics Mechanisms and Machine Science, 10 p (2014)
6. Lund, J.: Stability and damped critical speeds of a flexible rotor in fluid-film bearings. J. Eng.
Ind. 96(2), 509–517 (1974)
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Researching of the Method of Separation
of Fine-Grain Particles by Centrifugation
in a Liquid Medium
Abstract In this paper developed the analytical methods of research that used in
industrial separation method for the technical rotor installation used for treating a
suspension. In this work, the rotor is installed symmetrically to the bearings, on a
flexible shaft, and rotates with the angular velocity. The rotor is a round disk on
which the cups (tubes) with the suspension are hung symmetrically at a certain
distance from the spinning axis. Tubes are rotatable around its horizontal axis. The
rotor position is determined relative to a fixed coordinate system. The position of
the sample suspension particle is determined relative to the moving coordinate
system, coupled with a rotating cup (tube). Angular spin rate of rotor is high enough
to ignore the suspension gravitation force, which is much smaller than the cen-
trifugal force. In addition, the shape of the particle is spherical; particle mean free
path is much larger than its size; suspension turbulence is absent (laminar mode);
the interaction forces between the particles and the walls of the cup (tube) are
absent; cup (tube) is quite narrow (diameter ≪ length); after settling of on the walls
of the cup the particles stop their motion; the friction force between the cups and
their axis of rotation are ignored; the friction force between the solid particle and the
wall of the cup is also ignored. In contrast to other researcher’s papers, in which the
particles are moving only in the cup axis, this paper explores the spatial motion of a
suspension particle. Suspended containers are symmetrically arranged relative to
each other; however, the mass of suspension in them may be different. The number
of fine particles in them may not be equal, and the time of particle precipitation
differs. All of these factors are the cause of imbalance in the rotor system. For
practical use of mathematical model are offered the individual cases and their
solutions, which are often encountered in practice. For individual cases, determined
the conditions of stability of rotor system using the method of complex amplitudes.
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106 A.B. Kydyrbekuly et al.
1 Introduction
The rotor is mounted symmetrically about the supports on the flexible shaft,
rotating with the angular velocity x. The rotor is a circular disc on which at certain
distances from the axis of rotation symmetrically suspended containers with
suspension.
Containers are can rotate around its horizontal axis (Fig. 1). The angle of
_
rotation is determined by the container from a vertical angle a; X ¼ a—the angular
speed of rotation of the containers, Lcm —distance from the rotor axis to the axis of
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Researching of the Method of Separation of Fine-Grain Particles … 107
represent the equation of motion of the particle M in the suspension, taking into
account transportation and Coriolis forces of inertia and the assumptions made in
the form of:
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108 A.B. Kydyrbekuly et al.
9
Dm€x ¼ Dmg sin a 6pgr0 x_ þ DmfðLcm cos a þ xÞðx2 þ X2 Þ x sin a½xðx sin a >
>
>
>
_ cm sin a þ yÞ þ 2Dmðx z_ cos a y_ XÞ; >
>
y cos aÞ Xz XðL >
>
>
>
Dm€y ¼ Dmg sin a 6pgr y_ þ DmfðL sin a þ yÞðx þ X Þ þ x cos a½xðx sin a =
0 cm
2 2
ð2Þ
_ cm cos a þ xÞ þ 2Dmðx z_ sin a þ x_ XÞ;
y cos aÞ Xz XðL >
>
>
>
>
>
Dm€z ¼ 6pgr0 z_ þ Dmfzðx2 þ X2 Þ þ X½xðx sin a >
>
>
>
;
_ cm þ y sin a þ x cos aÞ 2Dmxð_y sin a þ x_ cos aÞ:
y cos aÞ Xz xðL
where r0 —suspensions particle radius with a mass Dm; g—dynamic viscosity of the
fluid (suspension); 6pgr0 —friction coefficient of the particle M (coefficient of force
environmental resistance) during its movement.
The system (2) is especially nonlinear, since x ¼ xðtÞ; a ¼ aðtÞ; X ¼ XðtÞ.
Moreover the angle of rotation of the container aðtÞ included in the arguments of
trigonometric functions. In view of the above system (2) of the exact solution does
not.
Let us consider the special cases.
1. The rotor is rotated at a constant angular speed,x ¼ const, that is
a 6¼ 0 ¼ const, a_ ¼ X ¼ 0. At first we define the dependence of the angle a of the
angular speed of the rotor x. For this purpose, we draw up the balance of forces
acting on the container (pиc.3). Projecting force in the direction of ss we get
(Fig. 2)
where l—distance from the axis of rotation to center of gravity of the container with
a suspension of. From here it follows that
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
g tga
x¼ : ð4Þ
Lcm þ l sin a
Fig. 2 Determination of
forces
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Researching of the Method of Separation of Fine-Grain Particles … 109
2xeðLcm þ l sin aÞ
X¼ : ð5Þ
g cos a x2 ðl cos 2a Lcm sin aÞ
where n ¼ 3pgr0 —friction coefficient. From (6), equating coefficients of the same
functions of time expða0 tÞ and the constant terms, is possible get the system of
algebraic equations for the unknown B1 ; B2 ; B0 ; P1 ; P2 ; P3 , which solution has the
form
sin a
B0 ¼ sin a C1 Lcm cos a; B1 ¼ C0 ; B2 ¼ sin a k0 ; P1 ¼ P2 ¼ P3 ¼ 0:
a0
ð7Þ
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110 A.B. Kydyrbekuly et al.
Using the initial conditions of the problem, we find the integration constants
A1 ; A2 ; C0 ; C1 ; E1 ; E2 . For determining A1 ; A2 ; C0 ; C1 we have four algebraic
equations:
9
A1 þ A2 sina0a C0 þ sin a C1 ¼ x0 þ Lcm cos a; >
>
>
>
a1 A1 b1 A2 þ sin a C0 ¼ x_ sin a k0 ; =
ð10Þ
ðA1 þ A2 Þtga þ cos a C1 ¼ y0 þ Lcm sin a; >
cos a
a0 C 0 >
>
>
;
ða1 A1 b1 A2 Þtga cos a C0 ¼ y_ cos a k0 :
E1 þ E2 ¼ z0 ; a1 E1 b1 E2 ¼ z_ 0 :g ð11Þ
The system of algebraic equations (10) and (11) are solved without difficulty.
Let us write the final value:
9
b1 b1 þ b2 b1 a 1 b2
A1 ¼ p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; A2 ¼ p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; C0 ¼ k0 þ x_ 0 sin a y_ 0 cos a; >
>
=
2 n2 þ x 2 2 n2 þ x 2
ð12Þ
k0 þ x_ 0 sin a y_ 0 cos a >
>
C1 ¼ þ x0 sin a y0 cos a; ;
a0
where
z0 b1 þ z_ 0 z0 a1 z_ 0
E1 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; E2 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð14Þ
2 n2 þ x 2 2 n2 þ x2
From (22) we find the velocity of the particle suspensions in the direction of the
Oy axis:
an2 þ bn þ c ¼ 0; ð16Þ
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Researching of the Method of Separation of Fine-Grain Particles … 111
Thus, the determined time separation of suspensions, taking into account the
spatial movement of the solid particles of the suspension.
1. There should be considered a special case, which is more suitable for practical
applications and determine the approximate time of separation.
Movements of suspensions of the particle in the direction of the axis Oy.
Movement of particles of the suspension in the directions Ox and Oz disregarded.
The angular speed of the rotor is large enough so that a ! p2 ; X ! 0. Then the
differential equation of motion of a particle is given by
_ cm cos a:
€y þ v_y ðx2 sin2 a þ X2 Þy ¼ g cos a þ ðx2 þ X2 ÞLcm sin a XL ð18Þ
where C1 ; C2 —integration constants, which are determined from the initial condi-
tions of the problem and will be equal to:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 9
x x2 x x2 g cos a þ Lcm x2 sin a >
b0 ¼ þ þ x sin a; b1 ¼ þ
2 2
þ x sin a; A0 ¼
2 2
;>
=
2 4 2 4 x2 sin2 a
b1 ðy0 þ A0 Þ þ y_ 0 b0 ðy0 þ A0 Þ y_ 0 >
>
C1 ¼ ; C2 ¼ ; x 6¼ 0; a 6¼ 0: ;
b 0 þ b1 b0 þ b1
ð21Þ
Then final expression the law of motion of the particle takes the form
1
y¼ f½b1 ðy0 þ A0 Þ þ y_ 0 eb0 t þ ½b0 ðy0 þ A0 Þ y_ 0 eb1 t g A0 : ð22Þ
b0 þ b1
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112 A.B. Kydyrbekuly et al.
From formula (22) define the precipitation suspension. Thus, from formula (22)
we have
Given that the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (23) by several orders
of magnitude smaller than the first term (b1 [ b0 ; eb11 T ! 0 in x ! 1), that taking
into account this consideration, (23) we obtain an approximate value of deposition
time of suspension:
1 ðL þ A0 Þðb0 þ b1 Þ
T ¼ ln : ð24Þ
b0 b1 ðy0 þ A0 Þ þ y_ 0
Thus, the dependence of the angle of rotation of the cup on the angular speed of
the rotor, defined law of motion a of the particle suspensions and the deposition of it
on the bottom of the cup (while the rotor stops), i.e. the time of separation
suspension.
More precise separation of suspensions time can be achieved if coefficients
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
neglected compared with the expression x4 þ x2 sin2 a. Then the coefficients b0
2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
and b1 are equal to those b0 ¼ b1 ¼ x4 þ x2 sin2 a ¼ b. In this case, formula (23)
2
Consider the case when the rotor shaft is adopted a rigid, but support—elastic,
with a corresponding coefficient of elasticity.
Rotor vibrations occur due to an imbalance of suspended containers (cups, test
tubes, etc.). While containers are positioned symmetrically with respect to each
other, however, the mass of suspensions in them may be different. The number of
particles in finely ground them can not be equal, and the time also differs particle
precipitation, etc. All of these factors may be the cause of imbalance in the rotor
system, which causes oscillation of the rotor.
Figure 3 shows the model is equivalent to the rotor system with containers,
taking into account rainfall the particle suspension. The mass, which creates an
imbalance denote m0 , rotor mass in m. The position of the rotor center of gravity
(the shaft) is determined relative to Oxy. It is assumed that the rotor makes a
plane-parallel movement. The position of the shaft in the Oxy coordinate system
defined by the x and y.
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Researching of the Method of Separation of Fine-Grain Particles … 113
Differential equations of motion systems are nonlinear, finding the exact solution
that is very problematic.
In particular, the equations of motion are complicated when the rotation angle of
the cup is a function of time a ¼ aðtÞ, as in the case of a include trigonometric
functions.
Consider the special case when the angle of rotation of the container fixed
a ¼ const.
(1) Case x ¼ xðtÞ; y ¼ yðtÞ; l ¼ lðtÞ; a ¼ const; X ¼ 0; 0\a\ p2. In this
case, taking into account (25) we obtain the equations of motion of the system
9
ðm þ m0 Þ€x þ v_x þ cx þ m0 sin a cos xt€l 2m0 x sin xt sin a_l >
>
>
=
m x2 cos xt sin al ¼ m x2 a cos xt;
0 0
ðm þ m0 Þ€y þ v_y þ cy þ m0 sin a sin xt€l þ 2m0 x cos xt sin al_ > >
>
;
m0 x2 sin xt sin al ¼ m0 x2 a sin xt:
sin2 a€l þ 2n1 _l x2 sin2 al þ ð€x cos xt þ €y sin xtÞ sin a ¼ x2 a sin a þ gð1 cos aÞ:
ð26Þ
The system (26) is the equation of motion of a system with periodically varying
coefficients. When there is a periodically varying parameters growing vibrations of
the system, i.e., A so-called parametric oscillation. Eccentricity in this case the
system periodically varies, i.e. changing the force of inertia.
The system of Eq. (26) in the literature has been well studied, although the
actual results were obtained only for some special cases. Of particular interest is the
study of the conditions of stability of the system. For the equation with periodically
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114 A.B. Kydyrbekuly et al.
varying coefficients of rigidity has a diagram Ainis-Strett, which can be found using
the conditions of stability of the system.
You can lead one of the solution methods based on the method of complex
amplitudes. The problem is solved in the complex plane, in this case, Eq. (26) will
have the form:
9
€z þ 2n_z þ k 2 z ¼ 1sinþ al €l þ 2ix_l x2 l eixt þ x2 a ixt
1þl e ; =
ð27Þ
€l þ 2n0 _l x2 l ¼ 1 €zeixt þ x2 a ;
sin a sin a þ 1 þ cos a :
g
v c m v1 v
2n ¼ ; k2 ¼ ; l¼ ; 2n0 ¼ ; 2n1 ¼ 1 ; z ¼ x þ iy:
m þ m0 m þ m0 m0 2
m0 sin a m0
ð28Þ
From the system (27) excluding the ð€l x2 lÞ, obtain the
_l ¼ ðn0 þ ixÞ l€z þ 2ð1 þ lÞn_z þ k ð1 þ lÞz eixt þ a2 :
2
ð29Þ
2ðn20 þ x2 Þ sin a
z ¼ Aeixt : ð30Þ
l ¼ a1 At þ a2 t þ C; ð31Þ
n0 þ ix gðn0 þ ixÞ
a1 ¼ ½lx2 þ 2ð1 þ lÞnix þ k 2 ð1 þ lÞ; a2 ¼ ;
2ðn2 þ x2 Þ sin a 2ðn20 þ x2 Þð1 þ cos aÞ
ð32Þ
C—constant of integration.
Substituting (30) and (31) we obtain
a2 g sin a
A¼ ¼ ; ð33Þ
a1 ð1 þ cos aÞ½lx2 þ 2ð1 þ lÞnix þ k2 ð1 þ lÞ
Substituting (32), (33) and (34) into (30) and (31) we obtain the motion law of
the rotor and the point M of mass т, which moves along the container axis.
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Researching of the Method of Separation of Fine-Grain Particles … 115
The law of motion of the rotor in the direction of the axes Ox and Oy:
From (35) it is obvious that the rotor performs harmonic oscillations. The point
M a mass m0 has a certain position in accordance with (37), that is this point is at a
distance l ¼ C axis of containers rotation.
3 Conclusions
The important results were obtained within the framework of this study. The
problem in this formulation is solved analytically. The analytical dependence of the
angular speed of the container, the angle of rotation as a whole. Certain laws of
spatial motion of a particle suspension and the deposition of it on the bottom of the
container (the stop of the rotor)—the time separation of the suspension. When
account is taken of the rotor vibration at fixed angles of rotation of the container
was conducted stability analysis method of complex amplitudes, which suggests a
harmonic vibration of the rotor.
References
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116 A.B. Kydyrbekuly et al.
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The Steady State Response of Multi-disc
Rotors Damped by Magnetorheological
Squeeze Film Dampers
1 Introduction
J. Zapoměl (&)
Institute of Thermomechanics, Prague, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
J. Zapoměl P. Ferfecki
VŠB—Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
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118 J. Zapoměl and P. Ferfecki
The main parts of magnetorheological squeeze film dampers are two concentric
rings between which there is a thin layer of magnetorheological oil. The inner ring
is coupled with the shaft by a rolling element bearing and with the damper housing
by a squirrel spring. Lateral vibration of the rotor squeezes the oil film, which
produces the damping effect. The electric coils, built in the damper housing, gen-
erate magnetic flux passing through the lubricating layer. As resistance against the
flow of magnetorheological oils depends on magnetic induction, the damping force
can be controlled by changing magnitude of the electric current.
Magnetorheological oils belong to the category of fluids with a yielding shear
stress. In the developed mathematical model the oil is implemented by bilinear
material. The pressure distribution in the full oil film determined on assumptions of
the classical theory of lubrication (except for the lubricant) and short dampers is
governed by relations (1)–(3) [7]
@ 1 3 0 _
h p ¼ 12h; ð1Þ
@Z gC
@ 1 3 0 s3C sy s2C 8 s3C
h p þ 3h sy þ 8 02 12 02
2
¼ 12h_ _
for h\0; ð2Þ
@Z g p p gC p02
sC h2
ZC ¼ : ð3Þ
6gC h_
p is the pressure, p′ stands for the pressure gradient in the axial direction, Z is the
axial coordinate defining position in the oil film, τy is the yielding shear stress, τC is
the shear stress at the core border, ηC, η are the dynamic viscosities of the oil in and
outside the core area, respectively, h is the oil film thickness, and () denotes the
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The Steady State Response of Multi-disc Rotors … 119
first derivative with respect to time. The Reynolds equations (1) and (2) hold for the
extents of the axial coordinates 0 ≤ Z ≤ ZC and ZC < Z ≤ L/2. L denotes the
damper length and ZC is the axial coordinate where the core touches the rings. More
information on solving the modified Reynolds equations can be found in [7].
Based on measurements the dependence of the yielding shear stress on magnetic
induction B can be approximated by a power function
sy ¼ ky Bny ; ð4Þ
where ky, ny are the proportional and exponential material constants. At the simplest
distinguishing level the relation between the magnetic induction, electric current
I and the thickness of the oil film can be expressed
I
B ¼ kB l0 lr : ð5Þ
h
μ0, μr are the vacuum and relative permeabilities of the magnetorheological oil,
respectively, and kB is the design parameter.
In areas where the thickness of the oil film rises with time, a cavitation is
assumed. In cavitated regions the Reynolds equation does not hold. The pressure is
estimated to be constant there and equal to the pressure in the ambient space.
The components of the hydraulic damping forces in the y and z directions (Fmry,
Fmrz, respectively) are calculated by integration of the pressure distribution pd
around the circumference and along the length of the damper
Z 2 Z2p Z 2 Z2p
L L
In the mathematical model it is assumed that the shaft is flexible and massless, the
discs are absolutely rigid, the support damping elements are massless, and the
damping (except that in the dampers) has a viscous character.
To reduce the size of the model system, the rotor is represented by a set of nodes
coupled by the elements to which elastic and damping properties are assigned. The
nodes correspond to the places where the discs and damping elements are mounted
on the shaft. Moreover, it is assumed that the rotor is loaded only by the point forces
and moments acting in the nodes referred to the discs and rotor journals. The
deformation of the shaft in the nodes is described by displacements and rotations in
two mutually perpendicular directions.
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120 J. Zapoměl and P. Ferfecki
x þ ðBP xGÞx_ ¼ f M þ f H þ f A :
M€ ð7Þ
M, BP, G are the mass, external damping and gyroscopic matrices of the reduced
system, fH, fA, fM are the vectors of hydraulic damping, applied and inner forces,
respectively, x is the vector of generalized displacements (lateral displacements and
rotations) of the reduced system, ω is the angular speed of the rotor rotation, and ()
denotes the second derivative with respect to time.
The vector of inner forces (fRM) reads in the rotating frame of reference
f RM ¼ BRM x_ R KR xR : ð8Þ
KR, BRM are the stiffness and material damping matrices and xR is the vector of
generalized displacements, all related to the rotating frame of reference. Elements of
the stiffness matrix KR can be determined by application of the procedure described
in [8].
Qi
kij ¼ for i; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n ð9Þ
xj
is the element of the reduced stiffness matrix related to the ith row and jth column,
xj is the jth generalized displacement, Qi is the generalized force corresponding to
the ith generalized displacement, and n is the number of degrees of freedom of the
reduced system. The generalized displacement xj is determined by solving the
original (not reduced) system loaded by the force or moment corresponding to the
generalized force Qi referred to the reduced system and for the boundary conditions
expressing that the generalized displacements in the original system corresponding
to xj of the reduced system for j = 1, 2, …, n are zero except for j = i. To determine
the generalized displacements xj the finite element method can be used. The inner
damping matrix is set up in the analogue way.
The resulting equation of motion of the reduced rotor system is obtained by the
transformation of (8) from rotating to the fixed coordinate system and by its sub-
stitution in (7). The transformation utilizes the relationship
v ¼ CRF vR ; ð10Þ
where v and vR are the vectors related to the fixed and rotating frame of reference,
respectively, and CRF is a block diagonal matrix of the orthogonal transformation.
Performing these manipulations arrives in the equation of motion that reads
BM, KC, K are the material damping matrix, the circulation matrix, and the stiffness
matrix referred to the fixed frame of reference. Because the rotor is axial symmetric,
elements of these matrices are constant.
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The Steady State Response of Multi-disc Rotors … 121
DISC D1 DISC D2
1.4 1.4
Vibration amplitude [ mm ]
Vibration amplitude [ mm ]
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.0 A 0.0 A
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Angular speed [ rad/s ] Angular speed [ rad/s ]
Fig. 2 Frequency response (discs D1—left, D2—right, vibration in the horizontal direction)
The investigated rotor system (Fig. 1) consists of a shaft and of two discs. The shaft
is coupled with the frame by two magnetorheological squeeze film dampers
mounted on both its ends. The rotor turns at constant angular speed, is loaded by its
weight and excited by the discs unbalance. In the computational model the shaft is
considered as flexible, massless, and the discs as absolutely rigid. The damping
elements are implemented by springs and force couplings.
The task was to investigate influence of the damping force on critical speeds of
the rotor system.
The frequency responses referred to the discs D1 and D2 vibration in the hor-
izontal direction are drawn in Fig. 2. The results show that rising magnitude of the
current enables to reduce the oscillation amplitude.
5 Conclusions
The paper deals with a novel approach to investigation of multi-disc flexible rotors
the vibration attenuation of which is controlled by magnetorheological squeeze film
dampers placed in the rotor supports. The developed mathematical model is based
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122 J. Zapoměl and P. Ferfecki
Acknowledgments The research work reported here was made possible by the Czech Science
Foundation (project no. 15-06621S) and the National Programme of Sustainability (project
LQ1602—IT4Innovations excellence in science). The support is highly acknowledged.
References
1. Zapoměl, J., Ferfecki, P., Kozánek, J.: Determination of the transient vibrations of a rigid rotor
attenuated by a semiactive magnetorheological damping device by means of computational
modelling. Appl. Comput. Mech. 7(2), 223–234 (2013)
2. Gong, X., Ruan, X., Xuan, S., Yan, Q., Deng, H.: Magnetorheological damper working in
squeeze model. Adv. Mech. Eng. 6, 410158 (2014)
3. Kim, K.J., Lee, C.W., Koo, J.H.: Design and modeling of semi-active squeeze film dampers
using magneto-rheological fluids. Smart Mater. Struct. 17(3), 035006 (2008)
4. Aravindhan, T.S., Gupta, K.: Application of magnetorheological fluid dampers to rotor
vibration control. Adv. Vibr. Eng. 5(4), 369–380 (2006)
5. Zapoměl, J., Ferfecki, P., Forte, P.: A computational investigation of the transient response of
an unbalanced rigid rotor flexibly supported and damped by short magnetorheological squeeze
film dampers. Smart Mater. Struct. 21, 105011 (2012)
6. Zapoměl, J., Ferfecki, P.: Mathematical modelling of a long squeeze film magnetorheological
damper for rotor systems. Model. Optim. Phys. Syst. 9, 97–100 (2010)
7. Zapoměl, J., Ferfecki, P.: A 2D mathematical model of a short magnetorheological squeeze film
damper based on representing the lubricating oil by bilinear theoretical material. In: Proceedings
of the 2015 IFToMM World Congress (Taipei) (2015)
8. Gasch, R., Nordmann, R., Pfützner, H.: Rotordynamik. Springer, Berlin (2002)
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Inertia Matrix and Vehicle Driveability
Abstract This paper summarizes the evidence and results of the research focused
on determining the inertia matrix (ellipsoid of inertia) of a passenger car aggregate.
In the first part of the paper, the measurement results are introduced which are
subsequently used for simulation of the whole vehicle dynamic behaviour.
1 Introduction
For determining moments of inertia, various methods are used. Generally, they are
based on a principle of dependence between the moment of inertia of a body and the
natural oscillation frequency. The basic methods for determining moments of inertia
are based on the principle of a physical pendulum, a torsion suspension or a bifilar
suspension, eventually a trifilar or a quadrifilar one. When measuring it is supposed
that the oscillation is undamped and the time of oscillation is measured [1, 2]. The
aim of this research was to suggest a measurement methodology and pursuant to
this methodology it would be possible to identify the main weight parameters of the
system combustion engine and gearbox (aggregate). When choosing the method for
determining the ellipsoid of inertia of the aggregate, the emphasis was placed
particularly on the accuracy of measurement. Well specified inertia matrix of the
aggregate is very important for further use in computer simulations, such as crash
tests. The aggregate (or eventually motor) weight and centre-of-gravity position
determination was performed on the basis of measuring the tensile force in
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124 P. Brabec et al.
individual fibres on the trifilar suspension. For determining the moments of inertia,
the indirect method of measuring the time of oscillation of the body hung on the
unifilar (torsion) suspension was used. For providing the moments of inertia of
bodies of more complex shapes, special preparations were used. These preparations
enabled to hung the body in various positions onto the torsion suspension.
Therefore, a subframe for gripping the aggregate was used. This aggregate was
gripped into the subframe in a defined way so that the axes of the chosen system of
coordinates of the aggregate were parallel with the axes of the system of coordinates
of the subframe. Because the moments of inertia of the subframe are not
insignificant, it was necessary to perform the measuring twice. The first one was
performed for the assembly of the subframe with the aggregate. In the second case
only the subframe itself was measured by reason of separate parameters evaluation
and determination of elements of inertia matrix of the aggregate and the subframe.
For determining the inertia matrix, at least six measurements are needed. In our
case, at least ten measurements towards an arbitrary axis passing through the
beginning were performed so that we would reach the highest accuracy and sub-
sequent calculation of the size and position of the ellipsoid of inertia. In general, for
n measurements we will get the matrix of n equations with six unknowns. In this
case, these unknowns can be determined from the set of measured data by using the
method of least squares [3]. These unknowns are 3 moments of inertia towards the
relevant axes: Jx, Jy and Jz and similarly 3 deviation moments: Dxy, Dxz a Dyz.
The methodology was verified when measuring several aggregates or motors, in
some cases for more variants of motor accessories layout (thirteen aggregates and
one motor designed for passenger vehicles, one motor designed for a commercial
vehicle). The measurement was always performed without any filling, which means
without (engine) oil and coolant.
In the graphs above, values of axial moments of inertia used for passenger
vehicles are illustrated. These were ordinary multi-cylinder combustion engines
(three- and four-cylinder ones, spark ignition and diesel ones, supercharged and
not-supercharged ones) with both manual and automatic gearboxes. The values are
presented in relation to a referential aggregate which was an ordinary light
three-cylinder spark ignition engine with the volume of 1.2 dm3 with a manual
five-gear gearbox. The system of coordinates to which the values are attributable is
expressed as follows: axis Y is identical with the axis of the crankshaft; axis Z is in
plane of axes of cylinders and vertical to axis Y; axis X is vertical to the plane YZ.
From the graphs in Fig. 1 is obvious that the values sizes of axial moments of
inertia of the aggregate are not linear dependent on the aggregate weight. The
resulting values of moments of inertia and the centre-of-gravity position of the
aggregate influence both the weight and also the position of additional devices and
motor accessories. Neither relatively low physical parts which (regarding relatively
big remoteness) can also influence the size of the overall moment of inertia of the
aggregate cannot be neglected. The influence of the accessories was examined with
careful attention; therefore, variant measuring of aggregates in different configu-
ration with different accessories was also performed.
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Inertia Matrix and Vehicle Driveability 125
2,7 2,3
2,5
2,1
2,3
1,9
2,1
JX / JXr [-]
JY / JYr [-]
1,9 1,7
1,7 1,5
1,5
1,3
1,3
1,1 1,1
0,9 0,9
0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,1 0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,1
m / mr [-] m / mr [-]
3,4
2,9
JZ / JZr [-]
2,4
1,9
1,4
0,9
0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,1
m / mr [-]
Fig. 1 Values of axial moments of inertia of passenger vehicles aggregate, introduced in relation
to the referential aggregate
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126 P. Brabec et al.
Fig. 2 Illustration of an
ellipsoid of inertia for a
virtual vehicle (red—a
vehicle with spark ignition
engine, blue—a vehicle with
diesel engine) (color figure on
line)
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Inertia Matrix and Vehicle Driveability 127
2.5
1.5
y [m]
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
x [m]
4 4000
3 3000
steering angle of front wheel [deg]
1 1000
0 0
-1 -1000
-2 -2000
-3 -3000
-4 -4000
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
time [s] time [s]
Fig. 3 Simulation results of an avoiding manoeuvre when using the simulation model of the
vehicle: bottom left-hand side—angular displacement of the front wheels, bottom right-hand side
—lateral force on the front axle (red—spark ignition engine vehicle, blue—diesel engine vehicle)
(color figure on line)
4 Conclusions
The linear differential motion equations for a simple vehicle model have shown that
the rotational vehicle motions will finish quickly if the vehicle weight is small, the
moment of inertia around the vertical axis is small and the vehicle wheelbase is big.
When dimensioning a motor vehicle, its reaction on both low and high frequencies
of the steering-wheel rotation is important. The frequency characteristic is possible
to discover both experimentally and by calculation. The evaluation of controlla-
bility according to the frequency characteristic process is, among others, performed
according to the position of the amplitude maximum. The amplitude excess is the
more distinct the lower the system attenuation is. For the given vehicle parameters,
the amplitude maximum then depends on the driving speed [9].
It is further noted that on behalf of the fast driving manoeuvre, the amplitude
maximum is supposed to lie at higher frequencies. If there is no amplitude excess
(regarding the high damping), the decline of amplitude characteristics should
appear as long as possible [10]. According to [11] there is no point for the vehicle
resonance region in lying far beyond the value 5 s−1 by reason of the frequency
response of the driver. On the basis of calculations, the assumption was confirmed
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128 P. Brabec et al.
that the resonance region position is dependent on design values and operating
conditions: it moves towards the higher frequencies due to the small moment of
inertia of a vehicle around its vertical axis, long wheelbase, use of tires with high
lateral stiffness [9].
Acknowledgments This publication was written at the Technical University of Liberec, Faculty
of Mechanical Engineering with the support of the Institutional Endowment for the Long Term
Conceptual Development of Research Institutes, as provided by the Ministry of Education, Youth
and Sports of the Czech Republic in the year 2016.
References
1. Tag des Fahrwerks, Institut für Kraftfahrwesen Aachen – RWTH Aachen, 09.10.2006
2. Best, A.: Moment of inertia measurement system. MIMS Description and Specification,
Anthony Best Dynamics (2004)
3. Brabec, P.: Experimentální určení polohy a rozměrů elipsoidu setrvačnosti hnacího agregátu.
Teze disertační práce. Technická univerzita v Liberci (2009)
4. Bárta, M.: Měření momentu setrvačnosti vozidel. Diplomová práce, Technická univerzita v
Liberci (2015)
5. Laumanns, N.: Integrale Reglerstruktur zum effektiven Abstimmung von Fahrdynamiksystemen.
Dissertation, Technischen Hochschule Aachen (2007)
6. Gortz, H.: Identifikation von Fahrzeugträgheitsparametern in Fahrversuchen und auf
Prüfständen, Dissertation, Technischen Hochschule Aachen (2007)
7. Vlk, F.: Podvozky motorových vozidel. Nakladatelství a vydavatelství VLK, Brno (2000)
8. Brabec, P., Malý, M., Voženílek, R.: Simulace řízení zadních kol automobilu, VI.
medzinárodná vedecká konferencia RIADENIE TEKUTINOVÝCH SYSTÉMOV, Žilina
(2001)
9. Vlk, F.: Hodnocení řiditelnosti motorových vozidel na základě neustálených jízdních stavů.
Časopis Automobil, ročník XXI, SNTL (1977)
10. Kohno, T.: On the Vehicle Response to the Steering Kontrol. SAE-Paper, 69 04 88 (1969)
11. Fiala, E.: Die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Fahrzeug und Fater. ATZ, č. 10, s. 345–348 (1967)
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Unexpected Vibrations of Relatively
Simple Cutting Machine Mechanism
Abstract Unexpected vibrations and resonance with frequency three times the rpm
were detected in a relatively simple cutting machine during process of inertia force
reduction (balancing). A knife of the cutting machine is actuated by two identical
crank mechanisms at the ends of a crossbeam. The vibrations induced inertial forces
larger than the considerable machine imbalance. The crank length to connecting rod
length ratio was small enough that the corresponding excitation kinematic accel-
eration overtone component was practically negligible. The vibration characteristics
consisting mainly of the drive shaft gyratory vibrations was determined based on
measurements of forces transferred to floor, accelerations of the mechanisms and on
a CAD model calculation involving the mechanism main members compliances.
Improvements were proposed and tested upon the results with focus on vibrations
elimination.
1 Introduction
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130 P. Šidlof et al.
The machine was used in practice only at frequencies above or below resonance
rpms, since it proved not to work well in this bandwidth.
After the machine was balanced, the resonance frequency increased thus shifting
into the frequency used in practice. Although amplitudes of resonance vibrations
decreased significantly compared to the unbalanced situation, the resonance caused
undesirable increase in the noise.
The problem was solved by measurement and calculation. To measure the
original state of the machine and the balanced state, the machine was settled on
dynamometers for measurement of forces acting to the ground and equipped with
accelerometers measuring the movement of the cutting knife. A laser triangulation
displacement sensor to ascertain deflection of the drive shaft was also used. All
measurements were done as the function of rotation angle of the drive shaft.
Incremental rotary encoder was connected to the end of the drive shaft and mea-
sured also the angular velocity of the shaft. Calculations of resonance frequencies
were carried out on a model of the machine by use of Adams software [1].
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Unexpected Vibrations of Relatively Simple … 131
Fig. 2 Amplitude multispectrum of the resulting X [N] force before balancing of the machine
Fig. 3 Amplitude multispectrum of the resulting Z [N] force before balancing of the machine
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132 P. Šidlof et al.
Fig. 4 Resonance force Z (thick line), force Z with filtered-out third harmonic (thin line) and first
harmonic component of the force (dotted) before balancing at 1351 rpm
Fig. 5 Multispectrum of the resulting force Z [N] after balancing of the machine
effects of flexibility and backlash) should correspond to almost exactly its measured
first harmonic, which has an amplitude of 1030 N. The real force, however, has the
peak value almost three times higher. The main culprit here is the third harmonic
with amplitude of 1370 N, which ideally should not be exceeded at all.
The balancing process include lightening of the adjustable eccentric on the drive
shaft, centrifugal forces were balanced and a mechanism with contra-rotating bal-
ancing eccentrics was used to balance the vertical inertial force of the crank
mechanism. Having employed these adjustments we carried out our measurements
again. The horizontal X force practically disappeared. On the vertical inertial force
Z the first harmonic dropped to almost zero (see Fig. 5), but resonance on the third
harmonic remained with a peak at 1450 rpm. Although the maximum amplitude
dropped to 780 N (by 42 %) the resonance frequency was now shifted to the range
of operation rpms of the machine. Figure 6 depicts the Z force during resonance. To
clarify an approximate calculation was carried out.
Fig. 6 Resonance force Z (thick line), force Z with filtered-out third harmonic (thin line) and first
harmonic component of the force (dotted) at 1450 rpm after balancing
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Unexpected Vibrations of Relatively Simple … 133
Fig. 7 Calculated movement of the shaft axes in the place of the connecting rod axes in
z direction (vertical) at 1452 rpm
Fig. 8 Calculated movement of the shaft axes in the place of the connecting rod axes in z
direction without the first harmonic at 1452 rpm
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134 P. Šidlof et al.
3 Conclusions
The unexpectedly strong vibrations of the cutting machine mechanism are probably
not caused by linear effects, since on a linearized computational model it shows
insignificant amplitudes. The vibrations are not random, since they appear also on
other similar machines. The measured unevenness of the angular speed of the drive
shaft, which might cause the vibrations [2, 3] is very low (below 0.2 %). Also
torsional vibration of the shaft is very low. No significant corresponding resonance
amplitudes were found in the frame and the base plate with the electromotor and
beam of the cutting knife bending vibrations are very low. Products of inertia of
imperfectly balanced flywheels, nonlinear effects of backlash in bearings, their
non-linear stiffness and solid friction in guiding of the cutting knife in dead centres
should not have any significant effect on the vibration with third harmonic [2, 3].
To eliminate vibrations increase of diameter of the shaft between the bearings
from the original 35–42 mm had been proposed. The calculated resonance fre-
quency thus increased to 97 Hz at 1895 rpm. Although the calculated frequency for
the shaft at 35 mm corresponded very well with the measurement, a resonance
appeared on the mechanism with third harmonic at 1600 rpm (80 Hz) with the
Z force amplitude of 560 N during tests on a 42 mm shaft.
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Unexpected Vibrations of Relatively Simple … 135
References
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Effect of Oil Viscosity on Pulsating
Flow in Pipe
Abstract The article deals with the influence of oil viscosity on pulsating flow in a
pipe. A hydraulic resistance is placed at the end of the pipe. A pulsating pressure
signal is generated by proportional directional valve. Time dependencies of pres-
sure drops for different frequencies of the pulsating signal are measured at the
beginning and the end of the pipe. A mathematical model of the hydraulic system is
constructed using Matlab SimHydraulics software. There are simulated time
dependencies of pressures at the beginning and at the end of the pipe. They are
subsequently compared with an experiment.
1 Introduction
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138 L. Hružík et al.
proportional valves and servo valves most frequently in combination with a con-
troller. The controller is used to keep constant velocity, acceleration or position on
an output element and adjusts quickly a valve. It can lead to pressure and flow
pulsations that are subsequently transmitted through hydraulic lines to entire
machine. Higher pressure and flow pulsations cause stress of single elements and
often lead to their lifetime reduction. If excitation oscillations are approaching to
eigenfrequency of a given machine, it can cause resonance of the machine. This
resonance can lead to machine destruction too.
There is described a measurement of pressure pulsations of given frequencies in
a long pipe in this paper. The pressure pulsations are generated by a proportional
control valve. There is also created a mathematical model and performed a simu-
lation of pressure pulsations in the long pipe. Measured and simulated amplitude
frequency pressure characteristics are subsequently compared for two oil
temperatures.
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Effect of Oil Viscosity on Pulsating Flow in Pipe 139
sensor TS. It is possible to control the flow by means of the proportional control
valve PV, which is located behind the filter F. Furthermore the circuit consists of
the long steel pipe P, which is equipped by the pressure sensors PS1 and PS2 on its
beginning and end. The throttle valve TV is located behind the long pipe P and
creates resistance to oil movement on the pipe end. The pressure sensors PS3 and
PS4 are located in front of and behind the throttle valve TV. They are used in order
to measure the pressure gradient through the throttle valve TV. The system also
consists of two ball valves BV1 and BV2. By means of these valves it is possible to
ensure the oil flow either directly to the tank T or through the flow sensor FS to the
tank T. The flow sensor FS is used to measure Δp-Q characteristic of the throttle
valve TV [3].
There was generated pulsating flow by means of the proportional control valve
PV in this hydraulic system. A control signal for electronics of the proportional
control valve PV was defined using Matlab Simulink software by means of the I/O
Humusoft MF634 card. It is possible to control the electronics of the proportional
control valve PV by the input voltage U = (0 ÷ 10) V. The values of the control
voltage U for generated pulsating frequencies corresponded to the sine signal with
offset of 2 V and the amplitude of 1.5 V. The pressures p1 and p2 at the beginning
and the end of the pipe P were measured by means of the pressure sensors PS1 and
PS2. The length of the pipe P between the pressure sensors PS1 and PS2 is
l = 56 m in this case. The measurement was performed at pulsations of the fre-
quency f = (0.5 ÷ 8) Hz with the frequency step Δf = 0.5 Hz. These pulsations
were measured within the indicated frequency range at two oil temperatures (i.e. for
tO1 = 30 °C and tO2 = 45 °C). These temperatures correspond to the oil kinematic
viscosities ν1 = 65 mm2 s−1 and ν2 = 32 mm2 s−1.
Δp-Q characteristic of the proportional control valve PV was also measured. The
flow Q through the valve at a given pressure gradient Δp and a given valve flow
area was determined by means of this characteristic. The dependence of the pres-
sure gradient Δp on the flow Q was also measured for the throttle valve TV and
both oil temperatures (see Fig. 2). These characteristics are applied to setting of the
elements PV and TV in a mathematical model.
20
Q [dm3·min-1]
15
10
tO1 = 30°C
tO1
5
tO2 = 45°C
tO2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Δp [bar]
Fig. 2 Measured Δp-Q characteristic of throttle valve at the oil temperatures tO1 = 30 °C and
tO2 = 45 °C
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140 L. Hružík et al.
The mathematical model of the hydraulic system was created using Matlab
SimHydraulics software (see Fig. 3), which enables a physical access to a mathe-
matical simulation. Single elements of the hydraulic system are added to the model
as mathematical blocks that are described by a system of mathematical equations. In
order to obtain a general scheme of the mathematical model, there are created
subsystems from some blocks.
Similarly as in the case of a real hydraulic system, the constant pressure source is
defined in the form of the hydraulic pump HP and the relief valve RV.
Subsequently there is shown the block of the proportional control valve PV that is
controlled by the block Pulsating Control Signal. The valve PV generates a pul-
sating flow in the pipe P, which is defined by the block P in the mathematical
model. The pipe P is simulated as a segmented pipe. The mathematical model of the
pipe includes expansion of the pipe walls. The pressures are measured at the
beginning and the end of the pipe P by means of the subsystems PS1 and PS2.
Furthermore there are shown the blocks L1 and L2 of a connecting line between the
proportional control valve PV and the pressure sensor PS1 and between the pressure
sensor PS2 and the throttle valve TV in the model. The throttle valve TV is defined
by means of the Δp-Q characteristic in this model. The flow area of the throttle
valve is constant for all measurements and mathematical models. Furthermore the
model consists of the block of the tank T, the block Solver Configuration and the
block Oil. The block Oil demonstrates a liquid mathematical model that takes into
account density, viscosity, bulk modulus and content of free air in oil [4, 5].
An example of the comparison of the measured and simulated time dependencies
of the pressures p1 and p2 is shown in Fig. 4. It is visible that the mathematical
model for the pulsation frequency f = 5 Hz and the oil temperature tO1 = 30 °C is
practically consistent with the experiment.
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Effect of Oil Viscosity on Pulsating Flow in Pipe 141
25
20
p [bar] 15
10 p1 - measurement
p1
p2 - measurement
p2
5 p1 - simulation
p1
p2 - simulation
p2
0
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
t [s]
Fig. 4 Comparison of measured and simulated time dependencies of the pressures p1 and p2 at the
pulsation frequency f = 5 Hz and the oil temperature tO1 = 30 °C
1.50
1.25
1.00
Ap2 / Ap1 [1]
0.75
tO1 = 30°C - measurement
tO1
0.50 tO1 = 30°C - simulation
tO1
0.25 tO2 = 45°C - measurement
tO2
tO2 = 45°C - simulation
tO2
0
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f [Hz]
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142 L. Hružík et al.
5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments The work presented in this paper was supported by a grant SGS
“Experimentální výzkum v oblasti mechaniky tekutin” SP2016/70.
References
1. Gorman, D.G., Reese, J.M., Zhang, Y.L.: Vibration of a flexible pipe conveying viscous
pulsating fluid flow. J. Sound Vib. 230(2), 379–392 (2000)
2. Himr, D., Habán, V.: Damping of self-excited pressure pulsations in petrodiesel pipeline. Appl.
Mech. Mater. 630, 375–382 (2014)
3. Hružík, L.: Pulsating flow in pipe. in: Proceedings Engineering Mechanics 2009 (11–14 May,
Svratka), ITAM AS CR, pp. 475–483 (2009)
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Effect of Oil Viscosity on Pulsating Flow in Pipe 143
4. Hružík, L., Bureček, A., Vašina, M.: Non-stationary flow of hydraulic oil in long pipe. In: EPJ
Web of Conferences 2014, 67, No. 02042 (2014)
5. MathWorks, The: Matlab simulink user’s guide, simhydraulics user’s guide. The MathWorks
Inc., Natick (2007)
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Experimental Research and Mathematical
Modeling of Scroll Machine in Air Motor
Mode
Abstract Recently the scroll machine is widely used in air and refrigeration
compressors, vacuum pumps, because it has a small number of moving parts, high
efficiency and low level of noise. The volumetric rotary scroll machine is reversible
and can function in air motor mode without any significant construction modifi-
cation. Scroll air motor is a relatively new concept of pneumatic actuators. There is
no technical data comparison with traditional air motors which now on the market.
In this paper we describe the experimental bench for determining mechanical and
flow performance of scroll air motor under different value of inlet pressure,
mechanical losses and exergy efficiency. Mathematical model contains geometrical
description of the involute scrolls, chamber volumes, radial and tangential leakage
areas as a function of orbital angle; thermodynamical pressure and temperature
differential equations of compressed air; and equation of mechanical torque balance
on motor shaft. The results of experiments and mathematical modeling are pre-
sented and analysed. In the last part of the paper the performances of scroll air
motor are compared with such performances of traditional radial and axial piston,
vane, turbine air motors.
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146 V.I. Ivlev et al.
1 Introduction
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Experimental Research and Mathematical Modeling … 147
of scroll motor which has two identical involute scrolls (fixed and moving) and
photo of moving scroll. As the moving scroll travels along the orbit, these two
scrolls can touch at some points and form a series growing chambers. The rotation
of moving scroll is provided by a special mechanism like Oldham couple or other.
The purpose of experimental test of scroll air motor was to obtain mechanical, air
consumption and energy performances. A special test bench was developed (the
main part of it see on Fig. 2).
The next stationary mode values were measured: input and output pressure and
temperature of compressed air, air consumption, output shaft torque, rotation
speed. The parameters values of scroll air motor under consideration are: base
circle radius = 3.18 mm; scroll thickness = 4.5 mm; scroll pitch = 20 mm; scroll
height = 30 mm; involute starting angle = 43° (0.24π); involute end angle = 945°
(5.25π); orbiting radius = 5.5 mm; radial clearance = 0.015 mm; flank clearance =
0.01 mm.
Figure 3a shows the power performance N against rotation speed ω under the
two constant supply pressure—0.3 and 0.5 Mpa (Tm = 293 K)—curves 1 and 2.
Figure 3b shows the specific air consumption q = G(ω)/N(ω); G—air consumption
bring to normal condition. Figure 3c shows the mechanical ηm and exergy ηe
efficiency. Value ηm = Md/(Md + Mt), Md—output shaft torque, Mt—friction tor-
que, which consists of two components: viscous friction, depending only on ω and
Coulomb friction depending on the normal load acting on moving scroll. These
components of friction torque were determined on another special equipment. Value
ηe = Nmax/GoE; Nmax—maximal output power, Go—mass air consumption under
Nmax, E—specific exergy of input compressed air. Curve 2 corresponds to
pm = 0.3 MPa, curve 3—pm = 0.5 MPa.
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148 V.I. Ivlev et al.
Fig. 3 Power, specific air consumption, energy efficiency performance. N [Wt], q [m3/min kWt]
3 Mathematical Modeling
Here the equation of motion of the shaft for the case of constant ω is a balance of
torques acting on the shaft, Mc is the torque of useful resistance, Mt(ω, pm) is the
total torque of friction depending on the angular velocity and pressure power pm
(see below), pi, Ti, Vi are pressure, temperature and volume of the i–th chamber, k is
the adiabatic constant, R is the gas constant, α—the angle of rotation of the moving
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Experimental Research and Mathematical Modeling … 149
scroll, Gm is flow of the working medium from the supply line into the central
chamber, defined by the Saint-Venant equation.
Similarly, the leakages through axial and radial clearances between the scrolls
are calculated: in the chamber of G+i with the temperature of the working medium Tj
and from the chamber G−i . The volume of the chambers formed by the involute
fixed and movable scrolls is determined as follows. The equations of the inner and
outer walls of the fixed scroll are written in parametric form. Similar equations are
written for the movable scroll considering the eccentricity ε and angle α of the
movable scroll. The condition ro = (ε + δ)/π always holds, where ro is the radius of
the initial circle of the scrolls, δ is thickness. I.e. the scrolls do not intersect, but
only touch. The equations of the scrolls are solved simultaneously, and the coor-
dinates of the touch points of the scrolls are obtained as functions of the angle α,
which determines the shape of the chambers. Then the area of the chambers
(the area of the curvilinear trapezoid) Si(α) and respectively the volume Vi = h Si(α)
are determined by Green’s equation as a function of angle α. Here h is the height
of scroll. Also the lengths of the arcs of scrolls are determined that form a cham-
ber for the subsequent calculation of the areas of the channels of leakages. Results
of calculation of the power against rotation speed are shown in Fig. 3a (curves
3 and 4). One may see satisfactory quality of this simple model.
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150 V.I. Ivlev et al.
To estimate the results of test scroll air motor, we must compare its performance
with traditional types of air motors. Table 1 presents analysis data of air motors
performance of more than twenty companies, some of them [6–14].
It should be noted that our scroll air motor has a rather high energy efficiency. The
specific air consumption at 0.5 Mpa was 0.72 m3/min kWt. This is better than the
one of the most efficiency models of piston air motors. Only powerful (40–55 kWt)
two-step turbine air motor gives better results—0.65 m3/min kWt [13]. For turbine
motors of comparable power (1–5 kWt) this value is 0.8–1.2 m3/min kWt.
It has the next main reasons: 1—very small “dead” volume; 2—the leakages
from central chamber pass other chambers before come to atmosphere and take part
in forming moving torque. Nominal speed of scroll air motor is about 2600–4000
RPM and it take position between piston and vane air motors. The specific power
volume is 1.86 kWt/dm3 (under standard supply pressure 0.6 Mpa), like good
models of vane air motors. One important characteristic of air motor is the incli-
nation of its torque curve Km = ΔM(ω)/Δω, which allows us to draw indirect
conclusions about the capabilities of a compressed air inlet and exhaust in motor
chambers. In our case Km = −6.8 × 10−3 Nms (pm = 0.5 Mpa). It is a “hard”
torque curve, unlike piston air motors with a soft characteristic. Also scroll air
motor have a low level of noise and vibration; small pulse of moving torque.
For the most part scroll air motor performance is better (or equal) than traditional
types, except cost. If this limitation will be removed, it will find a wide industrial
application in the near future.
The study was financially supported by the RFBR project No. 16-29-04401.
References
1. Compressed air technology today is more economical than it has ever been. Deprag Press
Release. May 2013. www.deprag.com
2. Creux, L.: Rotary engine. US Patent № 801.182. 1905
3. Wang, J., Yang, L., Mangan, S., Derby, J.: Mathematical modeling study of scroll air motors
and energy efficiency analysis—Part I. IEEE/ASME Trans. Mechatron. 16(1), 112–120 (2011)
4. Yanagisawa, T., Fukuta, M., Ogi, Y.: Performance of an oil-free scroll—type air expander. In:
Proceedings of the ImahE Conference on Compressors and their systems, pp. 167–174 (2001)
5. E15H22N4.25. 1 kW Scroll Expander. www.airsquared.com
6. GAST Air Motors / Gear Motors. Labricated and Non-labricated. ISO 9001. Catalog Final
2012, 41 p. www.gastmfg.com
7. Air turbine motors. Sealed Motor Mount Series. www.airturbinetools.com
8. Gardner–Denver Pneumatic Power Motors. Catalog 2011. www.cooperpowertools.com
9. Deprag Air Motors Customized drive solutions. 2012, 28 p. www.deprag.com
10. TONSON Air Motors. Catalog. www.tonson-motor.com
Experimental Research and Mathematical Modeling … 151
11. Atlas Copco Air Motors. LZB, LZL vane motor. Catalog. 2012, 75 p. www.atlascopco.com
12. Ingersoll Rand MVR and SM (select) Lub—free reversible air motors. www.
ingersollrandprodacts.com
13. Ingersoll Rand Turbine Air Starter. Electronic catalog www.murcal.com
14. Pneumatic Rotary Actuators and Air motors. Platform Catalog PDE2613TCUK. Parker
pneumatic division Europe
Analysis of the Mechanism of the Drill
Hammer
M. Konečný
Abstract This paper describes function of the mechanism of the hammer drill and
solving the impact analysis and determining the contact pressure between the parts
of the mechanism. The computational model was created by Creo Parametric 2.0.,
simulation of dynamic effect by the module Mechanism and stress simulation by the
module Simulate.
1 Introduction
Use of compressed air is now widespread in many sectors. Pneumatic tools have a
high degree of modernization. Manufacturers shall ensure competitiveness, superior
technological performance, low price and especially functionality, which is closely
related with high reliability. Pneumatic devices in these days widespread
throughout the world. It has many advantages over hydraulic mechanisms, electric
and solid mechanisms. The market has found a considerable number of companies
that are engaged in the production of pneumatic mechanisms and machines.
Work pneumatic hammers provides compressed air. It must be applied and regu-
lated. The air supply is provided by a hose that connects to the machine by a thread.
Lever built into the handle of the hammer is controlled airflow. The hammer inside
air flows into the two chambers. This ensures the flow valve timing as shown in
M. Konečný (&)
Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
Fig. 1a, numerically labeled from 1 to 3 parts take care to ensure that the com-
pressed air flow in the first phase of the movement in the chamber above the piston.
In the second phase of movement the air flows into the chamber below the piston
indicated in Fig. 1b. This cycle must be repeated continually. In the first case, when
the compressed air flows into the chamber above the piston (red color component
numbers 2), closes the holes in the green part indicated by 3. This process remains
until the piston moving downwards opens the exhaust port. The air pressure sud-
denly in the chamber above the piston drops, part 2 releases closed openings in part
3 and air can flow into the chamber below the piston. To allow air to flow into the
lower chamber, the cylinder of the linear motor drilled holes and recessed exhaust
port, as can be seen in Fig. 1b. Operation of the distribution valve is provided
decreases in pressure in the chamber above the piston and below the piston. The
pressure in the chamber drops each time the shock worker is released and the air
exhaust hole this hole can escape. A certain volume of the escaping gaps in the
exhaust port of the shock worker flows through the tool and blowing debris from
the drilled hole.
The goal of this dynamics analysis is to determine the velocity of the shock worker
before impact, the acceleration and kinetic energy. For the calculation of the
dynamic effects used data, which the manufacturer says in the manual of the
hammer. The stroke of the air motor has a size of 35 mm with frequency 3500
numbers of beats per minute. This value is set for the default position of the shock
worker. Technical data was measured at a working pressure of the compressed air
of 6.3 bar. The size of the force acting on the shock worker is determine with using
analysis of the pneumatic motor. Given the size of this double-acting pneumatic
motor and working conditions is the force Fp set at 580 N. Friction between the
cylinder of the linear motor and the shock worker has been neglected.
After establishing the stiffness of the system of components which are in mutual
contact during the impact, there was carried out the calculation of the impact force.
For the purpose of this analysis is modified model from the previous analysis. The
model is replenished with the subframe and the spring. The spring is inserting
between the tool and the subframe. The stiffness of this spring is calculated in the
previous stiffness analysis and Eq. (1). The value of stiffness is ks = 43,626 N mm.
The model can be seen in Fig. 2.
Fs ¼ ks y ð1Þ
Insert the spring in the assembly of the calculated stiffness is one of the ways you
can check the progress of the impact force by means of software. The tool weight
was set to the minimum possible value. This was done because it is already known
to the system overall stiffness and thus the weight of the tool is no longer necessary
to calculate. The spring was supplemented by a shock absorber with low value of
damping. The impact analysis is solved with parameters for the stroke of the
pneumatic motor 35 mm, the force Fp 580N, the stiffness of the spring ks which
replaced the stiffness of the system and on the cam there has been set up the
coefficient of restitution 0.75. The coefficient of restitution has been chosen
according to the table for hardened steel.
The course of impact force approximately corresponded to the theoretical course
of impact force. As the size and course of the impact force cannot determine exactly
is the calculation of certain parts only theoretical. The value of the maximum
resultant forces came 73° 192N (Fig. 3).
This phenomenon we associate with the emergence of large forces and sharp
changes in speed. The impact in technical practice we encounter very often. For
example, impact drill, jackhammer, and the like. From a mechanical standpoint it is
a complicated phenomenon, which is influenced by many factors [1]. Shock plot
spreads in waves and its duration is extremely short. It is a time of about 10−4 s. In
this short period of time there are changes in speed almost immediately and forces
acting in the contact area are enormous. For this reason we can be neglected under
the influence of buckling on the long tool. When comparing the course of the force
depending on the time when a theoretical calculation nature can observe a great
resemblance to a graph obtained from the module Creo Mechanism when the
maximal value of the shock force is 73° 192N (Fig. 3).
Analysis of the Mechanism of the Drill Hammer 157
For resolving the task was chosen a modified equation for the contact of two balls.
The maximum value of the contact pressure was obtained from Eq. (2):
p
3
ffiffiffi 2
6 Ered 3 1
po ¼ F3 ð2Þ
p Re
The size of the force F has been selected 73192N. Ered value for two steel balls
of the same material is Ered = 1.153846 105 MPa (E = 2.1 × 105 MPa and
µ = 0.3). Furthermore simplification Re = R1. Size R1 was chosen 75 mm, the
value rounding shock worker (3). The tool was considered plane.
p ffiffiffi 2 p ffiffiffi 2
3
6 Ered 3 1 3
6 1:153846 105 3 1
po ¼ F3 ¼ ð73192Þ3 ¼ 3224:4 MPa ð3Þ
p Re p 75
The value of the resulting pressure is approximately 1.5 times greater than the
figure recorded in the impact analysis. This value would be correct, assuming that the
area of the shock worker is completely straight. Calculated pressure went higher than
a contact pressure in the analysis. The formula for calculating the contact of two
spheres also does not exactly correspond to the real situation. Due to the fact that the
tool is a hole diameter dd = 7 mm, there is a concentration of the largest voltage at
the border of the hole. It is possible to say that the result of the contact is approx-
imately analysis results counted according to the formulas. To check whether the
counted value analysis is correct, we were made more simplified calculation for
contact with the cylinder surface and the planar surface according to the formula (4).
F 1
p2o ¼ 0:175E ¼ 1;630;185:46 MPa ) po ¼ 1277 MPa ð4Þ
l Re
Again, we consider that the value of Re = R1, is 75 mm. The length l was
considered as a circuit holes l = π dd. As seen, this value of the contact pressure
according to the formula 4 is closer to values that can be seen from Fig. 4.
After determining the size of the impact force could be created contact analysis in
the module Creo Simulate. The objective of this analysis was to determine the
pressures at the contact point with the shock worker and the tool. The analysis used
the same model as for the calculation of the overall stiffness. In the report were
made slight adjustments. The size of the force has been set at 73° 192N. Defining
158 M. Konečný
Fig. 4 Detailed distribution of pressures on the shock worker and the tool
the contact surface between the tool and the shock worker maintained as the
analysis stiffness. The contact area was been awarded on the tool and the shock
worker 0.2 mm. The size of elements of concentrated mesh can be seen in Fig. 4.
The result of the contact analysis is visualized in Fig. 4. The critical point of
reaching pressure values of almost 2150 MPa in the area of the hole’s edge. In other
locations the pressure is at lower levels and corresponds to the value of the contact
pressure obtained from the formula according to the Hertz theory of contact a ball
with the planar surface (4). The measured results were compared with the actual
wear part (Fig. 5).
Analysis of the Mechanism of the Drill Hammer 159
4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments This publication was written at the Technical University of Liberec, Faculty
of Mechanical Engineering with the support of the Institutional Endowment for the Long Term
Conceptual Development of Research Institutes, as provided by the Ministry of Education, Youth
and Sports of the Czech Republic.
Reference
1. Medvec, A., Stradiot, J., Záhorec, O., Caban, S.: Mechanics III Dynamic, Bratislava SNTL
(1988)
Free Vibration Frequency Spectrum
of Four-Planetary Gearing Box
Keywords Planetary gearing Negative stiffness Frequency spectrum Multiple
eigenvalues
1 Introduction
Modal and spectral dynamic properties of planetary gearboxes are more compli-
cated than parallel-axis gear transmission systems and therefore they need deeper
dynamic analysis. The main advantage of planetary gearing is in splitting of force
flow into several planet stages and so minimizing of weight. In order to prevent
unequal load sharing on planet stages, floating sun gear and flexible pins of planet
gears are applied. Dynamic model of such a gearing box is very complicated mainly
since it has several multiple eigenfrequencies in its spectrum.
In this paper, the solution of spectral properties of the plane type of gearings with
four planetary subsystems and with fixed planet carrier is presented. As the all
wheels have helical gearings, fluctuation of teeth contact stiffness over a mesh cycle
can be neglected. Steady contacts in gearings are asserted by means of preloading
due to the constant moment loads on the sun and on outer rig gears.
Application of floating sun gear causes that in addition to the deformations in
mesh contact in the direction of tangent to the base circle there is also a radial
motion component perpendicular to this tangential deformation. Restoring forces at
displacement in this radial direction are usually not taken into account at mathe-
matical modelling. The new radial stiffness of gear contact has been therefore
introduced both for external and internal tooth systems.
The plane type of gearings with four planetary subsystems and with fixed planet
carrier has been solved—Fig. 1. All the wheels have helical gearings. As these
gearings have a very small variation of contact stiffness, teeth contact stiffness is
supposed to be constant. The main aim of the complex study is analysis of influence
of planetary pins compliance (stiffness kc) and of free (or weekly supported, stiff-
ness kc) axis of sun wheel on gearbox dynamic properties. The second aim is to
prepare the theoretical base for evaluation of measurements data gained at the
planned experiments on new gearing box prototype.
Mutual radial motion of two gearing wheels changes pressure angle a as shown in
Fig. 2, where r3 ¼ r3 cosðaÞ; r2 ¼ r2 cosðaÞ are radiuses of base, (r3 ; r2 of pitch)
circles. The radial shift Dy determines change Da of pressure angle a. The radial
component Fr of the contact force F increases:
Fig. 1 Four-planetary
gearing
Free Vibration Frequency Spectrum of Four-Planetary Gearing Box 163
Also the change of radial shift Dy is connected with Da. The approaching of base
circles Dyc and of axes Dya of both wheels are the same Dyc ¼ Dya ¼ Dy:
Similar relations are valid also for the radial contact stiffness between ring and
planetary wheel that is an internal gearing contact, where the pressure angle a
increases Da [ 0 at wheels penetrating Dy ¼ Dyc . In such a case the radial contact
stiffness kr is positive. However, the approaching of base circles Dyc at internal
gearing contact is connected with increase of wheel axes distance Dya ¼ Dyc and
therefore the radial contact stiffness kr ¼ DF Dya of this internal gearing has again
r
The first step in solution of dynamics of the four planetary gearing system (Fig. 1)
is analysis of one separate planet wheel. We shall use the same value for external
and internal tooth contacts kr ¼ 40,000 N/m: Equations of motion of free radial
vibration of one planet wing, at assumption that the ring wheel axis is stiff, are
q ¼ ½u1 1 y2 1 x2 1 u2 2 y2 2 x2 2 u2 3 y2 3 x2 3 u2 4 y2 4 x2 4 u2 y3 x3 u3 T : ð5Þ
Free Vibration Frequency Spectrum of Four-Planetary Gearing Box 165
ð7Þ
Introducing expressions (6) and (7) into Lagrange equations. (4) we get 16
differential equations of motion
€ 1 þ k1 r1 ½4r1 u1 r2 ð1 u2 þ 2 u2 þ 3 u2 þ 4 u2 Þ 1 x2 þ 2 y2 þ 3 x2 4 y2 ¼ 0;
H1 u
m2 1€y2 þ ðkc þ 2kr Þ1 y2 kr y3 ¼ 0;
m2 1€x2 k1 r1 u1 þ ðk1 k2 Þr2 1 u2 þ ðk1 þ k2 þ kc Þ1 x2 þ k2 r3 u3 k2 x3 ¼ 0;
€ 2 k1 r2 r1 u1 þ ðk1 þ k2 Þr2 1 u2 ðk2 k1 Þr2 1 x2 þ k2 r2 x3 k2 r2 r3 u3 ¼ 0;
H2 1 u
m2 2€y2 þ k1 r1 u1 ðk1 k2 Þr2 2 u2 þ ðk1 þ k2 þ kc Þ2 y2 k2 r3 u3 k2 y3 ¼ 0;
m2 2€x2 þ ðkc þ 2kr Þ2 x2 kr x3 ¼ 0;
€ 2 k1 r2 r1 u1 þ ðk1 þ k2 Þr2 2 u2 þ ðk2 k1 Þr2 2 y2 k2 r2 y3 k2 r2 r3 u3 ¼ 0;
H2 2 u
m2 3€y2 þ ðkc þ 2kr Þ3 y2 kr y3 ¼ 0;
ð8Þ
m2 3€x2 þ k1 r1 u1 ðk1 k2 Þr2 3 u2 þ ðk1 þ k2 þ kc Þ3 x2 k2 r3 u3 k2 x3 ¼ 0;
€ 2 k1 r2 r1 u1 þ ðk1 þ k2 Þr2 3 u2 þ ðk2 k1 Þr2 3 x2 k2 r2 x3 k2 r2 r3 u3 ¼ 0;
H2 3 u
m2 4€y2 k1 r1 u1 þ ðk1 k2 Þr2 4 u2 þ ðk1 þ k2 þ kc Þ4 y2 þ k2 r3 u3 k2 y3 ¼ 0;
m2 4€x2 þ ðkc þ 2kr Þ4 x2 kr x3 ¼ 0;
€ 2 k1 r2 r1 u1 þ ðk1 þ k2 Þr2 4 u2 þ ðk1 k2 Þr2 4 y2 þ k2 r3 y3 k2 r2 r3 u3 ¼ 0;
H2 4 u
m3€y3 þ k2 ½r2 ð2 u2 4 u2 Þ þ 2y3 2 y2 4 y2 þ k3 y3 þ kr ð2y3 1 y2 3 y2 Þ ¼ 0
m3€x3 þ k2 ½r2 ð1 u2 3 u2 Þ þ 2x3 1 x2 3 x2 þ k3 x3 þ kr ð2x3 2 x2 4 x2 Þ ¼ 0
€ 3 þ k2 r3 ð4r3 u3 r2 1 u2 r2 2 u2 r2 3 u2 r2 4 u2 þ 1 x2 2 y2 3 x2 þ 4 y2 Þ ¼ 0;
H3 u
166 L. Půst et al.
M €q þ K q ¼ 0 ð9Þ
with the coordinate vector q given by (5) and with the diagonal inertia matrix M
M ¼ diag½nH1 ; m2 ; m2 ; H2 ; m2 ; m2 ; H2 ; m2 ; m2 ; H2 ; m2 ; m2 ; H2 ; m3 ; m3 ; H3 n
ð10Þ
eigenvalue into several separated eigenfrequencies located close to each other and
having separate mode shapes. If in the above mentioned mathematical model of
planetary gearing is completed with moderately increasing e.g. stiffness kc of
flexible planet pins, then the frequency spectrum differs a little from the original in
Table 1, all eigenvalues are distinct and eigenmodes can be easily determined.
5 Conclusion
It is shown that the solution of vibrations of planetary gearing box with the weakly
supported sun wheel needs to include radial gear mesh stiffness into mathematical
model and that this stiffness is negative. After deriving 16 differential equations of
gearing motion, the free frequency spectrum is ascertained. Several multiple
eigenfrequencies were discovered and the method for ascertaining of adjoined
eigenmode shapes is indicated.
Acknowledgments The work has been supported by the grant project TA04011656.
References
1. Půst, L., Pešek, L., Radolfová, A.: Negative stiffness in gear contact. Appl. Comput. Mech.
9(2), 141–150 (2015)
2. Půst, L. Pešek, L. Radolfová, A.: Free vibration of planetary gearing. In Proceedings of
Dynamesi 2015, IT ASCR, pp. 45–54. Prague (2015)
3. Newland, D.E.: Mechanical vibration analysis and computation, Longman Scientific and
Technical, Harlow Essex, England (1989)
4. Collatz, L.: Eigenwertaufgaben mit technischen Anwendungen. Akademische
Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig (1949)
Speed Control of 3-Phase Induction Motor
in Presence of Sommerfeld Effect
Abstract This paper considers the dynamics of an unbalanced rotor disk which is
supported on a flexible foundation and is driven by a three-phase induction motor
(IM). At resonance, the structural vibration amplitudes of the system are high and
most of the motor power is spent to excite the structural mode of vibration. If the
motor is improperly sized then it may not be possible for it to drive the rotor
through this resonance. Even if the motor is sufficiently powerful, it first approaches
the natural frequency and then suddenly jumps to a much higher value. This classic
phenomenon is called the Sommerfeld effect. IM control laws often neglect this
phenomenon. We develop a controller for such situation. The source-structure
interaction involving the power transfer mechanism is modeled through bond graph
and simulation results are presented.
1 Introduction
useful for modelling multi-disciplinary systems and has been used in the past for
motor-rotor interaction modelling [5].
2 Model Description
Here, dynamics of a system with a 3-phase squirrel cage motor (see Fig. 1) attached
with an unbalanced disk mounted on a flexible foundation is studied.
The disk’s mass centre at C is at distance e from the geometric centre of disk at
G. The total mass of the disk is denoted by m. The geometric centre of the disk is
coupled with the motor and the rotor is supported by a bearing offering constant
viscous resistance Rb . The foundation is flexible. The mass, stiffness and damping
coefficients of the foundation are M, Kf and Rf , respectively. Parameters considered
for this system are listed in Table 1.
kf Rf
Let the position of the mass center G be (xm ; ym ) and geometric center C be (x; y). It
follows from Fig. 1 that ym ¼ y þ esinðh þ dÞ and y_ m ¼ y_ ecosðh þ dÞh_ where,
h ¼ xt is the angle between the x-axis and the line passing from the geometric
centre through the mass centre of the rotor, x is the rotor speed, and d is an arbitrary
phase angle. The equations of motion of the system may be written as (2, 3, 5)
Ip €h ¼ TðhÞ
_ Rb h_ þ me€y sinðhÞ ð2Þ
_ is the output torque from the motor. From Eq. 1, natural frequency
where TðhÞ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
xn ¼ Kf ðM þ mÞ. Substituting y ¼ Acosðxt /Þ in Eq. (1) yields
xRf mex2
tanð/Þ ¼ and A ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2ffi ð3Þ
Kf ðM þ mÞx2
xRf þ Kf ðM þ mÞx2
where Es and Er are stator electric field and rotor electric field, respectively, B is the
magnetic field, and U is the magnetic flux. For number of turns ns , we get potential
differences (5) across terminals as
_ _ 2p _ 2p
V1s ¼ ns U1s ; V2s ¼ ns U2s cos þ U3s sin ;
3 3
ð5Þ
_ 4p _ 4p
V3s ¼ ns U2s cos þ U3s sin
3 3
Three phase voltage supply and delta connection sub-models which are used in
the integrated model are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. Here, TF moduli
ld1 ¼ cos xt, ld2 ¼ cosðxt 2p=3Þ and ld3 ¼ osðxt 4p=3Þ.
In Fig. 3, e=o and e=i are the output and input voltage ports. The integrated bond
graph model of the squirrel cage induction motor attached with an unbalance rotor
placed on a flexible foundation is shown Fig. 4 where ia and ib are the currents in
172 A. Bisoi et al.
..
0 TF
..
0 TF 0 Se :
..
0 TF
e/i
e/o 0 0 e/o
1 0 1
e/i
e/i
e/o
the rotor in x and y directions, i110 , i220 and i330 are the currents in the 3 different
phases of stator side. The equivalent rotor inductance equivalent rotor resistance are
reduced as Ir ¼ ðns =nr Þ2 Ir0 and Rr ¼ ðns =nr Þ2 Rr0 where Ir0 and Rr0 are actual rotor
inductance and actual rotor resistance of the motor, respectively, and ns and nr are
number of stator and rotor poles. In case of squirrel cage induction motors, ns ¼ nr .
Three phase voltage supply to two phase supply transformation is given as
Speed Control of 3-Phase Induction Motor in Presence … 173
pffiffiffi 2 3
is1
iar 2 cos 0 cos 2p=3 cos 4p=3 4 5
¼ pffiffiffi is2 ð6Þ
ibr 3 sin 0 sin 2p=3 sin 4p=3
is3
Thus, the values of transformer moduli used in bond graph model are
a1 ¼ sec 2p=3, b1 ¼ csc 2p=3, a2 ¼ sec 4p=3, b2 ¼ csc 4p=3. Contribution of
voltage from mutual inductance is modeled by GY elements. Moduli of Gyrators
are given as g1 ¼ Lm dib =dt and g2 ¼ Lm dia =dt. More details of this model are
available in (4, 5).
Simulation results
Using the data in Table 1, xn ¼ 73:1 rad/s. The variables used to plot the results are
normalized transverse displacement of foundation A ¼ 2x2n A=ðp2 gÞ and normal-
ized shaft spin speed x ¼ x=xn , where g is the acceleration due to gravity. For
supply voltage Vs = 53.3 V and frequency 60 Hz (377 rad/s), the rotor speed gets
stuck at the resonance as shown in Fig. 5. The corresponding results for
Vs = 53.4 V are shown in Fig. 6, where vibration amplitude reduces and rotor
speed jumps to near synchronous speed (372 rad/s).
Generally there are two types of speed control methods for induction motor. One is
scalar control and the other is vector control method. Volts-per-hertz, commonly
called V/f is the most popular method of IM control. It is widely used in industrial
and domestic applications. In pure V/f approach, the voltage and frequency ratio is
kept constant; the constant being specified according to motor rating in order to
avoid coil burnout. Some transient simulations with V/f control of IM are shown in
Figs. 7 and 8 with V/f constant chosen as 1 (f is in rad/s). In Fig. 7, the reference
speed is 60 rad/s, supply voltage Vs = 60 V. The simulation results show that the
motor speed reaches nearly the synchronous speed. Similar result is obtained when
the reference speed is set to 80 rad/s (Vs = 80 V) and the steady speed reached is
nearly the synchronous speed as shown in Fig. 8. Thus, the resonance is passed
without the system being caught at it.
When the reference speed is kept just above the resonance speed, the response
does not settle to any steady value. This happens due to Sommerfeld effect which
excludes some speed zones from stable operation. Such cases for reference speed of
74 rad/s (resonance is at 71.3 rad/s) are shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
4 Conclusions
References
1. Sommerfeld, A.: Beiträge Zum Dynamischen Ausbau Der Festigkeitslehe, Physikal Zeitschr 3,
266 (1902)
2. Samantaray, A.K.: Steady-state dynamics of a non-ideal rotor with internal damping and
gyroscopic effects. Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 56(4), 443 (2008)
176 A. Bisoi et al.
3. Karthikeyan, M., Bisoi, A., Samantaray, A.K., Bhattacharyya, R.: Sommerfeld effect
characterization in rotors with non-ideal drive from ideal drive response and power balance.
Mech. Mach. Theory 91, 269 (2015)
4. Mukherjee, A., Karmakar, R., Samantaray, A.K.: Bond graph in modeling, simulation and fault
identification. CRC Press (2012)
5. Mukherjee, A., Karmakar, R., Samantaray, A.K.: Modelling of basic induction motors and
source loading in rotor-motor systems with regenerative force field. Simul. Pract. Theor. 7, 563
(1999)
Part III
Computational Mechanics
Various Strategies of Elastic Forces
Evaluation in the Absolute Nodal
Coordinate Formulation
Abstract This paper deals with the description of the absolute nodal coordinate
formulation (ANCF) which is suitable for the flexible bodies modelling considering
large deformation. As it is shown for beam ANCF elements, this formulation leads
to the nonlinear expression of elastic forces, which could be the main disadvantage
of the ANCF. The evaluation of these forces can be done by numerical integration
in each computational step or by analytical derivation with the help of a software
for symbolic operations. The computational performance of various elastic forces
evaluation strategies is investigated using a benchmark problem of falling flexible
pendulum.
1 Introduction
paper is focused on a lower order ANCF element, which can be used for modelling
of thin cables, fibers and wires. This element respects bending and axial stiffness
and can be also extended by adding torsional stiffness [4].
A spatial lower order ANCF element of length l with two nodes uses components of
position vector r of nodes and its derivation with respect to local parameter x 2
h0; li (slopes) as the nodal coordinates. This can be expressed as
h i
ðiÞT ðjÞT T
e ¼ rðiÞT ; r;x ; rðjÞT ; r;x ; ð1Þ
where e is the vector of nodal coordinates, rðiÞ is the position vector of node i and
ðiÞ ðiÞ
r;x ¼ @r@x ¼ sðiÞ represents the slope at node i (note, that each element has node
i and j). This implies that each element has 12 degrees of freedom, 6 at each node.
T
Global position r ¼ rx ; ry ; rz of an arbitrary beam point determined by parameter
x can be written as
where S is the global shape function matrix of size 3 12, I is the identity matrix of
size 3 3 and the shape functions can be derived in the form
s1 ¼ 1 3n2 þ 2n3 ; s2 ¼ l n 2n2 þ n3 ;
ð3Þ
s3 ¼ 3n2 2n3 ; s4 ¼ l n2 þ n3 ; n ¼ x=l:
It must be noted, that a cubic polynomials in x are employed to describe all three
components of the displacement and the element can be considered as
isoparametric.
Standard procedures (e.g. the Lagrange equations or the principle of virtual
work) can be used in order to derive a mathematical model of the spatial ANCF
element. Kinetic energy of the element with material density q is
Zl Zl
1 1 1
Ek ¼ qA_rT r_ dx ¼ e_ T qAST Sdx e_ ¼ e_ T Me e_ ; ð4Þ
2 2 2
0 0
separation of the strain energy of longitudinal deformation Epl and the strain energy
of transverse (bending) deformation Ept as
Zl Zl
1 1
Ep ¼ Epl þ Ept ¼ EAe2x dx þ EIj2 dx; ð5Þ
2 2
0 0
where E is the Young modulus, A is the area of the cross-section and I is the second
moment of the area about a transverse axis. In this particular case, it is assumed that
the second moments of the area for both transverse axes z and y are equal, so it is
applied I ¼ Izz ¼ Iyy . The axial strain ex and the curvature j can be in general case
expressed as [2]
2
1 T 1 d r r ;x r ;xx
ex ¼ r;x r;x 1 ¼ f 2 1 ; j ¼ 2 ¼ 3 ; ð6Þ
2 2 ds r;x
where f ¼ ddxs represents the deformation gradient for longitudinal strain and ds is
the infinitesimal arc length. Note, that the axial strain is defined by Green strain
tensor. The strain energy leads to nonlinear elastic forces that must be evaluated in
each integration step.
Based on the general expression of axial strain (6), the vector of longitudinal elastic
forces of the element e has the form
Z l
T
@Epl @ex
Qel ¼ ¼ EA ex dx
@e @e
0
Zl 1
¼ EA ST;x S;x e eT ST;x S;x e 1 dx ¼ Kl ðeÞe: ð7Þ
2
0
The integral in Eq. (7) can be derived analytically or by using some software for
symbolic operations (MATLAB R2012a was used in this work). It can be shown
that the resultant nonlinear longitudinal stiffness matrix is a full matrix and its
elements are quadratic functions of the nodal coordinates. The evaluation of such a
vector of elastic forces in each time step can be computationally demanding. That is
why it is suitable to approximate the integral in (7) by using the Gaussian
quadrature. As it is noted in [1], the matrix Kl ðeÞ is not unique and another
derivation of this matrix in case of planar ANCF beam is shown there. It is based on
182 R. Bulín and M. Hajžman
Z l
T
@Ept @j
Qet ¼ ¼ EI j dx: ð8Þ
@e @e
0
Since the general expression of curvature j in Eq. (6) is of a complex form, the
integral in Eq. (8) is difficult to solve even with the help of the software for
symbolic operations. But, as it is mentioned in [2], the derivation of curvature @j
@e
can be obtained in closed form. The vector of transverse elastic forces can be then
evaluated using Gaussian quadrature with the use of several precomputed terms. As
it is described in [1], significant simplification can be achieved when the longitu-
dinal deformation within the element is assumed constant while developing the
vector of transverse elastic forces. Then, the deformation gradient f ¼ ddxs has a
constant value f and the curvature can be simplified as
2 2
d r d r d2 x 1 1
j ¼ 2 ¼ 2 2 ¼ 2 r;xx ¼ 2 S;xx e:
ð6Þ
ds dx ds f f
Fig. 1 The scheme of the flexible pendulum with its cross-section and the visualization of the
pendulum in discrete time steps
last model is denoted as L2T2 and the strategy of evaluation of the elastic forces is
evident from the name of the model and corresponds with [1].
The visualization of the flexible pendulum obtained from solution of the G10-10
model is shown in Fig. 1. The computational times for each model and maximum
difference over time from G10-10 model are summarized in Table 1. It is obvious,
that results from G2-2 model are rather different, because it uses only two Gaussian
points to approximate cubic terms in general. Other differences between models are
rather small. It seems reasonable to use more Gaussian points for longitudinal force
approximation (5 points), because their evaluation is relatively fast. The vertical
displacement of the pendulum tip for selected models and the difference of vertical
displacement of the tip is shown in Fig. 2.
Table 1 The summary of computational demands for various approaches to elastic forces
Model Number Computational Computational Computational Maximum
of time (s) time for time for difference from
elements longitudinal transverse G10-10 model
forces (s) forces (s) (m)
G2-2 10 107.5 14.6 60.5 3.36 × 10−1
G3-3 10 185.7 26.3 116.1 4.16 × 10−3
G4-4 10 233.4 33.8 154.1 1.84 × 10−4
G5-5 10 285.2 42.2 192.9 3.29 × 10−5
G10-10 10 492.5 76.5 367.2 Reference model
ST2 10 355.0 261.1 48.1 1.02 × 10−4
L2T2 10 109.8 14.8 50.3 1.02 × 10−2
L2T2 20 481.4 67.5 233.4 7.72 × 10−3
184 R. Bulín and M. Hajžman
Fig. 2 The vertical displacement of the pendulum tip for selected models and the difference of
vertical displacement of the tip for selected models
5 Conclusions
In this paper, the ANCF beam element suitable for problems of flexible multibody
dynamics was described and various strategies of evaluation of the elastic forces
were shown. According to resultant computational times of various models it is
recommended to use five Gaussian points to approximate longitudinal elastic forces
and at least three points for transverse forces. Another option for transverse force
evaluation is to use T2 model [1]. The symbolical evaluation of longitudinal forces
leads to full stiffness matrix, whose evaluation is relatively slow.
Acknowledgments The first author was supported by the project LO1506 of the Czech Ministry
of Education, Youth and Sports and the second author was supported by the project 15-20134S of
the Czech Science Foundation.
References
1. Berzeri, M., Shabana, A.A.: Development of simple models for the elastic force in the absolute
nodal co-ordinate formulation. J. Sound Vib. 235, 539–565 (2000)
2. Gerstmayr, J., Shabana, A.A.: Analysis of thin beams and cables using absolute nodal
co-ordinate formulation. Nonlinear Dyn. 45, 109–130 (2006)
3. Shabana, A.A.: Dynamics of Multibody Systems, 3rd edn. Cambridge UP (2005)
4. Yoo, W.-S., Dmitrochenko, O., Park, S.-J., Lim, O.-K.: A new thin spatial beam element using
the absolute nodal coordinates: application to a rotating strip. Mech. Based Des. Struct. Mach.
33, 339–422 (2005)
Nonlinear Vibration of Nuclear Fuel Rods
Abstract From mechanical point of view, nuclear fuel rod (FR) is a complex
system consisting of two subsystems—fuel rod cladding (thin walled zirconium
tube) and a fuel pellets stack placed inside the cladding placed with a small radial
clearance. Both subsystems are beam-type continua that possibly impact-interact
during the vibration caused by fuel assembly support plates motion. The FR is
supported at eight levels by prestressed spacer grid cells. The paper focuses on
complex mathematical modelling of such a system including all the nonlinearities
given by possible impacts between cladding and fuel pellets stack and possible
loose of contact between cladding and spacer grid cells due to low prestress. In all
the contact points, friction-vibration interactions respect three possible phases—
stick, slip and separation—depending on the slip velocity and normal contact force.
The model is used for estimation of a fretting wear of the cladding in contact with
spacer grids.
A fuel rod (FR) is a key part of nuclear fuel assembly as it is the component where
the nuclear reaction occurs. Basically, there are two types of FAs—hexagonal and
square-type, where the type refers to shape of FA’s cross section. The paper deals
with modelling of hexagonal-type FAs (see Fig. 1) that consists of 312 FRs, 18
guide thimbles, one centre tube and six angle-pieces that stiffen the FA’s con-
struction. At eight levels, regularly placed on the axis of the FA, there are spacer
grids (SGs) that fix all the components in hexagonal cross section. Whole FA is
submerged into coolant liquid (in case of VVER reactors, there is water as a
coolant). In VVER-1000 reactors, there are 163 FAs in a reactor core that are fixed
in lower and upper mounting plates. Due to pressure pulsations of coolant, the
mounting plates are excited and their motion can be computed using global reactor
model [1]. A SGs motion is investigated using linearized model of the chosen FA
[2]. Obtained kinematical excitation is used in a detailed nonlinear model of one
chosen FR.
A fretting wear of Zr FR cladding has been analysed in [3], but the modelling of
FR vibration did not include friction forces in contact points whose effect was
approximated by proportional damping. Friction forces can significantly influence
results of numerical simulation. In the model described in this paper, friction and
impact forces are fully considered.
A mechanical scheme of a nuclear fuel rod is shown in the Fig. 2. It consists of a
FR cladding (C) in the form of long thin-walled Zr tube and fuel pellets stack
(P) placed inside the C. The subsystem P is axially coupled with the C by
hold-down fixation spring. Between both subsystems, there is a little radial clear-
ance d; that is considered to be constant through whole length of the FR. Both
subsystems C and P are fixed at the bottom-end to the lower piece that is fixed in
the moving lower FA support plate. At eight levels g, the cladding is supported by
three spacer grid cells as shown in the Fig. 2.
Both subsystems are modelled using finite element method (FEM) for
Euler-Bernoulli type one-dimensional continua. In each discrete node, all the six
degrees of freedom are respected (axial displacement and two lateral displacements,
Nonlinear Vibration of Nuclear Fuel Rods 187
Fig. 2 Schematic mechanical model of the FR in side-view and a cross-section of the FR at the
level of spacer grid g
torsional rotational angle and flexural bending angles). The mathematical model of
the system including all above mentioned nonlinearities can be written in the form
of set of second order ordinary differential equations
" ðCÞ
#" # " #" #
MF 0 €FðCÞ
q
ðCÞ
BF 0
ðCÞ
q_ F
ðPÞ
þ
0 MF €FðPÞ
q 0 BF
ðPÞ
q_
ðPÞ
" ðCÞ #" ðCÞ # ! " FðCÞ # " #
ðCÞ ðCÞ
KF 0 qF f L ðtÞ f SG qF ; q_ F ; t
þ þ Kfix ¼ ðPÞ þ
0 KF
ðPÞ ðPÞ
qF f L ðtÞ 0 ð1Þ
2 3
ðCÞ ðCÞ ðPÞ ðPÞ
f P;C qF ; q_ F ; qF ; q_ F
6 7
þ4 5;
ðCÞ ðCÞ ðPÞ ðPÞ
f C;P qF ; q_ F ; qF ; q_ F
ðXÞ
where qF ; X ¼ C; P are vectors of generalized coordinates of the free nodes
ðXÞ ðXÞ ðXÞ
i ¼ 1; 2; . . .16, see Fig. 2, matrices MF ; BF ; KF ; X ¼ C; P; are mass, damping
and stiffness matrices, respectively, of both subsystems and Kfix is stiffness matrix
ðXÞ
of fixation spring. At the right hand side of (1), there are vectors f L ðtÞ; X ¼ C; P of
ðCÞ ðCÞ
kinematical excitation by motion of the lower node L, and vector f SG qF ; q_ F ; t
express forces caused by all the SGs. Last vector in (1) is vector of impact forces
between subsystems P and C. The latter two vectors include both generalized
displacements and generalized velocities of the subsystems which expresses
188 Š. Dyk and V. Zeman
nonlinear character of the contact forces. The model (1) can be formally rewritten
into standard matrix form
qðtÞ þ B_
M€ _
qðtÞ þ KqðtÞ ¼ fðqðtÞ; qðtÞ; tÞ; ð2Þ
that can be solved numerically after transformation to the form of the set of double
number of first order equations.
f ðxÞ
Dmj;g ¼ l Wj;g ð3Þ
f0
where l is loss of FR cladding mass in one contact surface generated by the work of
friction force 1 J at the excitation frequency x; f ðxÞ is experimentally obtained
friction coefficient at the same frequency [4], f0 is calculated friction coefficient and
Wj;g is the work of friction forces.
Figure 3 shows the fretting wear per a steady state part of simulation domain
(0,3 s) and its evolution during an operational cycle of the reactor. The work offriction
forces in (3) is obtained using nonlinear response of the system described by (1).
Table 1 Combination of system parameters considered for different states during reactor
operational cycle
State Radial clearance between C Prestress of SG Fixation spring
number and P (μm) cells (N) hold-down force (N)
I 65 20 5
II 48.75 16.25 6.25
III 32.5 12.5 7.5
IV 16.5 8.75 8.75
V 0 5 10
Nonlinear Vibration of Nuclear Fuel Rods 189
Fig. 3 Fretting wear per the simulation time at all the SG levels and in all the contact points
190 Š. Dyk and V. Zeman
3 Conclusions
Acknowledgments This publication was supported by the project LO1506 of the Czech Ministry
of Education, Youth and Sports.
References
1. Hlaváč, Z., Zeman, V.: Vibration of Nuclear Fuel Assemblies: Modelling, Methods,
Application. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing, Saarbruecken (2013)
2. Zeman, V., Hlaváč, Z.: Dynamic response of nuclear fuel assembly excited by pressure
pulsations. Appl. Comput. Mech. 6, 212–230 (2012)
3. Zeman, V., Dyk, Š., Hlaváč, Z.: Mathematical modelling of nonlinear vibration and fretting
wear of the nuclear fuel rods. Arch. Appl. Mech. 86, 657–668 (2016)
4. Pečínka, L., Svoboda, J., Zeman, V.: Fretting wear of the Zr fuel rod cladding. In: Proceedings
of the 2014 22nd International Conference of Nuclear Engineering ICONE22 (2014)
Thermal Field Simulation of Repair
Threads in a Hole in the Cover
of a Pressure Vessel by Welding
Using Sysweld
Abstract This paper deals with the analysis of residual strain and stress after
welding. It was done using the SYSWELD software, which is based on the finite
element methods. The welding solution has been divided into two phases. In our
simulation we have used the Goldak model for a heat source. After the correct
allocation of all inputs the process can be initiated. The results of this phase of the
solution are the distribution of the thermal fields and the percentages of the separate
metallurgical phases. The results of these solutions are presented in this paper.
1 Introduction
where k is the thermal conductivity of the material. The energy required to change
the temperature of the material is defined by specific heat c or enthalpy H. The
conservation of energy is expressed in differential form having the terms for specific
Thermal Field Simulation of Repair Threads … 193
heat, thermal flux and a distributed volume heat-source term Q000 (W/m3) and it is
given as
qcT_ r(krT) Q00 ¼ 0 ð2Þ
where T_ ¼ @T=@t with t being the time parameter and ρ the density of the materials.
In the FEM analysis, the boundary conditions are applied to the model by speci-
fying the value of the heat transfer coefficient and the surrounding temperatures at
the elements and nodes, respectively, of the “skin elements” by creating a mesh at
the boundaries of the domain studies.
When applied to the heat Eq. (2), the finite element method involves the solution
of a system of differential equations [8]:
CT_ þ KT ¼ Q ð3Þ
R ¼ Q CT_ KT ¼ 0 ð4Þ
where R is a vector containing all the residual nodal forces (temperature). For
non-linear analysis, Eq. (4) is to be solved by an iterative method at each time
step. T is the nodal temperature vector, T_ is the time derivative of the temperature,
C is the specific heat matrix, K is the conductivity matrix and Q is the vector of
nodal power equivalent to an internal heat source and boundary conditions.
A 3D model for transient analysis is shown in Fig. 1. This model contained
120356 linear elements.
In this model the heat source distribution is comprised of two different ellipses in
Fig. 2, i.e. one is in the front quadrant of the heat source and the other is in the rear
quadrant. The power densities of the double-ellipsoidal heat source, qf (x, y, z) and
qr (x, y, z) describe the Goldak heat flux distribution inside the front and rear
quadrant of the heat source and can be expressed as [2]:
pffiffiffi 2
6 3 f f Q 3x22 3y22 3ðzvðstÞÞ
qf (x; y; z) ¼ pffiffiffi e a e b e c2
f ð5Þ
abcf p p
pffiffiffi
6 3 f r Q 3x22 3y22 3ðzvðstÞÞ 2
where Q is the energy input rate, ff and fr are the fractional factor of the heat deposit
in the front and rear quadrant, a, b, cf and cr are heat source parameters, v is welding
rate and τ is total time of welding. Parameters of heat source are in [9].
4 Results
In the numerical simulation the Goldak heat source moves along the helical with 91
screw-threads. Total time of transient thermal and mechanical analysis for one-layer
welding is 21160 s. Results from thermal analysis are the thermal fields in Figs. 3
and 4, and phase distributions in Figs. 6, 7 and 8. In Fig. 5 the temperature change
is along the depth of the neighbor hole and a selected point in the outside surface of
numerical model (top and lateral surface).
In Fig. 8 the result for mechanical analysis with consideration of thermal field
and metallurgical phase fractions from thermal analysis is presented. In the
mechanical solution the isotropic hardening model for plastic deformations was
considered.
Fig. 5 Change of temperature along the length of the repair hole with cooling phase of solution
Thermal Field Simulation of Repair Threads … 197
Fig. 7 Distribution of
tempered martensite phase
after welding of first layer
5 Conclusions
Parameters of the Goldak model of heat source were determined from experimental
measurements in selected points using thermocouples. Good agreement was
obtained between the measurement and numerically calculated value in thermal and
mechanical results. In this paper one of the methods of repair is presented for a hole
with an incorrect screw-thread by using welding. After creating welding layers in
the repair hole in the cover of pressure vessels we cut a new screw-thread. An
isotropic hardening model was used for the solution of mechanical stress, which
leads to an over-conservative estimate of stress.
References
1. Argyris, J.H., Szimmat, J., Willam, K.J.: Computational aspects of welding stress analysis.
Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engng 33, 635–666 (1982)
2. Goldak, J., Chakravarti, A., Bibby, M.A.: A new finite element model for welding heat sources.
Metall. Trans. 15B, 299–305 (1984)
3. Bathe, K.J., Khoshgoftaar, M.R.: Finite element formulation and solution of non-linear heat
transfer. Nucl. Engng Des. 51, 389–401 (1979)
4. Goldak, J., Bibby, M., Moore, J., House, R., Patel, B.: Computational modeling of heat flow in
welds. Metall. Trans. 17B, 587–600 (1984)
5. Leung, C.K., Pick, R.F., Mok, D.H.B.: Finite element modeling of a single pass but well. Weld.
Res. Coun. Bull. 256, 1–10 (1990)
6. Sonti, N., Amateau, M.F.: Finite element modeling of heat flow in deep penetration laser weld
in aluminium alloys. Numer. Heat Transf. Part A 16, 351–370 (1989)
7. SYSWELD v2004. ESI Group
8. Frewin, M.R., Scott, D.A.: Finite element model of pulsed laser welding., Weld J. 78, 15–22
(1999)
9. Voštiar, V., Jančo, R., Élesztös, P.: Numerical simulation of repair of coil nest by welding, In:
Proceedings 7th International scientific conference on Mechanical Engineering 2013, ISBN
80-227-1960-9, Bratislava (2003)
Simulation of Isothermal Compression
Test
1 Introduction
2 Experimental Equipment
For the investigation of viscoelastic behaviour of glass melt (in the temperature
range corresponding to the viscosity of 107–1010 Pa s) the simplest practically
relevant process: uniaxial isothermal compression method was used. The principle
of this method is simple. The glass sample is compressed in defined manner by
working piston and its force response dependence on constant piston velocity and
temperature is measured.
The measurement was realised on a benchtop tensile tester LLOYD 50 LR [1]
with a maximum piston load 50 kN and maximum piston speed 8 mm s−1. To get
reliable outputs strictly isothermal conditions had to be ensured during the exper-
iment. Therefore forming tools and glass samples were heated up in a cylindrical
laboratory furnace. That is an integral part of a laboratory pressing apparatus.
Temperature of pressing plates and glass samples was held constant by an elec-
tronic temperature controller. Actual temperature was monitored by thermocouples
(type K—chromel-alumel), two of them were soldered into the working surfaces of
pistons and third one was located close to the free cylindrical surface of the glass
sample. To avoid sticking of the glass melt 0.24 mm thick mica foils were put in
between the glass and working surfaces.
3 Experimental Results
Fig. 1 Viscoelastic response (a), instantaneous elastic modulus (b) and true compression speed
(c) versus real sample compression under various piston speeds: curves (1)—0.1; (2)—0.3; (3)—
0.5; (4)—1; (5)—2; (6)—4; (7)—6; (8)—8 mm s−1, viscosity 107.4 Pa s (lead crystal)
drðtÞ dðFðtÞ=AðtÞÞ
EðtÞ ¼ ¼ ð1Þ
deðtÞ dðDhðtÞ=hðtÞÞ
where F(t) is the pressing loads at time t, h(t) the sample height at time t; A(t) an
actual value of the cross section; Δh = h0 − h(t) is an instantaneous altitudinal
deformation and h0 is an initial height.
Actual value of instantaneous elastic modulus depends markedly on the com-
pression rate, it tends to the constant value E(∞) asymptotically. The course of the
instantaneous elastic modulus on piston speed at viscosity 107.4 Pa s is shown in
Fig. 2—elastic modulus E(∞) was evaluated to be approx. 1.15 GPa (value ca.
1 GPa was measured with ultrasonic method).
Besides the analysis of the elastic response the attention was also paid to the
evaluation of relaxation behaviour of glass melt. The course of stress relaxation
curves depends markedly on the level of compression of shaped sample (Fig. 3) and
1000
Instantaneous modulus [MPa]
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8
-1
Piston speed [ms ]
Fig. 2 Dependence of instantaneous elastic modulus on the applied piston speed (strain rate)
202 I. Matoušek and O. Matúšek
1
a. - true compression Δh= 3.72 mm
A=0.93, B=0.07, t01=0.09, t02=1.35
0,8 b. - Δh= 7.6
A=0.26, B=0.07, t01=0.74, t02=0.11
Normalised stress [-]
c. - Δ h= 9.6
0,6 A=0.30, B=0.70, t01=0.59, t02=0.15
0,4
0,2
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6
Time [s]
Fig. 3 Normalised curves of the stress relaxation for different Δh at v = 2 m s−1 and
η = 107.4 Pa s
piston speed. Measured data can be described by a multiple Maxwell model—in our
case by coupling two Maxwell elements in parallel [4]:
where σt is the stress at time t, σ0 is initial stress, t0i is the relaxation time.
4 Computer Modelling
Virtual model was created in customized commercial code MSC MARC. The
constitutive behaviour of shaped glass is assumed to be of non-linear viscoelastic,
based on the general Maxwell model. Due to lower sample stiffness the working
pistons were regarded as a rigid body. The lead crystal glass material properties
specified in the model are: E = 1.15 × 109 Pa (Young’s elastic modulus), ν = 0.36
(Poisson’s ratio), cp = 1182 J kg−1 K−1 (specific heat), ρ = 2780 kg m−3 (density
at temperature 611 °C).
Friction conditions between pistons working surfaces and sample were defined
through the shear-based model (frictional stress is a fraction of the equivalent stress
in the formed material) [5]. Samples were subjected to the true compression rate
(Fig. 1c). Friction coefficient was changed in the whole range of values (0–1)
subsequently.
Simulation of Isothermal Compression Test 203
Zt
dhðtÞ
Qdis ¼ fp ðg; h; dh=dtÞ FðtÞ dt ð3Þ
dt
0
Original cylinder edge position and its change during sample compression
a. b.
Fig. 4 Progression of the sample shape made of lead crystal at viscosity 107.4 Pa s for piston speed
2 mm s−2, incl. identification of change of position of original cylinder edge: a FEM model—initial
state, compression 5 and 9.6 mm, b real sample
204 I. Matoušek and O. Matúšek
10000
9000 2
4
8000
1
7000 3
6000
Force [N]
5000
4000
5
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 5 Viscoelastic response of lead crystal at viscosity 107.4 Pa s for the piston speed 2 mm s−2:
1 experimental data, 2 FEM—without consideration of energy dissipation, 3 FEM—with
considering of total viscous heat dissipation, 4 FEM—real process simulation, 5 FEM—without
mechanical heating and without friction
(Δh = 9.6 mm, v = 1 mm s−1); 15 J or 0.8 °C (Δh = 9.6 mm, v = 0.5 mm s−1)
and 327 J and 15.8 °C respectively at compression 7.6 mm and piston speed
4 mm s−1.
In all cases mentioned above the friction coefficient supposed to be 0.9. However
the value of friction coefficient, except idealised—frictionless case (curve 5), does
not influence time behaviour of the force response significantly. Difference between
extreme cases—friction coefficient f = 0 and f = 1 does not exceed value of 10 %.
Curve 4 approximates real time behaviour of the force response very well
although only Newtonian viscosity was considered in this case. However, it is
evident that above compression 8 mm curve 4 starts to deviate from experimental
data. At higher compression acceleration of this process is expected due to shear
thinning.
The results of virtual modelling of lead glass viscoelastic response to various
compression rate—piston speed respectively—from the interval 0.5–4 mm s−1 are
presented in Fig. 5. For all cases analysed (used identical conditions as for piston
speed 2 mm s−1—curve 4 in Fig. 5) the obtained data are in good accordance with
experiment realised (Fig. 6).
Simulation of Isothermal Compression Test 205
12000 4
Experiment
FEM model
10000
8000 3
Force [N]
6000
2
4000
1
2000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 6 Viscoelastic response of lead crystal at viscosity 107.4 Pa s for variable piston speeds:
0.5 mm s−1 (1), 1 mm s−1 (2), 2 mm s−1 (3), and 4 mm s−1 (4) respectively
5 Conclusion
In the paper the viscoelastic response of samples made of lead crystal at viscosity
107.4 Pa s are analysed by means of FEM. For definition of glass melt constitutive
behaviour viscoelastic model of Maxwell type was used. Realised experimental
results prove relatively high accordance with simulated outputs of viscoelastic
response. Although curves describing viscoelastic response of glass sample to
subjected load have tendency to deviate from experimental measurements at higher
compression critical values for initiation of shear thinning behaviour were not
exceeded in the range of strains applied during the experiment.
Acknowledgments This publication was written at the Technical University of Liberec as part of
the project “Research and development in the field of glass-producing machines, industrial and
service robotics” (SGS 21128/115) with the support of the Specific University Research Grant, as
provided by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic in the year 2016.
References
1. Vítová, M.: Forming process and rheological properties of glass. In: Proceedings of 12th
International Conference on Glass Making Machinery, 2006, p. 173 (in Czech)
2. Vítová, M., Matoušek, I.: Rheological response. Ceram. Silikáty 53(1), 59 (2009)
3. Bruckner, R., Yue, Y., Habeckm, A.: Load-dependent flow behaviour of silicate glass melts.
Glastechnische Berichte 67(5), 114 (1994)
4. Sobotka, Z.: Reologie hmot a konstrukcí, Academia (1981) (in Czech)
5. MSC Marc 2008. User manual
Influence of Bubbles in the Shock Liquid
at Its Compressibility
Abstract The article elaborates simplified thoughts of the effect of the size of the
air bubbles and their interactions on the shock fluid compressibility. When fluid
flows through the throttle hole, pressure drop occurs and the dissolved air is
released from the liquid in the form of bubbles. These bubbles can influence the
stiffness of the liquid. If such effect occurs e.g. in a hydraulic shock absorbers, than
the damper stops perform its function. This phenomenon is called the delay.
Releasing the air into the liquid can be observed even at low piston speed of the
damper. However for low piston speeds the delay does not occur, the liquid and
containing air bubbles behave as incompressible.
1 Introduction
The aim of this work is to verify the possibility of formation of the delay [1] in the
damper using elementary physical laws. We assume that the delay is created by the
compression of free air bubbles in the shock liquid. Releasing the air into the liquid
can be observed even at low piston speed of the damper. However for low piston
speeds the delay does not occur, the liquid and containing air bubbles behave as
incompressible. We want verify whether the fluid stiffness depends on bubble
radius and whether the bubbles are grouping into the bigger assemblies.
The set of n equal bubbles (each with radius Rn , pressure pn and volume Vn ) is
described by three simple equations
1. the ideal gas law
pn nVn ¼ p0 V0 ; ð1Þ
4
Vn ¼ pR3n : ð3Þ
3
By substituting pn from (2) and Vn from (3) into (1) we can obtain the ideal gas
law in this form
2 pffiffiffi 2
3npk Vn þ 2 63 3 pnrVn3 3p0 V0 ¼ 0: ð4Þ
1 kn
Kn ¼ ¼ : ð6Þ
n k1n n
Kn
RATIO ¼ : ð7Þ
K1
Exact forms of Eqs. (5), (6) and (7) are very complicated and not
“human-readable”.
Influence of Bubbles in the Shock Liquid at Its Compressibility 209
Fig. 1 Stiffness of a set of n equal bubbles (Kn) compared with stiffness of one bubble (K1). The
mass of gas in the bubbles is the same
Assuming values
R0 ¼ 3 mm; ð10Þ
we get the numerical result shown in Fig. 1. By decreasing number of bubbles, the
volume stiffness of the gas is growing.
The equilibrium position of two connected bubbles occurs if their potential energy
is minimal. For this expression it is necessary to derive dependency of the potential
energy on the distance between midpoints of the bubbles s12. The minimum must
be subsequently applied as follows
dEpðs12 Þ
¼ 0: ð11Þ
ds12
Potential energy of two connected bubbles will be equal to sum of surface and
pressure energy.
210 M. Sivčák and T. Hruš
Ep ¼ Sr þ p1 V1 þ p2 V2 ; ð12Þ
where S is total surface of the bubbles. Gas pressure energy inside the bubble is
constant (we assume the validity of the equation of state) and thus irrelevant for
searching of the energy minimum, just as surface tension.
Therefore the relation is determined by the equation
dS
¼ 0: ð13Þ
ds12
Let’s introduce the marking (Fig. 2) where index 1 is spherical cap of the small
bubble, index 2 for spherical cap of the bigger bubble and index 3 for spherical cap
belonging to both bubbles.
Provided that formula (1) is valid, the following is true for our bubbles:
The initial state of the two bubbles is determined by their size before merging
4pR3i0 2r
Vi0 pi0 ¼ pk þ ; i ¼ 1; 2 ð15Þ
3 Ri0
Pressure inside the bubble pi is sum of pressure of surrounding fluid and addition
due to surface tension
2r
pi ¼ pk þ ; ð16Þ
Ri
where hi, h3 are heights of the spherical caps and rv is spherical cap radius
and
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rv ¼ R21 v31 : ð19Þ
2R1 R2
R3 ¼ ; ð20Þ
R2 R1
distances s13 and v1 are derived from the geometry on the Fig. 2 as follows
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s13 ¼ v1 þ v21 R21 þ R23 ; ð21Þ
By substituting Eqs. (15)–(22) in the Eqs. (14) and (23) we get a system of three
equations which are depending only on R1, R2 and s12.
dS @S @S dR1 @S dR2
¼ þ þ ¼ 0: ð26Þ
ds12 @s12 @R1 ds12 @R2 ds12
Equations (24), (26) and (27) form a system of five nonlinear algebraic equations
with solution of equilibrium state
s12 ¼ R1 þ R2 : ð28Þ
4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments This publication was written at the Technical University of Liberec, Faculty
of Mechanical Engineering with the support of the Institutional Endowment for the Long Term
Conceptual Development of Research Institutes, as provided by the Ministry of Education, Youth
and Sports of the Czech Republic in the year 2016.
Reference
1. Šklíba, J., Svoboda, R.: On the problem of dependence of damper force on the concentration
of free air in working liquid. In: Springer Proceedings in Physics, Vibrations Problems,
ICOVP-2007, 2008. ISBN 978-1-4020-9091-2
Procedure for Seismic Analysis of Liquid
Storage Tanks Using FEM Approach
and Analytical Models
1 Introduction
Large capacity tanks are used as storage for liquid, non-flammable, non-toxic liq-
uids to highly flammable, toxic chemicals with explosive nature before subsequent
treatment or application. They are widely used almost in the industrial sector (e.g.
nuclear power plants). Storage tanks should be properly designed to withstand static
or dynamic loadings. One of them, which is of interest to many researchers, is the
Fig. 1 Model of investigated liquid storage tank and equivalent mechanical model
Procedure for Seismic Analysis of Liquid Storage Tanks … 215
remain the same but vary from the base to the top of the tank. Flexibility of the
tank-liquid system must be taken into account in simplify the equivalent models
using an additional flexible mass connected to the tank wall with springs of
appropriate stiffness [2, 3]. All formulations of the necessary model parameters can
be found in the referenced publications.
The following subchapters are focused on the determination of seismic char-
acteristics using procedures presented in Eurocode 8—section four dedicated to
earthquake resistance of tanks. The investigated model is a flexible (steel) cylin-
drical tank of diameter D (32 m), height H (20 m) and wall thickness t (0.025 m). It
is filled to a height of HL (16 m) with water. The base is fixed to a rigid foundation
and is assumed to be excited by a 1 m s−2 horizontal component of ground
acceleration with an importance factor of III with respect to Eurocode 8.
The total base shear is defined as the total dynamic force exerted by the liquid on
the tank wall and can be defined as
Q ¼ ðmi þ mw þ mr ÞSe Timp þ mc Se ðTcon Þ ð1Þ
where mw and mr represent the wall and the roof mass, Se Timp and Se ðTcon Þ are
spectral accelerations, obtained from the elastic response spectrum, respectively.
Hydrodynamic overturning moments immediately above or below the base of a
structure (representing the total dynamic force exerted by the liquid on the tank)
may be determined as follows
M ¼ ðmi hi þ mw hw þ mr hr ÞSe Timp þ mc hc Se ðTcon Þ
ð2Þ
M 0 ¼ mi h0i þ mw hw þ mr hr Se Timp þ mc h0c Se ðTcon Þ
where hw and hr are the heights of wall and roof centers of gravity, respectively.
base to the top. Due to a weak coupling between the second and third component of
hydrodynamic pressure, the flexible component may be determined independently.
During lateral base excitation, the tank wall is subject to lateral hydrodynamic
pressure. The spatial-temporal distributions of rigid impulsive, flexible and con-
vective pressures are given respectively by
where Ag ðtÞ denotes the ground acceleration time-history, Acn ðtÞ is the acceleration
time-history of SDOF oscillator with natural frequency ωcn and Afn (t) is the
pseudo-acceleration function with the natural frequency of the tank-liquid system.
The rest of the parameters are introduced in [3]. Figure 2 presents the maximum
contributions of hydrodynamic pressure along the free surface height of the model.
Procedure for Seismic Analysis of Liquid Storage Tanks … 217
Fig. 3 Mode of vibration at the impulsive frequency of the investigated liquid storage tank
first three theoretic and computed eigenmodes of the model. These modes of
vibration occur at the frequencies listed in Table 1 and are compared with methods
using Eurocode 8 (spring-mass model) [3] and pendulum model [4], respectively.
3 Conclusions
The aim of this paper was to perform a seismic analysis on a model of circular
vertical ground supported liquid storage tank according to Eurocode 8. Seismic
analysis was one of the analyses which should be carried out to provide satisfactory
performance of tanks, especially in earthquake prone regions.
Due to the different responses (wall flexibility), rigid and flexible tanks should be
appropriately distinguished. This difference is significant especially when investi-
gating the hydrodynamic pressure and tank oscillation. On the other hand, response
of the convective liquid mass and its contribution to hydrodynamic pressure is not
affected by wall flexibility. For design purposes, these effects can be evaluated by
considering the tank to be rigid. But the seismic characteristics of the flexible tank
assumed that the tank was rigid can be non-conservative.
The situation, when liquid oscillates in unison with the tank, represents an
unfavourable response to the system. Due to the sloshing effect, it is necessary to
determine the sloshing wave height to prevent ruptures and fluid spilling.
The seismic analysis was performed using Matlab and ANSYS. Results were
compared with procedures presented in Eurocode 8 (spring-mass model) and
pendulum model. The results between each solution represented good conformity.
Acknowledgments The paper was supported by the grant from Grant Agency of VEGA no.
1/0742/15 entitled “Analysis for seismic resistance of liquid storage tanks with nonlinear and
time-dependent parameters”.
References
3. Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquakes Resistance: Part 4—Silos, Tanks and
Pipelines. CEN (2006)
4. Ibrahim, R.A.: Liquid Sloshing Dynamics Theory and Applications. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge (2005)
Part IV
Vibration and Noise in Machines
Forced Response Reduction
of a Compressor Blisk Rotor
Employing Intentional Mistuning
Abstract Using the example of a compressor test blisk with 29 blades different
sources of mistuning and their consequences for the forced response are analysed
under consideration of aeroelastic effects. In particular the impact of superimposing
intentional structural mistuning by both random structural mistuning and aerody-
namic mistuning is studied. For this purpose reduced order models of the blisk are
adjusted for different mistuning distributions. The mistuning itself is characterized
by assigning individual stiffness parameters to each blade. The aeroelastic coupling
is included employing aerodynamic influence coefficients. By means of genetic
algorithm optimizations, structural mistuning patterns are found which yield a
mitigation of the forced response below that of the tuned design reference. Ideally a
nearly 50 % reduction of maximum response magnitudes is computed for the
fundamental bending mode and large mistuning. The solutions found have been
proven to be robust with respect to additional random and aerodynamic mistuning
in case of large intentional structural mistuning.
1 Introduction
Apart from the extremely low structural damping level of blisks due to the lack of
frictional damping, small but unavoidable differences of mechanical characteristics
from blade to blade, which are denoted as mistuning can cause severe amplifica-
tions of the forced response compared to the ideal design with identical blades.
Typical sources of mistuning are geometric deviations due to manufacturing tol-
erances, wear, damage or even strain gauge instrumentation. Engineers have been
concerned with the mistuning phenomenon of bladed disks for about 50 years. As
long ago as 1966 Whitehead [1] introduced a theoretical limit for an estimation of
the maximum displacement amplification only depending on the number of blades.
Martel and Corral [2] formulated a modified and less conservative limit in which
the number of blades is replaced by the number of active modes in order to take into
account the degree of modal coupling within a family of blade modes. In addition
Figaschewsky and Kühhorn [3] assume normally distributed individual blade fre-
quencies with a chosen standard deviation of mistuning. In doing so the mistuning
strength is taken into account generally yielding a more realistic calculation of the
forced response amplification due to mistuning. Petrov and Ewins [4] used opti-
mization algorithms to find the worst forced response of bladed disks in terms of
academic studies. However, the majority of analyses measured or preset mistuning
patterns yielded amplification factors from 1 to hardly greater than 2 as exemplarily
reported in [5].
Aiming at a reduction of vibration amplification amplitudes one idea has been to
design blisks with intentional mistuning. Here the intention is to take advantage of
the dependence of aerodynamic modal damping ratios on the inter-blade phase
angle, which can yield an increased resulting damping level and lead to a reduction
of the forced response level for particular engine order excitations even below that
of the tuned counterpart [6]. In the current paper the effect of intentional mistuning
is addressed with respect to a mitigation of the forced response. Reduced order
models based on the subset of nominal system modes (SNM) [7] are employed in
which mistuning is quantified by stiffness variations. Aeroelastic coupling effects
are considered employing the method of aerodynamic influence coefficients
(AIC) which are put into the SNM-model as described in [8]. Mistuning patterns
which are derived from genetic algorithm optimizations are exemplarily analyzed
for a 29-bladed high pressure compressor blisk rotor (Fig. 1a) with focus on the
a) b) c)
Fig. 1 a High pressure compressor blisk, b finite element sector model and c fundamental blade
mode shape (1st flap)
Forced Response Reduction of a Compressor Blisk Rotor … 225
2 Numerical Model
M, D and K denote modal mass, modal structural damping and modal stiffness
matrices, FF the vector of external modal forcing and q the vector of modal dis-
placements. If external forcing and structural damping are neglected, Eq. (1) rep-
resents an eigenvalue problem which yields the aeroelastic natural frequencies and
aerodynamic damping values given in Fig. 2. Note that if a tuned blisk is excited in
a particular engine order only one mode characterized by a particular number of
nodal diameters (ND) and assigned to one aerodynamic damping ratio is
responding. In case of a mistuned blisk the response is composed by a linear
combination of several ND-modes so that the resulting aerodynamic damping
deviates from the ‘regular’ value of a pure response in only a single ND.
226 B. Beirow et al.
0.5
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 ϕ[°] 150
The real mistuning distribution has been experimentally determined for the blisk
shown in Fig. 3a by use of a patented approach via blade by blade ping tests [6]. It
was found that the blade to blade stiffness variation is ranging between ±0.75 %.
However, the maximum forced response amplification of the tuned reference is
appearing moderately with an 8 % (γ = 1.08 at EO 26) rise in the worst case
(Fig. 3c). On the contrary large alternating intentional mistuning (ΔE = ±6.09 %,
Fig. 3b) comes along with tremendous differences (Fig. 3c): extreme values are a
115 % rise (γ = 2.15 at EO 13) and a drop of about 40 % (γ = 0.60 at EO 25). Such
a behavior is explainable by a modified aerodynamic damping level. In the latter
case an EO 25 corresponds to an aliased EO-4 excitation, which excites a ND 4
mode in case of a tuned system. However, since strong mistuning is present, other
NDs are involved which contribute more aerodynamic damping (Fig. 2) and hence
strongly increase the resulting aerodynamic damping level. Obviously this
increased damping contribution works against the commonly response amplifying
a) b)
0.5 5
ΔE [%] ΔE [%]
0 0
-0.5 -5
5 10 15 20 25 Blade 5 10 15 20 25 Blade
c) 2.25
1F, measured reference
γ 2
1.75 1F, alternating mistuning
1.25
1
0.75
0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 EO
a) 1.2
γ 1
optimized
0.8
optimized + prob. mistuning (95 % fractile)
ΔEi ±6.09%
optimized + prob. mistuning (worst)
0.6 measured reference
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
EO
b) 1.3
1.2
1.1
γ 1
0.9
ΔEi ± 2.01%
0.8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
EO
effect of mistuning and even causes a mitigation of forced response below that of
the tuned counterpart. Similar results are achieved with intentional mistuning pat-
terns (ΔE = ±6.09 % allowed) being individually optimized for each EO via
genetic algorithms [6]).
Uncertainties within the manufacturing process cannot be avoided even in case
of intentional mistuning. For that reason it is assumed that additional and evenly
distributed random mistuning (ΔE = ±1 %) will be present in order to prove the
robustness of the optimized intentional mistuning patterns to reduce the forced
response. Again considering large intentional mistuning (ΔE = ±6.09 %), the gain
achieved for mistuning patterns optimized with respect to EO-excitations from 21 to
28 is the same since the responses remain always below that of the measured and
largely below the tuned reference (Fig. 4a). However, this is not the case for small
intentional mistuning (ΔE = ±2.01 %) where the benefit of the optimization gets
widely lost and hence the robustness is not given (Fig. 4b).
4 Aerodynamic Mistuning
a)
1.2
γ 1
optimized
0.8 optimized + 1% Aero-mistuning (worst)
optimized + 3% Aero-mistuning (worst)
optimized + 10% Aero-mistuning (worst)
0.6
measured reference
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
EO
b)
1.2
γ
1
optimized
0.8
optimized + 10% Aero-mistuning (best)
optimized + 10% Aero-mistuning (worst)
0.6 measured reference
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
EO
5 Conclusions
The use of intentional mistuning has been analysed for a compressor blisk rotor in
terms of a mitigation of the forced response. It could be shown that even a response
reduction beneath the level of the tuned counterpart design is possible for particular
engine order excitations for optimized mistuning patterns. In case of large inten-
tional mistuning the potential of encouraging reduced forced response levels has
been proven to be robust with respect to additional moderate but realistic random
structural and aerodynamic mistuning.
Acknowledgments The research was conducted as a part of the joint research program
“COOREFLEX-turbo (AG Turbo)”. The work was supported by the Bundesministerium für
Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi) under FKZ 03ET7021. The authors gratefully acknowledge AG
Turbo and Rolls-Royce Deutschland for their support and permission to publish this paper. The
responsibility for the content lies solely with its authors.
Forced Response Reduction of a Compressor Blisk Rotor … 229
References
Abstract Drill-string vibration is one of the major causes for a deteriorated drilling
performance. It is crucial to understand the complex vibrational mechanisms
experienced by a drilling system in order to better control its functional operation
and improve its performance. This work is devoted to modeling of nonlinear
dynamics of the drill-string taking into account initial curvature and finiteness of
deformations. The drill-string is considered as a one-dimensional rod of a sym-
metric cross-section compressed by an axial force applied at the top end of the rod.
The equation of motion is derived using the theory of finite deformations of V.V.
Novozhilov and the Hamilton–Ostrogradsky’s variational principle. The initial
curvature is modelled as a random shape that can be approximated by a finite series
of smooth functions. All numerical calculations are carried out in the environment
of symbolic mathematical computations—Wolfram Mathematica. The obtained
results allow to study the influence of initial curvature on excited flexural vibrations
in the drill-string in order to improve its performance and avoid of severe and
destructive oscillations.
1 Introduction
practice of construction of oil and gas wells shows that there are cases when there
are some factors, which jeopardizes the possibility of its use. One of these factors
can be geometrical imperfections of structural elements.
As mentioned in [1] the real structural elements can have an initial curvature, for
this reason attached forces act with a certain eccentricity. These factors can sig-
nificantly affect the behavior of the system. The study of such systems with initial
imperfections is important, first of all, from a practical side as allows us to approach
mathematical models to real structures. Of course the listed factors are usually
random, therefore reasonably it is possible to estimate their effect only with
attraction of statistical methods.
Theoretical study of influence of initial imperfections on the dynamic behavior
of the structure is developing in two directions. The first direction—deterministic,
based on the fact that the amplitude and shape of the initial geometric imperfections
are known for each case. The second direction—it is assumed that the initial per-
turbations are random field [2, 3]. In this paper the nonlinear dynamics of a
drill-string with a random shape of initial curvature is investigated.
2 Problem Statement
The problem of flat bending of the drill-string of length l with an initial curvature is
studied. The drill-string is considered as an isotropic rod of circular cross-section
compressed by an axial force N(t) applied at the top end of the string. Due to the
small cross-sectional size relative to the length of the drill-string, it is represented as
one-dimensional rod where the axis of OZ is directed along a rod axis.
The model of elastic deformation of the drill-string is based on the nonlinear
theory of elasticity of Novozhilov [4]. The second system of simplifications by
V.V. Novozhilov and the hypothesis of flat cross-sections is applied to components
of strain tensor. According to the last cross sections of the rod at deformation
remain flat and perpendicular to its deformed axis, and normal tension on planes
parallel to the rod axis are negligible. In this case, equations of elastic displace-
ments, relative elongations and rotation angles of the rod elements have the form:
where U ðx; y; z; tÞ; V ðx; y; z; tÞ; W ðx; y; z; tÞ—displacement components along the
axes OX, OY, OZ, respectively; uðz; tÞ—a complete bending that occurs during
deformation; u0 ðzÞ—initial curvature.
Flat Flexural Vibration of Drill-String with an Initial Curvature 233
where m—Poisson’s ratio, exx ; eyy ; ezz —relative elongations parallel to the axes OX,
OY, OZ, respectively; exy ; eyz ; ezx —shifts; xx ; xy ; xz —rotation angles around
respective axes.
To derive the main differential equations of movement defining transverse dis-
placements of the drill-string, relative to its initial undeformed position, methods of
the variation principle of Ostrogradsky-Hamilton is used [5].
The potential energy of deformation is defined as follows:
Zl " 2 #
G @ 2 u d 2 u0 F @u du0 4
U0 ¼ ð1 mÞJ 2 þ dz: ð3Þ
1 2m @z2 dz 2 @z dz
0
The potential of external loading is defined as work of the external loading force
on mutual shift of the ends of the rod to the direction of force of N. Then the
potential of external loading have the form:
Zl " #
1 @u 2 du0 2
P¼ N dz: ð4Þ
2 @z dz
0
The kinetic energy of the rotating rod in global system of coordinates is defined
as follows:
Z l " 2 2 2 #
1 @u @ u
Tkin ¼ q F þJ dz; ð5Þ
2 @t @z@t
0
Zt2
dQ ¼ d ðTkin U0 þ PÞdt ¼ 0: ð6Þ
t1
234 A.S. Sergaliyev and L.A. Khajiyeva
X
n
ipz
uðz; tÞ ¼ fi ðtÞ sin ; ð8Þ
i¼1
l
X
n
ipz
u0 ðz; nÞ ¼ Ai ðnÞ sin ; ð9Þ
i¼1
l
4 Numerical Results
solutions along the entire length at t = 200 s and t = 600 s, respectively. It can be
seen that a small initial curvature slightly affects the amplitude of vibration of the
system, but it considerably affects the frequency characteristics.
5 Conclusions
Nevertheless, the developed approach will allow to estimate it, it is only need to
make other assumptions about the nature of distribution of random coefficients
based on statistical data. This may serve as further development of this work. It is
also planned to consider the non-flat case when the drill-string is rotating at a
constant angular velocity.
Acknowledgments This research work has been done within the framework of the “Development
of nonlinear dynamic models of deformable media and their practical application for solution of
drilling problems in oil and gas industry taking into account ambiguities, complicating factors and
influence of the environment” scientific project (2015–2017), funded by the Ministry of Science
and Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
References
1. Sergaliyev, A., Umbetkulova, A.: Numerical simulation of drill-string dynamics with an initial
curvature. Appl. Mech. Mater. 799–800, 523–527 (2015)
2. Wenbin, Y., Hodges, D.H., Volovoi, V., Cesnik, C.E.S.: On Timoshenko-like modeling of
initially curved and twisted composite beams. Int. J. Solids Struct. 39, 5101–5121 (2002)
3. Kala, Z.: Stability problems of steel structures in the presence of stochastic and fuzzy
uncertainty. Thin-Walled Struct. 45, 861–865 (2007)
4. Novozhilov, V.V.: Foundations of the Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity. OGIZ, M.-L (1948)
5. Kudaibergenov, A., Kudaibergenov, A., Khajiyeva, L.: Stability analysis of drill rods as shells
in the gas stream. Appl. Mech. Mater. 665, 593–596 (2014)
6. Vaz, M.A., Patel, M.N.: Analysis of drill strings in vertical and deviated holes using the
Galerkin technique. Eng. Struct. 17, 437–442 (1995)
A Design of the Two Architectures
of Electromagnetic Vibration Energy
Harvesting Devices
1 Introduction
sensors and devices operating in remote areas. Utilizing the energy from ambient
sources greatly enhances usability of such devices by making them practically
maintenance-free and fully autonomous.
Sources of ambient energy that can be artificially harvested an their respective
available power densities are: solar energy—approximately 15000 μW/cm2 (out-
door, sunny day), mechanical vibrations—375 μW/cm3, fluid flow—380 μW/cm3,
temperature variation—40 and 1 μW/cm3 for both acoustic and radio frequency
energy [1, 2].
From point of view of mechanics, most vibration energy harvesters are 1DOF
systems with base excitation (Fig. 1). From point of view of mathematics, the
system is described by 2nd order differential equation.
Multiplying Eq. (1) by relative velocity z_ we get the flow of mechanical power
in the system. In Eq. (2), the first member represents the change of kinetic and
potential energy, and the second member represents the power dissipated by the
damper [5]. The members on the right side represent the power flow into system
through spring and damper.
!
d m_x2 kðx yÞ2
þ þ bð_x y_ Þ2 ¼ bðx_ y_ Þ_y þ kðx yÞ_y ð2Þ
dt 2 2
b ¼ b m þ be ð3Þ
The expression b_z2 in Eq. (2) represents all the power drawn from the system
and only portion of it is available for transfer to electric power.
For harmonic excitation and steady state solution, we get following expression
for the amplitude of relative displacement
mx2 Y r2 Y
Z ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4Þ
ðk mx2 Þ2 þ b2 x2 ð1 r 2 Þ2 þ ð2nrÞ2
mx30 Y 2 nr 6
Pav ¼ ð5Þ
ð1 r 2 Þ2 þ ð2nrÞ2
The maximum power draw from the system occurs at frequency ratio r defined
as
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rmax ¼ 2 4n2 16n4 16n2 þ 1 ð6Þ
Maximum power draw from the system with given parameters occurs at frequency
defined in Eq. (6). However, in design process, more important question is not the
frequency ratio at which is the power output maximal for given generator, but the
frequency ratio of harvester generating maximum power at given frequency of base
excitation specific for the source. The generator should be tailored for the vibration
source and not otherwise [3]. Using Eqs. (4) and (5) to redefine the average power Pav
as a function of spring stiffness k, the r of the optimal generator is defined as:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3
rmax;k ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð7Þ
1 2n þ 2 n4 n2 þ 1
2
242 M. Maták et al.
As Eqs. (6) and (7) show, the optimal generator for given frequency of source is
operating at frequency ratio r [ 1. A clear conclusion can be drawn from Eq. (5)
that the higher angular frequency of the generator ωn and larger amplitude of base
excitation Y, the higher average harvested power. This means that it is much easier
to get serious amount of power at higher frequency and therefore direct comparison
of generator designs using only generated power as criterion is not always appro-
priate. Since machine vibrations occur at lower frequencies [6], it is important to
present generator design capable of utilizing these vibrations effectively
The vast majority of vibration generators use the effect of resonance to get the
maximum possible power output. This fact makes them inherently narrowband [3].
The use of nonlinear springs to widen the resonance bandwidth is common. Design
intent of both presented architectures is to produce a generator with broad band-
width and the ability to operate effectively at low frequency.
2.2.1 Architecture 1
Fig. 3 Amplitudes of
harmonic excitation
2.2.2 Architecture 2
Both architectures of generators have been tested on hydraulic actuator. Since our
interest lies in low frequency range, the harvesters has been excited by harmonic
signal with frequency range from 5 to 25 Hz. The measured data have been
obtained using the NI myDAQ device. Measured physical parameter was voltage.
The amplitudes of excitation are depicted in Fig. 3. Figure 4 shows the raw mea-
sured data for both architectures and variants. After processing the measured data
using Matlab, average harvested voltages and powers have been calculated for both
types of generators for both architectures. Average voltages and powers for
architectures 1 and 2 are shown in Fig. 5.
3 Conclusion
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Education of SR for
financially supporting this research under contract VEGA 1/0742/15
References
1. Priya, S., Inman, D.: Energy Harvesting Technologies. Springer Science+Business Media, New
York (2009). ISBN 978-0-387-764463-4
2. Galchev, T.V.: Energy Scavenging from Low Frequency Vibrations. University of Michigan
(2010)
3. Spreeman, D., Manoli, Y.: Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesting Devices:
Architectures, Design, Modeling and Optimization. Springer Science+Business Media
(2012). ISBN 978-94-007-2943-8
4. Chalasani, S., Conrad, J.M.: A survey of energy harvesting sources for embedded systems. In:
IEEE Southeastcon 2008. ISBN 978-1-4244-1883-1
5. Stephen, N.G.: On energy harvesting from ambient vibration. J. Sound Vib. 293, 409–425
(2006)
6. Sardini, E., Serpelloni, M.: An efficient electromagnetic power harvesting device for
low-frequency applications. Sens. Actuators A 172, 20161 (2011)
A Design of the Two Architectures … 245
7. Spreeman, D., Folkmer, B., Mintenbeck, D., Manoli, Y.: Novel non-resonant vibration
transducer for energy harvesting. PowerMEMS (2005)
8. Tan, Y.K.: Sustainable Energy Harvesting Technologies. InTech, Rijeka (2011). ISBN
978-953-307-438-2
Acoustic Solution for a Car Cab Interior
P. Němeček
Abstract The paper describes a process focused on sound acoustic issues inside a
car cab (“enclosed space”). The problem is solved experimentally with the use of
noise measurements and interior-panel-vibration measurements with the aim to
reduce noise at such a level that would allow a comprehensive communication
among passengers.
1 Introduction
P. Němeček (&)
Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
further on for data evaluations. Most of such models are based on equations
mentioned below (1) and (2). Acoustic pressure at any point within certain space
must meet the wave equation:
The relation between acoustic velocity and acoustic pressure in the direction of
r “carrier” within certain space is described by the motion equation:
@u 1 @p
¼ ð2Þ
@t q @r
Equations (1) and (2) arise from the acoustic energy spread theory and put
together acoustic pressure and acoustic velocity depending on environmental con-
stants and on time. Equations (1) and (2) are usable for theoretical solutions but in real
applications they cope with unavailability of an acoustic pressure description (a
concrete one) and its dependency on “the” location and “the” time. Nevertheless,
these equations are valid in a universal point of view—thus for the car interior, as
well.
Than it is necessary to define two theoretical forms of a sound field. A sound
field is space through which sound waves are spread out.
1. Free Sound Field—a sound is spread out from a sound-source in the form of
waves, where levels of acoustic pressure, acoustic velocity and sound intensity
are equilibrated in relation to the “size” of relative values):
LP ¼ LM ¼ LI ð3Þ
LP 6¼ La 6¼ LI ð4Þ
with an engine in the front, with a front-wheel drive and a separate trunk in the rear,
so the mentioned sections are:
(1) Engine Space
(2) Car-cab (the interior space)
(3) Trunk (the luggage space)
There are sound-absorbing materials “used” with a car. They are applied (prac-
tically) inside the whole car and are thought for inner-and-outer noise reduction.
Generally speaking, sound-absorbing materials represent a compromise for contra-
dictory requirements as regards their applications (e.g. a vehicle weight/a vehicle
price/further processing/ecological issues—like disposal, design features etc.).
The car interior is designed for passenger transport (primarily) aiming at comfort
and safety issues. An easy-communication requirement is in fact a minimal
language-signal disturbance requirement. The RASTI (RApid Speech Transmission
Index) method represents a universal method that is used to evaluate a concrete
(artificial) language-signal in a noisy background in relation to the speaker location.
The RASTI Index (in the range of 0–1) “classifies” an interior according to its
sound quality—and places the interior into one of 5 groups (1 is for excellent
comprehension, 0 is for bad comprehension).
4 Solution Steps
The anti-noise applications in the car cab are based on a combination of sound-
absorbing materials and objects according to given requirements—criteria as
250 P. Němeček
Fig. 1 Flow chart of an acoustic solution made for a car cab interior
(1) It is necessary to determine the reference point (the center of front seats at the
level of passenger heads).
252 P. Němeček
(2) Noise level and sound intensity at the reference point (in 3 directions) with
reference revolutions (mostly 3000 min−1) and RASTI index are measured
then.
(3) The Articulation Index and The Reactivity Index are determined from acoustic
pressure levels and sound intensity.
(4) An estimate of component acoustic absorption is derived from the Reactivity
Index
I would like to point out that the correlation of AI and RASTI is very good in car
cab (“enclosed space”).
Noise coming from individual sources (engine, wheels and their suspensions etc.)
gets into the car cab directly through coachwork parts or it is indirectly transmitted
by panel(s) vibrations. These panels must be identified and their primary insulating
features must be evaluated. It is recommended to cover them with a material that
will increase their inner acoustic (it is a material, which will muffle them). We work
on the assumption that acoustic power is proportional to acoustic impedance of air,
surface, Square of effective vibration velocity and transmission coefficient σ. The
coefficient is increasing with increasing frequency and therefore it is necessary to
decrease that at higher frequencies. It is possible with the use of shape modifications
like ribbing or breaking surface symmetry or applying highly muffling materials on
panel surfaces.
A problem was defined in the given space (a car cab interior) and a procedure of a
possible solution was described. Concrete steps represent a combination of objec-
tive methods to describe acoustic field in the car cab interior. The targeted outcome
is a comprehensive communication of passengers and thus improvement of their
safety. A comprehensive communication will be “arranged” with the use of suitable
and appropriate insulating materials and by their right application.
Acoustic Solution for a Car Cab Interior 253
References
1. Apetaur, M., Ráfl, J.: Konstrukce automobilů díl I – Hluk motorových vozidel. Vydavatelství
ČVUT, Praha (1994). ISBN 80-01-01224-7
2. Stěnička, J.: Šíření a vyzařování hluku konstrukcemi. ČSVTS, Praha (1990). ISBN
80-02-00016-1
Possibilities for Reducing Car Gearbox
Vibration and Noise
E. Tomeh
Abstract This article deals with the possibilities for reducing car gearbox vibration
and noise in connection with the production quality of its parts on machine tools. The
technical condition of these machine tools is monitored by vibration
diagnostics. The article explains as well the method of gear pinion machining. The
accuracy of manufacture, installation and adjustment of the gearbox mechanisms
and the method of machining gearbox pinion (grinding or superfinishing) contribute
significantly to the overall level of car gearbox vibration and noise. The location of
gears and bearings has also a similar effect. The level of production, assembly and
the superfinishing method in processing the gearbox pinion are shown in the
vibration spectrum as affecting the reduction of gearbox noise and vibration.
1 Introduction
E. Tomeh (&)
Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
Grinding Superfinishing
32h5 without an inner ring, so that the cylindrical pin serves as the inner rolling
surface of the bearing. The difference in machining a grinded and super-finished
pinion is shown in Fig. 2.
2 Measurements Analysis
On the stand (see Fig. 3) and using a measuring instrument—the vibration analyser
—the noise of the gearbox with an accordingly machined gear pinion was evalu-
ated. The next steps were to remove the pinion from the gearbox, then to
The gearing involute profile and pitch helix curves were measured including the
nominal values of the above parameters. The measurement informed us about the
components kinematics (throw, pitch). The drawing tolerance of the parameters is
also included in the measurement protocol.
258 E. Tomeh
The first example refers to the first gearing speed level, where gearing noise tol-
erance parameters didn’t significantly comply. The parameters fHβ exceeded by
about 50 μm and fHα by about 10 μm. Figure 5 shows measured spectrum—MIX
—In Traction.
The picture shows the difference between this case (the red curve) and the serial
measurement of non-defective gearboxes of the same day (black line).
The measured spectrum shows the whole continuous spectrum as relatively
elevated. The first harmonic frequency (Ord 14), corresponding to the first gearing
speed level, is within the norm in comparison with non-defective gearboxes. But the
second (28 Ord) and the third (42 Ord) harmonic frequencies of this gearing are in
comparison with others increased by up to 10 dB.
The second example relates to the missing process. On the assembly line, a gear
of the third speed level was released without performing the final process of teeth
finishing (grinding)—the gear was therefore only milled. This defect was very
much reflected on the gearbox measured spectra. The noise level was increased not
only when the mention third gear was loaded (Fig. 6) but also in all other gears,
even when the third one was not loaded. In the measured spectrum of the third gear,
increased component harmonic frequencies are displayed including their sidebands.
In the other gears, the harmonic frequencies belonging to the mentioned third
speed level were evident.
As a demonstration, here is noise spectrum MIX for the fifth speed level In
Traction (Fig. 7). It is evident that the manifestation of the first (35 Ord—106 dB)
and the second (75 Ord—103 dB) harmonic frequencies of the defective gear are
identical to that when the gear was loaded.
The grinded pinion on stand showed increased noise at all speed levels and for In
Traction and Backward (Fig. 8). The green curve is for the super-finished pinion,
the black one is for the grinded pinion.
260 E. Tomeh
Fig. 8 Order analyses for 4th and 5th speed levels in traction and backward
5 Conclusions
Fig. 8 (continued)
Acknowledgments The paper has been elaborated with financial support of TUL in the frame-
work of specific university research competition.
262 E. Tomeh
References
1. Tomeh, E.: Technická diagnostika: vibrační diagnostika strojů a zařízení. Skripta TU v Liberci,
p. 220 (2015). ISBN 978-80-7494-174-0
2. Tomeh, E.: Identify the sources of vibration and noise on cars gearbox by spectral analysis. In
54th International Conference of Machine Design Departments, p. 6, Sept 2013. ISBN
978-80-7372-986-8
3. Tomeh, E.: Diagnostic Methodology of Rolling Element and Journal Bearings, p. 66.
Textbook TU in Liberec (2007). ISBN 978-80-7372-278-4
4. Moravec, V.: Konstrukce strojů a zařízení II. Montanex a.s. (2001)
Reduced Order Analyses of Multi-stage
Coupled Structures with Main Focus
on Disk-Dominated Modes
1 Introduction
sector using cyclic symmetry boundary conditions [1]. However, due to manu-
facturing or material tolerances, there are no identical blades. In order to consider
small mistuning and to estimate resulting amplification factors, various reduced
order models (ROMs) are invented [2, 3], adapted and advanced.
Since stage methods will not predict dynamic behavior of the assembled com-
pressor with adequate accuracy. Stage-to-stage coupling effects may significantly
impact eigenfrequencies and modes. A priori, disk-dominated modes are highly
affected whereas blade-dominated modes hardly contribute to interstage coupling [4].
This paper summarizes different methods [2, 5, 6] to calculate Multi-stage modes
at moderate costs. Aiming at a drastic reduction of the DOF-number, different
reduced order models are applied. These techniques are demonstrated by means of
academic sample rotors, shown in Fig. 1. Since every ROM implies errors com-
pared to a full FE-model, results from a full analysis are used as reference.
First, the dynamic of the assembly is characterized and interesting modes, which
demonstrate the need of a Multi-Stage analysis, are identified. Since the main focus of
this paper is on disk-dominated Multi-Stage modes and blade individual mistuning
particularly modify blade-dominated modes, mistuning is neglected here. However,
there are ways to consider small deviations (e.g. material property), if the interaction
between blade induced mistuning and stage-to-stage coupling were discussed.
Fig. 2 Influence of interstage coupling: a eigenfrequency versus periodic index map b relative
stage participation (Color figure online)
the interstage boundary. If the meshes are incompatible, multipoint constraints are
used to ensure interstage coupling.
The dynamics of the assembled structure is determinate by a modal analysis.
Furthermore, single stage modal analyses with cyclic symmetry boundaries of both
rotors are performed. Figure 2a shows the eigenfrequencies versus the corre-
sponding periodic parameter (cyclic symmetry mode). Even though single stage
modal analyses yield passable results in blade-dominated mode families, there are
critical inaccuracies in disk-dominated regions (e.g. green mark in Fig. 2a).
Figure 2b reflects the relative participation of stage 1. The Participation Factor
R(s)
k [4] expresses the portion of elastic strain energy for the kth mode of stage (s).
Values around 1.0 indicate that main fraction of elastic energy is concentrated on
stage 1. Values near 0.0 imply stage 2 dominated modes. Obviously, there are mode
families localized on a single stage, but there are mixed modes as well. One can find
that mixed modes tend to be badly predicted in single stage analyses (e.g. Modes
29–33 are non-represented in the single stage cyclic symmetry analyses of Fig. 2a).
Every ROM presented subsequently uses the mass and stiffness information from
one elementary sector of each stage to build a reduced equation of motion of the
unreduced assembly. The damped equation of motion (EOM) can be written as
Basically, this ROM (msmlcb) [2] differentiates between inner i x and outer b x DOF.
Here, the outer DOF contain left and right boundary DOF as well as interstage
DOF. The EOM of an elementary sector is rearranged as
ii i ii i
m ib m €x k ib k x
bi b€ þ b ¼ 0: ð3Þ
m bb m x bi
k bb k x
with
U W x2 ii m U ¼ ii k U
TCB ¼ while ð5Þ
0 I x ¼ ii k1 ib k b x ¼ W b x
i
Once the reduction step is completed, the single stage system can be synthesized
with another Boolean that connects adjoining sectors [2]. Both stages are reduced,
but still uncoupled. However, there is a huge amount of DOF in b xðsÞ , which are
useless from now on. Therefore a second Craig-Banpton reduction can be per-
formed. Thereby only the interstage boundary DOF are obtained physically.
Equation 2 yields a constraint to the multi-stage system Eq. 6.
0 1
0 1 ! I00
I 0 0 0 ð1Þ B0I0C
hM; KiCB 0
hM; Ki ¼ @ 0 I 0 AT A ð2Þ B
@00IA
C ð6Þ
0 0 I 0 0 hM; KiCB
0A0
This method (called mscsm) [5] forgoes physical DOF and transforms Eq. 2 in
cyclic symmetry modes [1]. Prior to this, left intersector DOF of each sector l x are
eliminated with respect to the corresponding nodal diameter n
Reduced Order Analyses of Multi-stage Coupled Structures … 267
l
x ¼ ej2pn=N r x: ð8Þ
The matrices are reduced in an equal way. The physical coordinates of the
complete blisks are obtained by
T
x ¼ en ~xn with en ¼ 1 ej2p=N . . . ejðN1Þ2pn=N : ð9Þ
Assuming different numbers of sector N(1) and N(2), one find corresponding
equivalent nodal diameters nðpÞ [5]. Considering Eq. 2, the dynamics of the
multi-stage structure of one nodal diameter p can be expressed as
ð1Þ
! ð1Þ
!
MnðpÞ 0 €~xp þ T KnðpÞ 0
Tp Tp Tp ~xp : ð10Þ
Mpð2Þ Kpð2Þ
p
0 0
ð1Þ
!
Uð1Þ Uf 0 0 xð1Þ
y¼Ux¼ : ð12Þ
0 0 Uð2Þ
ð2Þ
Uf xð2Þ
UðsÞ denote eigenmodes of the stage (s) with the connecting ring having free end
ð1Þ
and Uf are eigenmodes with the connecting ring having fixed end [6]. Equation 1
is written as
U M U €y þ U C U y_ þ U K U y ¼ U f e : ð13Þ
268 R. Weber and A. Kühhorn
Fig. 3 Comparison between full 360° FE versus msmlcb (red), mscsm (blue) and msmmda
(green) eigenfrequency and relative error in eigenfrequency versus full 360° FE-solution (Color
figure online)
4 Conclusions
Three different ROM are presented in this paper. Figure 3a shows the eigenfre-
quencies from every ROM and full FE-solution. There are—even not in evidence—
minute deviations. Figure 3b summarizes the relative error in eigenfrequency. As
shown, the ROM implied error is extremely small. Depending on the individual
task, one of the presented methods satisfies the requirements best. The msmlcb
yields the best results, but is due to the constraint modes the most expensive one.
The mscsm works quite fast and affords acceptable quality, but is limited to
one-to-one nodal diameter modes. The msmmda represent a comfortable ROM,
because all modes are implied and commercial FE-tools are intensively used.
Moreover even geometric mistuning is conceivable.
References
1. Thomas, D.L.: Dynamics of rotationally periodic strucutres. Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 14(1),
81–102 (1979)
2. Craig, R., Bampton, M.: Coupling of substrucutres for dynamic analysis. AIAA J. 6(7),
1313–1319 (1968)
3. Yang, M.-T., Griffin, J.H.: A reduced-order model of mistuning using a subset of nominal
system modes. J Eng. Gas Turb. Power 123(4), 893–900 (2001)
4. Bladh, R., Castanier, M.P., Pierre, C.: Effects of multistage coupling and disk flexibility on
mistuned bladed disk dynamics. J Eng. Gas Turb. Power 125(1), 121–125 (2003)
5. Laxalde, D., Lombard, J.-P., Thouverez, F.: Dynamics of multistage bladed disks systems.
J Eng. Gas Turb. Power 129(4), 1058–1064 (2007)
6. Bhartiya, Y., Sinha, A.: Reduced order model of a multistage bladed rotor with geometric
mistuning via modal analyses of finite element sectors. J. Turbomach. 134(4),
041001-1–041001-8 (2012)
Part V
Optimization of Mechanisms
and Machines, Mechanisms
of Textile Machines
Composite Production and Industrial
Robot Trajectory Calculation
1 Introduction
There is a many possibilities how to make the composite materials and how to use
it. Some analyses and, case studies and material properties are presented in [1, 2].
Composites are used in many areas, like in automotive industry, aircraft industry [3]
or in space industry [4]. Specific area of composites production technologies are
technologies, which uses the robots for fibers placing. Robots allows to produce
specific composite products very effective [3]. In generally it is possible to use one
of two different ways, how to make a composite using robots. For products with
large open surfaces is suitable to use a prepreg tape. It is possible to activate the
prepreg tape by pressure and temperature immediately after placement [5] and it is
no needed moulding anymore. This article will discuss the other way, the winding
technology. It follows the article [6], where winding technology is described. The
computation method for offline trajectory planning and practical example with
open-shaped core is also described in [6]. In this article we will discuss how to use
this method for core with closed-frame shape.
First advantage of used method is fact, that it can be used in many program
languages and development environments (because it is simple and it don’t need
special mathematical libraries or computation performance). Second great advan-
tage is that we can generate variables, which are necessary to control the technology
itself. In our case we needed to control also robots external axes. This three axes are
to control of the winding speeds of three independent guide lines with coils (see
Fig. 1). Positions of this guide lines along the main core defines the winding angles
of fibers in all of three layers.
4
3 1
2
Fig. 1 Picture (on left side) and diagram (on the right side) of the winding solution principle of
the working head: 1 non sliding core, 2, 3, 4 rotating guide lines with coils for winding at desired
angles, 5 guiderings, and 6 moving core for winding controlled by the robot
Composite Production and Industrial Robot Trajectory Calculation 273
2 Trajectory Calculation
Ti ¼ Li Qi : ð1Þ
where matrices Rot ðz; aÞ; Rot ðy; bÞ and Rot ðx; cÞ are in form
0 1 0 1
cos ai sin ai 0 0 cos bi 0 sin bi 0
B sin a 0C B 0 0C
B i cos ai 0 C B 1 0 C
Rotðz; ai Þ ¼ B C; Rotðy; bi Þ ¼ B C;
@ 0 0 1 0A @ sin bi 0 cos bi 0A
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1
1 0 0 0
B0 sin ci 0C
B cos ci C
Rotðx; ci Þ ¼ B C
@0 sin ci cos ci 0A
0 0 0 1
and a, b, c are the corresponding Euler angles. We note that the determination of
Euler angles a, b and c is not unique [6]. Euler angles of rotation matrix
Fig. 2 Geometric scheme of the working head (on the left) and cross-section of the core (on the
right)
274 T. Martinec et al.
0 1
q11 ðiÞ q12 ðiÞ q13 ðiÞ 0
B q21 ðiÞ q22 ðiÞ q23 ðiÞ 0 C
Qi ¼ B
@ q31 ðiÞ
C
q32 ðiÞ q33 ðiÞ 0 A
0 0 0 1
When calculating the angles of rotations ai, bi and ci in relation (3) we use the
ATAN2 function (part of the library of most programming languages), which
calculates the value of the function arctangent for argument arg1 =arg2 from two
input parameters arg1 and arg2 . Moreover, the signs of both input parameters are
used to determine the quadrant in which the resulting value function is located (it is
valid that p\ATAN2ðarg1 ; arg2 Þ p).
Based on the knowledge of the translated matrix Li and Euler angles we can
determine a new tool-center-point position TCPi . This position contains six values—
three coordinates in Cartesian system (X, Y and Z) and three rotation angles (A, B
and C). This values we can store in the robot native language. Described routine
must be done for each of Bi points, 1 ≤ i ≤ N. Range for variable N depends on the
length of the axis o of the core and also on the distance between points (see [6]).
3 Practical Example
The considered composite with the closed frame-shaped profile (see Fig. 3a) serves
for fastening of the window to the fuselage of the helicopter. This core is only 2D
shape, so it is easy to show and understand how the algorithm works. But in general
it is possible to use it also for 3D complicated shapes.
There are the basic measurements of the core on Fig. 3 and also there are marked
values of the l variable. This variable is distance between start point B1 (where
l = 0, see Fig. 3a) and the selected point Bi. Distance is measured along the axis
o. This variable helps us to determine proper positions of the guide lines with fiber
coils (which are connected as an external axis of the robot). The winding angles and
core diameter are given, so we can easily evaluate the external axis position for each
Bi point, using l value for this point.
We used described algorithm of robot-end-effector trajectory calculation and
generated source code in robot language. For our example we used a KUKA KR16
robot with KUKA KRC 4 controller. We implemented the algorithm in Delphi
(Pascal language) and we generated source code in KRL (KUKA Robot Language).
Generated code we tested in the KUKA Sim Pro software simulator first (see Fig. 5)
Composite Production and Industrial Robot Trajectory Calculation 275
a, b,
axis o
Fig. 3 Closed-frame-core—the sizes (on the left) and in the frame core connected to the
robot-end-effector (on the right)
Fig. 4 Diagram showing the course of the TCP during the passage of the frame through the
fibre-processing head—values of the first three parameters (on the left side) and values of the TCP
angles (on the right side)
and then on the robot in laboratory (see Fig. 3b). Obtained values are visualised on
Fig. 4.
4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments The research work reported here was made possible by project LO1201
financed with co-funding from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports as part of targeted support
from the “National Sustainability Program I” programme, and “GESHER/MOST LJ14005—New
applications in production technology and the use of composite frames fiber reinforced composites”.
References
1. Gay, D., Hoa, S.V.: Composite Materials—Design and Applications, p. 550. CRC press, Taylor
& Francis Group London (2007). ISBN 978-1-4200-4519-2
2. Agarwal, B.D., Broutman, L.J., Chandrashekhara, K.: Analysis and Performance of Fiber
Composites, 3rd edn., p. 576 (2006). ISBN 978-0-471-26891-8
3. Groppe, D.: Robots improve the quality and cost effectiveness of composite structures. Ind.
Robot: Int. J. 27(2), 96–102 (2000)
4. Hana, P., Inneman, A., Daniel, V., Sieger, L., Petrů, M.: Mechanical properties of carbon fiber
composites for applications in space. In: Proceedings of SPIE 9442, Optics and Measurement
Conference 2014, 7 Jan 2015. doi:10.1117/12.2175925
5. Shirinzadech, B., Cassidy, G., Oetomo, D., Alici, G., Ang, M.H.: Trajectory generation for
open-contoured structures in robotic fibre placement. Robot. Comput.-Integr. Manuf. 23,
380–394 (2007)
6. Martinec, T., Mlýnek, J., Petrů, M.: Calculation of the robot trajectory for the optimum
directional orientation of fibre placement in the manufacture of composite profile frames. Robot.
Comput.-Integr. Manuf. 35, 42–54 (2015). doi:10.1016/j.rcim.2015.02.004
The Pinion Teeth Temperatures
Measured During the Different
Power Levels Operation
Abstract This paper deals with the temperatures of the automobile gearbox final
drive pinion teeth during the performance in constant power levels. The tempera-
tures are measured in the teeth of the pinion of the gearbox MQ100 final drive. The
temperatures were measured during the mostly real operation conditions of the
gearbox. The special temperature measurement equipment was used. The perfor-
mance of the gearbox on the special designed testing stand was realized. The
measurements were performed during many different power levels. The power
levels were defined by torque and RPM. The temperatures measured during same
power levels were compared. The main goal of this paper is comparing of the
average temperature of the final drive pinion gearing measured during different
power levels.
1 Introduction
was measured during several mechanical power levels. The several different torque
and RPM were set during measurement, but ever power level was constant.
The main aim of this short paper should be description of experimental deter-
mination of final drive pinion gearing temperatures.
The special equipment for operating and loading was designed and manufactured.
The stand is designed for the operating of gearbox in mostly real condition. The
common combustion engine for the powering of the stand is used. All of the stand
parts are connected by the shafts for the lowest temperature impacts. The gearbox is
mounted on an engine block for the similar rigidity as in a car operation. The final
loading of gearbox is realized by the electric dynamometer. The gearbox cooling by
the electric fan is realized. The stand for testing is deeply described in papers [1, 2].
The stand and his main parts is depict on Fig. 1.
For the temperature measurements the special equipment was designed and man-
ufactured. The temperature measurement on a rotating shaft is possible with this
equipment. The NTC thermistors for the temperature measurement are used. The
wires for the connection of NTC sensors are located in the middle hole of the shaft.
Fig. 2 The equipment for the temperature measurements—rotating parts (left side), static parts
(right side)
Fig. 3 The NTC sensors position in the teeth of the final drive pinion
The data about temperature are transported by the infrared optic method. The
infrared diode is on the rotating part mounted in the axis of rotation. The static parts
of equipment for temperature measurements are mounted in front of the infrared
diode. The data from the static part are transported by USB to PC and loaded to the
data file. For the final processing of the data the special program is used. All this
equipment in the [3–5] is fully described. The equipment (rotor and stator) is on
Fig. 2.
The temperature sensors were mounted to the teeth of the final drive pinion. The
temperature was measured by the eight mounted NTC sensors. The position of
every sensor is defined and it is depict on the little Fig. 3. The mounting of tem-
perature sensors is described in [6].
4 Measurements
The measurements were realized in 9 power levels. Every power level is defined by
torque and RPM. The difference between torque and RPM was due to the shifted
gear—the temperatures were measured during the operation in all five possible
shifted gears. The table of the power levels is on Fig. 4.
280 M. Mazac and M. Maly
Fig. 4 The table of the power levels with their parameters (Torque, RPM)
The 15 min measurement cycles was realized in all power levels. The values of
temperatures from the last 1 min of the cycle for the final evaluation were used.
Only average value from the temperatures measured by the seven sensors was
used.
The gearbox was cooled by the constant air flow from the electric fan. The
temperature of air in the room with the stand was regulated and it was 20 °C (68 °F).
The final measured data were evaluated by the special software and the final charts
were created. All of the final charts are set for one constant power level. The final
charts contain the RPM, torque and average temperature values. For all five pos-
sible set gears the measurements are realized. The parameters (RPM, torque,
temperature) of all gears on the final charts are depicted. The charts for the lowest
and the highest power levels are on Fig. 5.
The ranges of the average gearing temperatures are on Fig. 6. The border
temperatures of the depicted gearing temperatures ranges are beginning and final
temperatures of 15 min measurement cycles.
Fig. 5 The samples of the final charts of the average gearing temperatures measured during
different power levels, minimal and maximal power level charts are depict
The Pinion Teeth Temperatures Measured … 281
Fig. 6 The chart of the final drive pinion gearing average temperature ranges measured during the
power levels
6 Conclusions
This short paper describes the temperature measurements realized in the final drive
pinion gearing. The measurements were possible to realize due to special equipment
for gearbox operating and for temperature measurements. The temperatures were
282 M. Mazac and M. Maly
measured in several places of the pinion teeth. The measurements were realized
during a few power levels operation. The beginning temperatures and the final
temperatures measured during the 15 min cycle are summarized in the chart. The
temperatures measured during the described test regimes are not danger for the
condition of oil. The described measurement methodology is useful for other future
testing.
Acknowledgments This publication was written at the Technical University of Liberec as a part
of the project 21127 with the support of the Specific University Research Grant, as provided by the
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic in the year 2016.
References
1. Mazac, M.: Stand for measuring temperatures of the main gears of automobile differential. In:
54th International Conference of Machine Design Departments, Hejnice, Czech Republic,
10–12 Sept 2013. ISBN 978-80-7372-986-8
2. Mazac, M.: Stand for measuring temperatures of the main gears of automobile differential. In:
Sevcik, L., Lepsik, P., Petru, M., Masin, I., Martonka, R. (eds.) Modern Methods of
Construction Design, Book Series: Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, pp. 139–144.
doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05203-8_20 (2014)
3. Mazac, M., Herajn, P., Svoboda, M.: the equipment for temperature measurements near a gear
tooth flank. In: 55th International Conference of Machine Design Departments (ICMD2014),
Beroun, 9–12 Sept 2014. ISBN 978-80-01-05542-7
4. Mazac, M., Herajn, P., Svoboda, M.: The gear tooth flank temperature measurements system.
In: Transactions on Electrical Engineering, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 27–30 (2015). ISSN 1805-3386
5. Mazač, M.: Měření teplot ozubených kol v reálném provozu. Studentská vědecká a odborná
činnost 2014, TUL, 28 May 2014. ISBN 978-80-7494-071-2
6. Mazač, M.: Zařízení pro měření teplot v blízkosti boků zubů ozubených kol – konstrukční
řešení a stavba zařízení, Studentská vědecká a odborná činnost 2015, 3. červen 2015 Liberec.
ISBN 978-80-7494-209-9
A Novel Four Wheel Vehicle
Abstract A new arrangement of wheel location has been considered for a four
wheel vehicle so that the turning radius can be reduced greatly. The front axle is to
use one wheel only instead of two wheels of a conventional vehicle. The middle
axle is to use two wheels and the rear axle is to use one wheel. The single wheels of
the front and rear axle will be placed at the mid position so that the arrangement
becomes symmetrical. This arrangement helps us to follow the law of correct
steering for all angular positions. The steering mechanism will be such that the front
and rear wheels will rotate equal amount but in opposite directions. A crossed four
bar mechanism has been used to rotate the front and rear wheel while the vehicle is
taking a turn. The rotation of each wheel will be 30° and the maximum steering
error is 0.2° only. The wheels on the middle axle will not be rotated due to steering
but are connected to the differential gear box to transmit motion. The intersection of
the front and rear wheel axis will be always on the axis of the middle axle. Hence
pure rolling will take place while the vehicle is taking a turn. The design enhances
the life of the tires and parking of this vehicle will be easier. Each wheel of the
middle axle shall have two tires so that it can bear more load and increases stability
of the vehicle while taking a turn.
S. Pramanik (&)
Symbiosis International University, Pune, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Pramanik
College of Military Engineering, Pune, India
S.S. Thipse
The Automotive Research Association of India, Pune, India
e-mail: [email protected]
1 Introduction
Kinematic synthesis methods can be broadly classified into two categories: exact
point approach and optimization techniques. In the exact point approach there are
some precision points at which the function generated is exactly same as the
required function. At other points there are deviations from the required function.
This deviation is called the structural error. In order to reduce the structural error the
number of precision points has to be increased. Generally the number of precision
points is equal to the number of design parameters. The design parameters are the
link length ratios and the angles used to define a mechanism.
A four-bar steering mechanism is generally used in buses and trucks. The
mechanism is placed behind the front axle. This mechanism is called Ackermann
steering. This mechanism is simple but has a drawback that there is divergent end
behavior in the steering error curve. Fahey and Huston [1] modified a four-bar
mechanism to an eight-bar mechanism in order to remove the divergent end
behavior in an extended range of motion. They used an iterative method to achieve
the final solution from the initial solution. But one link of the mechanism was small
compared to other links. The wear in this small link joint may affect the accuracy of
the mechanism greatly. The eight-bar mechanism provided seven precision points
but is very complex.
De-Juan et al. [2] carried out optimal synthesis of function generation in steering
linkages. They considered rack-and-pinion steering, four-bar steering, six-bar
steering and double four-bar steering mechanism. In all these cases they considered
leading configuration, trailing configuration, mixed-leading configuration and
mixed-trailing configurations. However, they did not consider the mixed leading-
and-trailing configuration of the four-bar mechanism. The present work is con-
cerned about this mixed configuration and design of a new mechanism.
Zhao et al. [3] considered a planar five bar mechanism with two incomplete
noncircular gears for steering of an automobile. The mechanism is able to follow
the Ackermann equation exactly because the gears are designed in such a way. But
the mechanism is mainly suitable for light carriages.
All the above works were done to reduce the steering error. But the present work
uses a new arrangement of wheels so that the steering error can be eliminated
completely and turning radius can be reduced greatly.
A crossed four-bar mechanism AGFB has been shown in mean position in Fig. 1.
In this mechanism the links AG and BF are equal in size. These links are inclined to
the lateral axis of the vehicle by equal angle β when the vehicle moves along a
straight path. The angles GAK and FBH are equal to β. The extreme position of the
A Novel Four Wheel Vehicle 285
mechanism is shown by AG′F′B. Since the arms AG and BF rotate in the opposite
directions the wheels at A and B will rotate in opposite directions due to steering.
3 Optimization Method
Figure 2 shows two wheels, front wheel A and rear wheel B. The steering mech-
anism AGFB has two design parameters. These are angle KAG (β) and steering arm
length AG (r). The front wheel has been rotated by angle α (angle GAD) and then
the rotation of the rear wheel (angle FBE) has been found out. Then the steering
error has been calculated as follows.
The initial straight ahead position has two equal angles KAG and FBH. The two
steering arms AG and FB are equal to r. The distance between the front wheel A
and rear wheel B has been designated by d. The length of the coupler has been
found as
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
GF ¼ ðd 2r sin bÞ2 þ ð2r cos bÞ2
Angle FBEcorrect ¼ a
The Hooke and Jeeves optimization method has been used to minimize the
objective function using the initial estimate as r = 2 units and β = 23.6°. The length
(r) of the steering arm has been found as 2.147 units where the distance between
hinge joints A and B is 10 units. The inclination (β) of the steering arms with the
vehicle lateral axis is 24.069°. The steering error curve has been plotted in Fig. 3.
The crossed four-bar steering mechanism has maximum steering error 0.2° at 30°
rotation position of the front wheel.
A Novel Four Wheel Vehicle 287
4 Result
Figure 3 shows the steering error in Ackermann steering as well as in the proposed
steering mechanism. The Ackermann steering mechanism produces a maximum
steering error of 0.7° for inner wheel rotation up to 40°. But the wheel rotation in
this proposed vehicle has been limited to 30° and the maximum steering error up to
that is 0.2°. The steering error in the proposed mechanism is less than that of the
Ackermann steering mechanism.
Figure 4 shows proposed vehicle wheel positions while turning. The size of the
vehicle has been assumed considering the track to wheelbase ratio of four-tenth.
The distance between front and rear wheel i.e. distance AC has been assumed as
five meters. The axis of middle wheels is at a distance of 2.5 m from wheel A and
C. At maximum rotation of 30° of front and rear wheels the angle IAC and angle
ICA are 60°. Hence for maximum rotation position the triangle IAC is an equilateral
triangle and side IA and IC are 5 m each. Hence the turning radius of the front left
corner of the vehicle is (5 + 1.414) or 6.414 m. Here it has been assumed that the
front wheel A is 1 m behind the front end of the vehicle and width of the vehicle
is 2 m.
In Fig. 5 the existing Ackermann steering mechanism has been considered. The
inner wheel rotates by 40° maximum. The rotation of the outer wheel is obtained
32° using Ackermann relation for track to wheelbase ratio four-tenth. The vehicle
takes a left turn and the angle IDE is the rotation of the inner wheel. The rotation of
the outer wheel is angle IAE. The instant centre of rotation is I for maximum wheel
rotation position. The turning radius of the vehicle is the distance AI plus one meter
5 Conclusion
References
1. Fahey, S.O.F., Huston, D.R.: A novel automotive steering linkages. ASME J. Mech. Des. 119,
481–484 (1997)
2. De-Juan, A., Sancibrian, R., Viadero, F.: Optimal synthesis of function generation in steering
linkages. Int. J. Autom. Technol. 13(7), 1033–1046 (2012)
3. Zhao, J.-S., Liu, X., Feng, Z.-J., Dai, J.S.: Design of an Ackermann-type steering mechanism.
Proc. IMechE Part C: J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 227(11), 2549–2562 (2013)
Cam Mechanism for Car Seat Testing
Abstract This paper deals with optimization of a device designed for long-term
dynamic testing of car seats. This kind of tests is important for car seat innovation
with respect to improving safety and comfort of passengers. This type of testing is
based on linear periodic movement of a car seat cushion on which a weight rep-
resenting a passenger is placed. Movement of seat is generated by a cam mecha-
nism. Several cam profiles were proposed by a computational software, in order to
achieve acceleration occurring during a real car driving. Based on this information
concept of the whole device was proposed. Thereafter the static and dynamic FEM
analysis were carried out. Finally an optimization of the cam mechanism and the
whole device was accomplished in order to achieve the best compromise of
conflicting requirements of large acceleration at low frequencies.
1 Introduction
Testing of automobile seats and their parts is very important for increasing safety
and comfort of passengers, but also for development of new design solutions.
Evaluating of car seat comfort is a very complex issue because of great individual
personal differences, like body structure, road conditions etc. Other important
perceptions include visibility from the car, reachability of controls, vibrations,
noise, temperature, humidity etc.
Among all these factors there are vibrations, one of the most important factors
affecting the overall assessment of comfort and related safety. The whole body
vibration (WBV) [1] manifests itself when a support of human body forms vibrant
surfaces. The passenger sitting on a car seat is a typical example of the WBV
exposure. The vibrations are transmitted to the torso through the seat and the
backrest, to hands through the steering wheel and to legs through the car floor [2].
Good automobile car seats should provide particular support to passengers under
all driving conditions and reduce vibration transmission from the car to human the
body. Although the tolerance of the same level of vibration is individual for each,
it turns significant increase of sensitivity in the frequency range 2–10 Hz [3] which
corresponds to the natural frequencies of the vital organs, higher frequencies have a
negative impact on the nervous system. The exposure of a human body to such
vibration is contrary to the sense of comfort of the passengers, and negatively
affects the concentration which is closely connected with safety. For these reasons
design a car seat so as to provide comfort and safety parameters in sufficient amount
for its entire lifetime is very important. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out
endurance tests. However, to make this kind of tests in real conditions and with the
entire car is expensive and very time consuming.
A testing device that will simulate real traffic loads is appropriate to create for
these tests. These devices can operate continuously for long time and thus simulate
loading of a car or its parts in less time.
2 Testing Device
The prototype testing device [4] (Fig. 1) was designed and built in cooperation with
an international company producing car seats.
A mounted frame made of aluminum profiles is the base part. On a base plate a
sliding bracket is placed. On the sliding bracket an electric step motor is fastened
which is connected to a camshaft module by a flexible coupling. The camshaft
module contains three changeable eccentric cams. Into the frame a movable plate is
inserted which is guided in four points. In the middle of the plate a support with a
roller cam follower is placed which transfers rotation of the camshaft to recipro-
cating movement of the plate. On the plate a whole seat or a sample of polyurethane
foam can be mounted. Additional weights representing the passenger load are
placed on seat. During test it is possible to record position or acceleration of the seat
frame and weights. An eccentric cam with diameter 80 mm and a rotating follower
with diameter 90 mm were used in the first version. The eccentricities were 1, 2.5
and 5 mm, curves are shown in Fig. 2. To prevent bouncing of the follower from
the cam the device was operated up to 120 rpm.
Later, the design requirements on the process of vibrations were defined more
precisely: achieving pulses of acceleration 25 ms−2 with frequency of repetition 1–
5 Hz. After considering several possibilities it was determined that for acceleration
25 ms−2 at the frequency 1 Hz a cam with diameter of hundreds mm is required and
the whole device would be too heavy on a real engine power. For these reasons the
requirements were revised and a compromise solution was proposed that there
would be used three cams for three frequency bands. In this solution the initially
required acceleration 25 ms−2 is achieved only at the frequency 15 Hz, but the
requirements on the size of the device and engine power are acceptable [4].
The detailed design of the cam mechanism was made using a Design Accelerator
which is integrated in the software Autodesk Inventor Professional 2015. The
course of acceleration was chosen so that there will be two pulses of positive
292 P. Srb et al.
acceleration during one rotation of the cam, that are symmetrically distributed by
180° rotation of the cam as shown in Fig. 3.
From the viewpoint of force ratios on the whole structure the tangential force
component on the follower is the most important. In Fig. 4 a force situation is
shown where G is an action force from weight, N and T are component forces,
angle φ is given by the shape of the cam and depends on the cam angle ψ.
The course of the tangential force T on the largest (the most unfavorable cam) is
shown in the following graph Fig. 5.
4 FEM Simulations
The simulations were performed in software CATIA V5. Guiding bearings were
fixed and between bearings and guiding rods a frictionless contact was applied. The
center of the top plate was constrained by a vertical movement. On the center of the
follower a force was applied 300 N in the tangential direction and 1200 N in the
vertical direction. The design was optimized after a first draft simulation where the
values of deformation were unacceptable. The second simulation (Fig. 6) shows
much better results, the maximal stress was 16 MPa and deformation was 0.2 mm
on the holder of follower.
5 Conclusions
The device for durability testing of automobile seats was optimized for increasing
of stiffness of structure based on the FEM simulations. The new cam mechanism
was designed by software Inventor. On Fig. 7 an example of measured values is
shown where the dotted line represents the course of lifting of the car seat and the
full line represents horizontal movement of the weights placed on the seat.
Acknowledgments The results of this project LO1201 were obtained through the financial
support of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in the framework of the targeted support of
the “National Programme for Sustainability I”.
References
1. Mackie, R.R.; Miller, J.C.: Effects of Hours of Service, Regularity of Schedules and Cargo
Loading on Truck and Bus Driver Fatigue, Report HS 803 799. US Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC, USA (1978)
2. International Standard Origination ISO 2631-1. Mechanical Vibration and Shock-Evaluation of
Human Exposure to Whole-Body Vibration, Part 1: General Requirements (1997)
3. Barak, P.: Magic numbers in design of suspension for passenger cars. SAE Paper 911921
(1991)
4. Srb, P., Fliegel, V.: Vibration device for long-term testing of car seats. In: Modern Methods of
Construction Design, Proceedings of ICMD 2013, Springer, New York, p. 189 (2014)
Offset of Natural Frequencies
of Toothed Wheel by Means
of Parametric Optimisation
Abstract During the final stage of designing a toothed wheel which is exploited at
different rotational speeds, it is occasionally necessary to offset natural frequencies
from frequencies of excitations. The way of solving this problem by means of
parametric optimisation of the toothed wheel profile, assuming small changes of its
shape, is discussed in the paper. The problem is solved using finite element model
with regard to monolithic toothed wheel of an aircraft gear.
1 Introduction
In high-speed aircraft gears, toothed wheels are often monolithic and, owing to the
need to reduce the deadweight, shafts of such wheels are hollowed. An exemplary
wheel form is shown in Fig. 1.
When designing a toothed wheel, gear teeth parameters, shape and dimensions
of the envelope and the shaft are determined on the basis of the results of verifi-
cation calculations, with consideration mainly to the criteria of safety, durability
and design considerations. Compliance with these requirements sometimes results
in the design of a toothed wheel whose natural frequencies are within the ranges of
excitation frequencies which result from the ranges of the wheel rotational speeds
occurring during operation, i.e. they lie in the areas of resonance. This applies
particularly to gears that operate at different working speeds, for example, aircraft
gears. Due to the fact that the wheel meets the requirements of safety, durability and
design, there arises a problem of how to change the natural frequencies which lie in
the areas of resonance, in other words, to offset some natural frequencies from
excitation frequencies. Since solving this problem inevitably leads to changes in the
shape and dimensions of the toothed wheel, whose project is already well advanced,
Fig. 1 An exemplary
monolithic toothed with a
hollowed shaft
such a solution is being looked for that minimally changes the design of the wheel.
In practice, these parts of the wheel are indicated whose change does not affect the
already fulfilled requirements of safety, durability and accepted design
considerations.
Figure 2 shows the FEM model of a toothed wheel. The FEM model of a toothed
wheel (Fig. 2a) consists of CHEXA 8-node solid elements. Support of the shaft in
rolling bearings (Fig. 2b) was modelled with the use of RBE3 elements with
dependent nodes on the circuit of the shaft cross section in the plane of the bearing
rolling elements and with an independent node on the symmetry axis of the shaft. In
points, where dependent nodes for the left and right bearing are located, coincident
node pairs were formed and linked by zero-dimensional CELAS1 elements with
three translational stiffnesses (in X, Y, Z direction) and one rotational stiffness
(around X axis). Numerical values of the stiffnesses were assumed as large enough
(respectively 1 × 1010 N/mm and 1 × 1010 N mm) to be treated as rigid when
ω ω ω ω
ω ω ω ω
compared to the shaft. Afterwards, one of the nodes of CELAS1 elements was
deprived of all degrees of freedom. This way of support properly reflects real
working conditions of a toothed wheel and eliminates over-rigidity of the FEM
model. The developed model of a toothed wheel has 46 095 degrees of freedom.
The result of modal analysis of a toothed wheel FEM model is a set of eigen-
frequencies and eingenforms of free vibrations. The values of a few of the first
natural frequencies, important due to the possibility of resonance, and corre-
sponding forms of vibration are shown in Fig. 3.
Natural frequencies and firms were determined according to xki —the convention
where i is the ordinal number, whereas k is the number of nodal diameters around
which there occurs the motion of the toothed wheel rim during vibrations. It can be
noticed that the pairs of frequencies x01 and x02 ; x41 and x51 ; x27 and x28 are the same
natural frequencies with the same corresponding forms shifted in a phase. At the
same time, the phase shift in pairs x41 and x51 ; and x27 and x28 causes rotation of the
form of vibrations of the toothed wheel rim around the axis of the wheel rotation,
which is important for further analysis.
ngr = 11,550 rpm. Campbell’s diagram, shown in Fig. 4, shows the line of excita-
tion by toothed wheel rotations (rotations growing from 0 to ngr in Hz) and a line of
excitation from meshing (for 35 wheel teeth, growing from 0 to 35 ngr in Hz). The
lines on the diagram corresponding to natural frequencies x14 , and x27 are not hor-
izontal like the other lines but include a certain range of natural frequencies (there are
pairs of straight lines inclined at small angles). This is caused by the rotation of the
toothed wheel—the rotor around its own axis. If the toothed wheel remained
motionless, the lines of natural frequency would remain horizontal in the diagram.
However, due to rotations of the toothed wheel, centrifugal force caused by the
rotations of the wheel around its own axis affects the wheel movement relative to the
nodal diameter. Depending on whether these actions are consistent or opposite in
phase, the result is an increase or decrease of natural frequency. This phenomenon is
observed by analysing the result of modal analysis. If different phase-shifted ein-
genforms, for which one can indicate nodal diameters, correspond to the same
frequency of free vibrations of the toothed wheel (rim), we are dealing with the
change of natural frequency caused by rotations of the wheel (this is called the
stiffening effect cased by centrifugal forces). Then, in Campbell’s diagram such an
eigenfrequency is represented by two straight lines diverging from one point, with
equation:
Since according to the adopted assumption, the offset of resonance frequencies must
be performed with the least possible interference in the wheel envelope shape, the
problem was solved using NX Optimizer for parametric optimization of the NX 9
programme. The toothed wheel, with an accuracy of gear teeth that cannot be
changed, is axisymmetric. Parameters defining the profile in radial section of the
wheel were assumed as decision variables of optimization problem. Figure 5 shows
these profile parameters that will be subject to changes during optimization
(p51 ¼ x1 , p52 ¼ x2 , p53 ¼ x3 , p82 ¼ x4 , p55 ¼ x5 ) and their initial values in mm.
It should be noted that in order to maintain the profile integrity during the changes,
suitable constraints are necessary. They are indicated in Fig. 5.
Since the eigenform for frequency x27 and the forms for frequencies x06 and x14
are the result of deformation of the toothed wheel rim, one can expect that these
eigenfrequencies will be linked more strongly to one another than to the other ones.
The offset of frequency x27 from the climb rotations nw can be obtained by
increasing or decreasing this frequency. Since the decrease causes the risk of res-
onance with maximum rotations nmax , a better solution is to reduce x27 , which also
gives the chance to offset the frequency x06 from the flight rotations np . Thus, the
criterion for optimization problem can be minimization of frequency x27 :
Fig. 5 Profile
parameterization
300 J. Stadnicki and M. Głąbek
Fig. 6 a Campbell’s of a toothed wheel after optimisation, b the profile—before and after
optimisation
results confirmed the thesis that frequencies x14 , x06 and x27 , corresponding to
eigenforms caused by the deformation of the rim, are interrelated. Taking into
account the above conclusions, the following optimization problem was formulated
5540 x27 5550 Hz, ☐ 1 (Fig. 4) halfway between the flight and the climb,
x06 4700Hz, ☐ 2 (Fig. 4) sufficiently offset from flight rotations.
Figure 6a shows Campbell’s diagram after the second optimisation whereas
Fig. 6b presents the comparison of the toothed wheel profiles before and after
optimisation. Numerical values of decision variables—profile parameters after
optimisation and their percentage changes (%) in relation to the initial values
are as follows: x1 ¼ p51 ¼ 5:34 mm (−4.6 %), x2 ¼ p52 ¼ 5:76 mm (−10 %),
x3 ¼ p53 ¼ 2:61 mm (−10 %), x4 ¼ p83 ¼ 0:98 mm (−2 %), x5 ¼ p55 ¼ 5:78 mm
(+7 %).
The toothed wheel with optimum profile dimensions met the requirements of
security and stability as well as design requirements and in no range of operating
rotations is there a risk of resonance.
4 Conclusions
The problem described in the article allows to draw the following conclusions:
– if the implemented project is in its final stage of development and yet it does not
meet a particular requirement, such design parameters of the project should be
Offset of Natural Frequencies of Toothed Wheel … 301
looked for that can be changed in a certain (usually small) range in order to
meet all the requirements of the project,
– surfaces that are not dimensioned with fits and tolerances—free surfaces have
the best chance to solve the problem of a small shape change in the final stage
development of the project,
– a good way of introducing minor changes in the shape of the part in the final
stage of the project development is parameterization of the part profile and then
formulating and solving the problem of the optimal selection of the profile
parameter according to the adopted criteria,
– modern tools for computer-aided design provide powerful tools for solving a
parametric optimisation problem with the use of the FEM models of the project.
References
P. Starý
Abstract This article deals with the diagnosis of a Common Rail high pressure
injector system and the determination of the causes of unstable fuel dosing in
relation to operating temperature. The high-pressure injector is tested in a laboratory
environment on an experimental stand, which able to detect the motion of the
solenoid armature and the needle lift of the injector. This work is performed in two
stages. The first stage involves a variability study and the second stage proposes
design changes. Therefore, this paper does not provide a design solution that could
lead to the removal of the high inter-cycle variability of the injector and incorrect
fuel dosing at elevated operating temperatures.
1 Introduction
In recent years, Common Rail injection systems have increasingly been used in
diesel engines. Due to greater demands on the minimization of harmful exhaust gas
emissions it has been necessary to further develop the system of precise dosing of
fuel into the cylinder.
The high pressure part of the Common Rail system ensures that the fuel pressure
is regulated in the high pressure pump, this high pressure is maintained in the Rail
and the volume of fuel in the injector is precisely measured.
The main task of the Rail is to supply enough fuel to the injector, the volume of
which very rapidly compensates for any possible decrease in pressure in the injector
P. Starý (&)
Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
during injection and the design of which equalizes pressure impulses when opening
and closing the injector needle to prevent any further spread towards the
high-pressure pump or other injectors.
This ensures efficient delivery of fuel to the individual injectors with a minimum
drop in pressure during the injection. The injection itself is then provided by the
system’s control unit, which precisely sets the time that the injector solenoid is
activated. This helps achieve very accurate fuel dosing.
Injector characteristics
0.250
Pressure 1000 bar
Pressure 1200 bar
0.200
Pressure 1400 bar
Fuel charge (g/cycle)
0.100
0.050
0.000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (μs)
0.06
Armature Lift (mm)
0.04
0.02
0
15 20 25 30 35 40
-0.02
°CA
shows that the armature has no temperature dependence on the open-close interval.
The results show significant changes in the movement of the armature after it lands
and subsequently rebounds when the ball valve is closed. This armature rebound
movement occurs with an increasing operating temperature of the injector, see
306 P. Starý
Variability 88°C
0.12 cycle 1
cycle 2
0.1 cycle 3
cycle 4
cycle 5
Armature Lift (mm)
0.08
cycle 6
0.06 cycle 7
cycle 8
0.04 cycle 9
cycle 10
0.02
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
°CA
Fig. 4 Course of the armature and needle lift without solenoid armature rebound movement
Fig. 5. Therefore, it was necessary to also examine the behaviour of the needle lift.
The results clearly show that even a small armature rebound movement when
closing the ball valve can have an enormous effect on the total time it takes to open
the main injector i.e. tens of percent, see Fig. 5.
Diagnosis of a Common Rail High Pressure Injector System 307
Fig. 5 Course of the armature and injector needle lift with solenoid armature rebound movement
3 Conclusions
Figure 4 shows the course of the solenoid armature and needle lift without armature
rebound movement at a temperature of 25 °C. Figure 5 shows the behaviour of the
armature at elevated temperatures of the waste dose in the range of 70–90 °C. The
measured results show a significant effect on the dose cycle when the solenoid
armature rebounds at elevated operating temperatures. This has an enormous effect
on the opening time of the main injection nozzle and hence the total fuel dose. For
these reasons, the injector becomes unstable and cannot be effectively operated on
an internal combustion engine. Further development and measuring work on the
injector will include a more detailed analysis of the basic operating parameters
necessary to remove the problematic behaviour of the armature when closing the
ball valve.
Acknowledgments The results of this project LO1201 were obtained through the financial
support of Education, Youth and Sports in the framework of the targeted support of the “National
Programme for Sustainability I” and the OPR&DI project Centre for Nanomaterials, Advanced
Technologies and Innovation CZ.1.05/2.1.00/01.0005.
This paper was originated in cooperation with company Motorpal. It provided development and
injector portion of the measured data.
308 P. Starý
References
1. Starý, P., Popelka, J.: Laboratory testing of a high-pressure common rail injection system. In:
The 5th International Conference on Mechanics, Simulation and Control (ICMSC 2015) St.
Petersburg, Russia (2015)
2. Scholz, C., Starý, P.: Experimental stand for research of common-rail injectors. In: XLI
International Scientific Conference of Czech and Slovak Universities Departments and
Institutions Dealing with the Research of Combustion Engines, Liberec, pp. 277–287 (2010).
ISBN 978-80-7372-632-4
3. Scholz, C., Starý, P.: Common rail injector leak testing. J. Middle Eur. Constr. Des. Cars—
MECCA XI(03), 22–28 (2013). ISSN 1214-0821, ISSN 1804-9338
4. Scholz, C., Starý, P.: Experimental study of common rail injection diesel engine fuelled with
RME and diesel fuel. In: XLII International Scientific Conference of Czech and Slovak
Universities Departments and Institutions Dealing with the Research of Combustion Engines,
Zilina, pp. 277–287 (2011). ISSN 1337-8996
Design of a Tribometer for Piston Rings
Abstract Reducing the energy loss associated with offsetting friction losses
occurring on the contact surfaces of mutually moving parts is an important factor
when correctly designing structures. A typical case of reciprocating sliding motion
with significant friction losses on the overall mechanical losses of a machine is a
piston group of internal combustion engines or compressors. One way to reduce
friction is to use modern coatings on the surface of the friction pairs. Special testing
equipment i.e. a tribometer is used to obtain information on the benefits of these
coating layers. This paper deals with the design and verification of the functions of
a special tribometer for identifying the losses of piston rings.
1 Introduction
Fig. 1 Modified Stribeck curve and operating region of friction couples [1]
2 Tribometer Construction
Prior to designing the construction of the tribometer, research was performed on the
test equipment, which involved testing friction properties and in particular a pair of
piston rings and a cylinder engine. The test equipment works with a linear recip-
rocating motion with variable speed and only a cutout of an engine block and part
of the piston ring were used for the test, as shown in Fig. 3.
The test equipment for measuring friction losses across the piston ring was
structurally designed and physically implemented at the Technical University of
Liberec. A Parker—PowerRod Actuator was used to create the linear reciprocating
motion with variable speed. Therefore, no crank mechanism was used. The drive is
created by connecting the rod with the piston and piston rings through the designed
reduction. The cutout of the engine block is placed together with a base plate on a
linear line with an extremely low friction coefficient. The base plate is connected to
Fig. 3 Piston ring tribometer—VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland LTD [3]
312 R. Voženílek et al.
Fig. 4 Design and implementation of the construction of a tribometer with linear reciprocating
movement
the frame of the structure through a force sensor. The whole of the test equipment is
placed behind an aluminum profile frame to facilitate making adjustments when
changing the test components. Oil circulation was also mechanically prepared for
the system of external lubrication of the tested friction pairs, and can be used when
needed (Fig. 4; Table 1).
A data collection system was created for the test equipment using an MGCplus
(Hottinger) data logger, which records information about the strength of the rod axis
motion (force sensor), the rod position (linear magnetic sensor) and temperature at
selected points.
Design of a Tribometer for Piston Rings 313
The measurements performed to-date indicate high repeatability and stability of the
linear reciprocating motion on the measured sample. The graphs show the course of
the force depending on the position. The maximum possible length of movement of
the piston is given by the construction of the block of the internal combustion
engine. The first tests of the test equipment were carried out with a stroke of
87 mm. For the selected combination of engine block cutout of the internal com-
bustion engine, piston and piston rings, the electromagnetic actuator can be set at
different levels of velocity in a range from 0 to 1.25 m/s. However, in order to
ensure the required constant speed of the piston over a longer distance of its
movement in the cylinder a lower speed is preferable during the measurement
(Fig. 5).
Special software was prepared to evaluate the results, which calculated the
average force in a given position or speed from multiple strokes, and subsequently
only forces in the selected range are evaluated based on the selected criteria. This
application will be used to evaluate different designs of rings and different ring
surfaces used to reduce friction.
60
40
20
force [N]
0
-10 -20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-40
-60
position [mm]
1,5
1
speed [m/s]
0,5
0
-10 -0,5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-1
-1,5
position [mm]
4 Conclusions
The test equipment may be used for different sizes of piston groups. The advantage
of the test equipment is the possibility to rapidly adjust the components for the
different sizes of tested samples. The test equipment can also be used to measure
individual piston rings separately, and it is therefore possible to determine the
impact of the individual rings on the mechanical losses. Such measurements can be
beneficial even for the verification of models of piston rings using different types of
simulation software. In contrast to the real environment, however, forces caused by
the combustion in the combustion chamber do not act on the piston rings. One
advantage can be that a linear actuator is used for the linear reciprocating move-
ment, which prevents the formation of normal forces on the piston during move-
ment. These may arise due to imperfect mounting of the components on the test
equipment. However, they can be determined by measurement and subsequently
subtracted during the measurements with piston rings. A certain disadvantage of the
test equipment (tribometer) may be the limited speed range, as the mean velocity of
the piston in a conventional internal combustion engine can reach values of up to
one order of magnitude higher.
Acknowledgments The results of this project LO1201 were obtained through the financial
support of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in the framework of the targeted support of
the “National Programme for Sustainability I” and the OPR&DI project Centre for Nanomaterials,
Advanced Technologies and Innovation CZ.1.05/2.1.00/01.0005.
References
1. Priest, M., Taylor, C.: Automobile engine tribology—approaching the surface. Wear 241(2),
193-203 (2000). ISSN: 0043-1648
2. Basshuysen, R., Schäfer, F.: Internal Combustion Engine Handbook, Chapter 9. Vieweg
Verlag, Berlin (2002)
3. http://www.vttresearch.com/services/business-essentials/pilot-plants-and-r-d-infra/machines-
and-vehicles-research-facilities/tribology-research-facilities
4. Catalog PARKER: PowerRod—Actuators and components: 192-570006 N2/UK Version 2,
(2006)
Mathematical Model of Elastic Heald
1 Introduction
The means for realization of the paper objective has been a complex description of
the system elastic heald—supporting wire, employing a verified mathematical
model. Regarding the wide spectrum of diverse arrangement options for the system
individual parts, the article does not intend to suggest any particular parameters of
the construction design. However, the primary aim is to specify possible ways,
which lead to its optimization.
It is not possible to find a larger amount of the papers which are focused on this
theme in the case of the shedding motion analyzes. Some of them have been dealt
The studies realized up to now [5, 6] have shown that the heald is one of the most
important part of the shedding motion and it exerts an important effect upon its
dynamic loading. Because of this reason, it also constitutes one of the limiting
elements, which impede the increase in its operational revolutions.
The heald is subjected to many forces, which determine the connection with the
supporting wire. The most important ones are the dynamic forces of the heald, the
warp forces in the sense of the shaft movement and the heald weight.
The analysis of the heald behaviour during the operating cycle has been realized
using derived models of the heald. The motion equations describing the movement
of the heald during the weaving process are complemented with motion equations
of the shedding motion. In all compiled models, the mass of the heald mn is
Mathematical Model of Elastic Heald 317
concentrated in one particle. The force To from the warp operates in the position of
the thread eyelet. The action point of this force is located in one particle. It is
possible to disregard the bowing of the heald due to its lateral loading. The derived
models proceed from the assumption that the movement of the particle substituting
the heald is carried out on a straight line.
At present, there are used flat healds made of a flat steel band by pressing
process. The healds are contoured in the positions of their suspension eyes; how-
ever, it reduces their stiffness. Because of this reason, mathematical models have
included different rigidities of the upper and lower sections of the heald (knD, knH)
and different damping (bnD, bnH). In the mathematical model of the heald,
Newtonian impact theory is employed. The drop description of the heald upon the
supporting wire employs the presumption of a perfectly elastic impact.
There is a possibility for passive resistance involvement to reduce the velocity of
the heald impact on the supporting wire. In this variant of the solution, the friction
between the heald and the supporting wire is used for the decreasing of the impact.
The proposal of the structural design using friction force for reducing the relative
velocity of heald with respect to supporting wire is mentioned in [7] and scheme is
on Fig. 2. In the referred design proposal, parts of inner surfaces of end eyelets are
curved concavely, in order to create conditions for a slip of the end eyelet along a
convex surface formed on the supporting wire. The relative velocity of the heald is
reduced by effect of the friction force, and at the same time, the direction of the
heald movement changes. In the solved case, there has been taken into account the
calculation of the friction force according to this design proposal. In the following
text, this mathematical model is referred to as the model 4.
The mathematical model of the system with the impact damping of heald upon
supporting wire is obtained by modification of the preceding model [5, 6]. The
whole solved system can be represented schematically according to the Fig. 3. The
motion equation describing the behavior of the heald during a revolution of the
weaving loom has been complemented with a term characterizing the magnitude of
the friction force.
The motion equation of this case can be written in the following form:
Fig. 4 The courses of velocity and acceleration of the heald shaft and of the heald for the
operating velocity of the shedding motion 300 rpm
3 Conclusions
In order to reduce the impact velocity of heald on supporting wire, the friction
between the heald and the supporting wire can be used, too. The friction force
brings into the system a force effect, which causes a reduction of relative movement
of the heald with respect to the supporting wire. In this order, the friction force does
not affect the heald after its separation from the supporting wire, because the normal
force between the heald and the supporting wire in this moment amounts to zero.
The use of passive resistances for reducing the velocity of heald impact upon the
supporting wire proves to be less effective than the usage of a damping element [6].
The effect of the friction force is more significant with lower operating velocities.
With increasing operating velocities, the effect of the friction force on the reduction
of the maximum value of heald acceleration decreases.
320 M. Bílek et al.
Table 1 Maximum values of heald acceleration after its impact on upper support wire
150 rpm of the shedding 300 rpm of the shedding 450 rpm of the shedding
motion (m s−2) motion (m s−2) motion (m s−2)
Model 2 1.220 1.340 1.477
Model 3 746 963 1.066
Model 4 984 1.160 1.313
Table 2 Acceleration of heald after its impact on lower support wire (m s−2)
150 rpm of the shedding 300 rpm of the shedding 450 rpm of the shedding
motion (m s−2) motion (m s−2) motion (m s−2)
Model 2 671 906 1.080
Model 3 294 533 711
Model 4 567 783 955
Tables 1 and 2 shows maximum and minimum values of the heald acceleration
after its impact upon upper and lower supporting wires, ascertained by means of the
models 2 (without damping and friction force [5]), model 3 (heald with damping
element [6]) and model 4 (design of heald with friction force). If we compare the
courses of the heald acceleration obtained via the individual mathematical models,
it is possible to state that the maximum reduction is achieved when employing the
damping element [5, 6]. From the analysis there follows that the use of the friction
force also reduces the maximum values of acceleration in comparison with a system
without damping; however, this reduction is less significant than in case of the
damping element.
Acknowledgments This publication was written as part of the project “Research of the processes
of textile and single-purpose machines” with the support of the Specific University Research Grant
and also the Institutional Endowment for the Long Term Conceptual Development of Research
Institutes, as provided by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic.
References
1. Lee, D.G., Lee, C.S., Oh, J.H., Jeon, H.S.: Composite heddle frame for high-speed looms.
Compos. Struct. 47(1–4), 507–517 (1999). doi:10.1016/S0263-8223(00)00012-X
2. Xu, S., Feng, Z.: Modal analysis of heald frame and experimental verification. J. Soochow
Univ. Eng. Sci. Ed. 28(2), 34–36 (2008)
3. Guha, A., Amarnath, C., Kurien Issac, K., Talukdar, M.K., Joshi, S.: Linkage driven dobby with
dwell. Text. Res. J. 79(9), 804–809 (2009)
4. Eren, R., Aydemir, A.: Kinematic design method for six-bar linkage sley drive mechanisms in
weaving. Indian J. Fibre Text. Res. 30(3), 243–251 (2005)
Mathematical Model of Elastic Heald 321
5. Bílek, M., Skřivánek, J.: Mathematical modeling of the system shedding motion—heald—
warp. AUTEX Res. J. 14(2), 42–46 (2013). ISSN 1470-9589
6. Bílek, M., Skřivánek, J.: Mathematical model of the heald with damping element. AUTEX Res.
J. 15(1), 2–7 (2015). ISSN 1470-9589
7. Technical University of Liberec, Bílek, M., Kovář, Š.: Nitěnka pro tkací stroj (Loom heald),
patent, CZ 305126
Dynamic Model of the Mechanical System
of the Needle Bar
J. Komárek
Abstract The paper deals with description of dynamic behaviour of the mechan-
ical system of the needle bar on the basis of mathematical modelling. The equation
of motion of the system which is a part of a sewing machine are described by
Lagrange equations of second order. Contacts between individual parts of the
system are described using boundary conditions based on the geometry of the
mechanical system. The equations were solved using the software Matlab Simulink.
The knowledge obtained from the dynamic analysis can be used in the optimisation
of the mechanical system of the needle bar.
1 Introduction
J. Komárek (&)
Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
article enables the analysing of the mechanical system of the needle bar and it will
help with its optimization. A detailed description of the sewing machine is included
in the work [1].
The cross-section of the mechanical system of the needle bar is shown in Fig. 3.
The floating needle 20 is held by collets 12 inside the mechanical system of the
needle bar. The collets are made up of two balls whose axial movement is con-
trolled by a cylinder 4. The balls are pushed into a conical hole in a shell 2 due to
the pressing force of the springs 11, 15. This situation is shown in Fig. 3a. The
release of the needle is started in a moment when the control element (assembled
from parts 1, 3, 6, 10, 11, 16, 17) collides with the machine frame 18. The impact is
absorbed by the rubber pad 10. The influence of stiffness of the rubber pad on
absorbing of the impact is described in [2]. After the impact, the shell 2 continues
its movement towards the bottom dead centre position, whereby the balls are
released in the enlarged area of the conical hole. This situation is shown in Fig. 3b.
A more detailed description of the mechanical system of the needle bar is in [1].
There has been carried out an experimental measuring of compression of springs
in response to applied force for the purpose of determining the stiffness of the
springs. There has been obtained values of stiffness of the spring 11 k2 = 900 N/m
and the spring 15 k3 = 690 N/m. There has been also experimentally determined
dependence of deformation of the rubber pad in response to the applied force. The
dependence is nonlinear and its obtained values has been approximated by a
polynomial of third degree (1), where x20 denotes the deformation of the rubber pad
and F20 the applied force. The values of damping of the springs and the rubber pad
has been determined by the actual behaviour of the mechanical system of the needle
bar which corresponds to the high-speed camera recording. The values of damping
of the spring 11 b2 = 13.15 N s/m, the spring 15 b3 = 3.32 N s/m and the rubber
pad b20 = 28.5 N s/m. Obtaining of values of stiffness and damping is described in
detail in [3].
Dynamic Model of the Mechanical System of the Needle Bar 325
Fig. 3 Cross-section of the mechanical system of the needle bar a Holding position, b Release
position
The dynamic model of the mechanical system of the needle bar is illustrated in
Fig. 4. The real system has been simplified to six bodies of masses m1, m2, m3, m4,
m5 and m6. The body 1 represents the shell, the body 2 represents the control
element, the body 3 represents the collets, the body 5 represents needle and bodies 4
and 6 represent needle guides. The individual parts of the model are considered as
rigid bodies with the mass concentrated in one point. Gravitational acceleration is
neglected. The springs and rubber pad are described by means of stiffness k2, k3, k4,
k6, nonlinear stiffness k20 and damping b2, b3, b4, b6, b20 and their masses are
neglected. Modelling of contacts between bodies is based on the idea that due to
contact between bodies occurs the reflection that is caused by the elasticity of real
bodies. In the model, the elasticity of the bodies is replaced by the spring. The
transformation of the part of kinetic energy to deformation energy is simulated
using a damper. The values of stiffness and damping have been chosen so that the
behaviour of the dynamic model as close as possible to the real system.
Using Lagrange equations of second order [4] were compiled equations of
motion of the system in the form:
326 J. Komárek
m1€x1 ¼ k2 x1 x2 þ l20 lp2 k4 x1 x4 þ l40 lp4
þ L21 k21 ðx2 x1 Þ L13 k13 ðx1 x3 PÞ þ L31 k31 ðx3 x1 Þ
L14 k14 ðx1 x4 RÞ b2 ðx_ 1 x_ 2 Þ b4 ðx_ 1 x_ 4 Þ
þ L21 b21 ðx_ 2 x_ 1 Þ L13 b13 ðx_ 1 x_ 3 Þ þ L31 b31 ðx_ 3 x_ 1 Þ L14 b14 ðx_ 1 x_ 4 Þ
ð2Þ
m2€x2 ¼ k2 x1 x2 þ l20 lp2 k3 x2 x3 þ l30 lp3
L20 15; 739 108 ðx2 H Þ3 þ 445; 170ðx2 H Þ L21 k21 ðx2 x1 Þ
ð3Þ
þ L32 k32 ðx3 x2 N Þ þ b2 ðx_ 1 x_ 2 Þ b3 ðx_ 2 x_ 3 Þ
L20 b20 x_ 2 L21 b21 ðx_ 2 x_ 1 Þ þ L32 b32 ð_x3 x_ 2 Þ
m3€x3 ¼ k3 x2 x3 þ l30 lp3 L32 k32 ðx3 x2 N Þ þ L13 k13 ðx1 x3 PÞ
L31 k31 ðx3 x1 Þ L35 k35 ðx3 x5 Þ þ b3 ðx_ 2 x_ 3 Þ
L32 b32 ðx_ 3 x_ 2 Þ þ L13 b13 ðx_ 1 x_ 3 Þ L31 b31 ðx_ 3 x_ 1 Þ L35 b35 ð_x3 x_ 5 Þ
ð4Þ
m4€x4 ¼ k4 x1 x4 þ l40 lp4 þ L14 k14 ðx1 x4 RÞ L45 k45 ðx4 x5 Þ
ð5Þ
þ b4 ðx_ 1 x_ 4 Þ þ L14 b14 ðx_ 1 x_ 4 Þ L45 b45 ð_x4 x_ 5 Þ
m5€x5 ¼ L35 k35 ðx3 x5 Þ þ L45 k45 ðx4 x5 Þ L56 k56 ðx5 x6 U Þ þ L35 b35 ðx_ 3 x_ 5 Þ
þ L45 b45 ðx_ 4 x_ 5 Þ L56 b56 ð_x5 x_ 6 Þ
ð6Þ
where l02, l03, l04, l06 are lengths of the unloaded springs and lp2, lp3, lp4, lp6 are
lengths of the springs after installation. Positions of individual objects are labelled
in equations as x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 and x6. The Fig. 4 shows the system in the initial
state, where the distances between the contacts are lettered H, N, P, R, U, M. The
distances are also taken into account in the equations of motion.
The states when contacts between bodies occur are described by the boundary
conditions:
If the condition Ln is equal to 1, then there is contact between the bodies. The
numbers in a lower index of conditions n correspond to the bodies that are in
contact.
4 Results
The system is kinematically excited at the body 1. As stroke function the modified
sine acceleration was selected. The stroke function corresponds to 250 rpm of the
sewing machine. The equations of motion were solved using the software Matlab
Simulink. To illustrate the results of the solution, the dependence of velocity of the
bodies 1 and 2 is shown in Fig. 5. The influence of stiffness of the spring k2 in
response to velocity of the control element in the moment its collides with the
machine frame is investigated. The instant value of velocity influences the value of
kinetic energy in the moment of collision. The decreasing stiffness k2 significantly
increases maximum value of velocity of the control element. A graph with a cor-
responding acceleration is shown in Fig. 6.
328 J. Komárek
Fig. 6 Acceleration of
bodies 1 and 2
5 Conclusions
The dynamic analysis of the mechanical systems of the needle bar can be inves-
tigated using the described dynamic model. It can examine the influence of various
parameters on the dynamic behaviour of the system. For example, the influence of
weight parameters or the influence of stiffness of individual parts. The dynamic
model may be useful in selecting an appropriate stroke function. The knowledge
obtained from the analysis can be used for design optimisation of the system, for
example, the optimisation of the stiffness of the springs.
Acknowledgments This publication was written at the Technical University of Liberec, Faculty
of Mechanical Engineering as part of the project “Research of the processes of textile and
single-purpose machines” with the support of the Specific University Research Grant and also the
Institutional Endowment for the Long Term Conceptual Development of Research Institutes, as
provided by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic in the year 2016.
Dynamic Model of the Mechanical System of the Needle Bar 329
References
1. Komárek, J., Beran, J., Lima, M., Machado, J., Silva, J.: Finding the optimal setting of the
sewing needle transfer mechanism using simulation software. In: Proceedings of TRS 2012, the
41st Textile Research Symposium, pp. 401–404. Guimaraes, Portugal, 12–14 Sept 2012. ISBN
978-972-8063-67-2
2. Komárek, J.: Influence of the rubber pad stiffness on the noise of the needle transfer mechanism.
In: Proceedings of IV International Conference Mlodzi Naukowcy, pp. 135–139. Jelenia Góra,
19–20 May 2010. ISBN 978-83-61719-86-1
3. Pejchar, K., Beran, J.: Optimization of the needle bar mechanism. In: Proceedings of X.
International Scientific Conference Transfer 2009, pp. 44–49. Trenčín, Slovak Republik, 17–18
Nov 2009. ISBN 978-80-8075-414-3
4. Juliš, K., Brepta, R.: Mechanika. Díl 2., Dynamika. Technický průvodce 66. SNTL, Praha
(1987)
Electronic Link Between the Needle
Cylinder and the Dial of the Small
Diameter Knitting Machine
1 Introduction
divided into three basic driving aggregates. In the first aggregate, the needle
cylinder (V) is driven by a servomotor (M1) and gears (0, 1). In the second, the
servomotor (M2) drives the dial (8) and in the last, a stepped motor (M3) drives the
circular cutting blade used to cut the ends of the threads. Since the article discusses
only the motor synchronisation mode during the simultaneous transfer, the solved
area is only focused on the drives (M1) and (M2) and the aggregates, which they
drive. The replacement of the mechanical links with the electronic links was already
solved in the past and described in articles [4, 5].
Figure 2 shows the test equipment, which consists of three main parts. Part one
(1) is the power part and contains the drives on which the flywheels are installed (2
and 3). The second part (4) contains the power supply and control of the drives by
means of frequency converters. The last part (5) is the controller, where the essential
input parameters are entered via PC.
The test equipment in Fig. 2 is used to simulate two motion regimes, in which
the knitting process runs. The first regime is the return run of the system based on
the assumption of the required motion of the flywheel (2) according to the applied
stroke dependence based on the entered position of the needle cylinder. In the
second regime, i.e. steady rotational motion (synchronous run of the needle cylinder
and dial), which is represented by the flywheel (3), the monitored parameter at the
moment of deployment of the dial is compliance with the maximum position
deviation at the constant rotation speed of both flywheels.
The measuring equipment, unlike the real machine, does not have any gears. In
order to affect this gear between the needle cylinder and the dial, flywheel
(2) representing the needle cylinder rotates at six-fold the angular speed of the
flywheel (3) representing the dial. The results obtained from the following mea-
surements shall be related to the needle cylinder as the main working element using
the gear between the needle cylinder and dial.
Verification of the use of unit drives within the framework of modification of the
drive of the small diameter knitting machine was done by measurement of the
mutual position deviation between the needle cylinder and the dial at constant
rotation speed of both components. During the measurements, various simultaneous
transfer speeds typical for these machines were tested, i.e. from 100 to 220 rpm in
steps of 20 rpm; for experimental reasons, the speeds of 300 and 400 rpm were
tested. In the real case, the standard speeds are in the range of 160–200 rpm, where
the specific speed is derived from the mechanical properties of the material used for
knitting. The stepped build-up of machine speed was chosen for experimental
reasons as an extreme state for the system and subsequent possibility to assess the
stabilisation of the position deviations.
A demonstration of the behaviour of the position of the needle cylinder for a
simultaneous transfer speed of 180 rpm is given in Fig. 3, which shows the overall
measured behaviour and detailed part of the behaviour of the synchronisation of
motion between the needle cylinder and the dial. The visualisation already includes
the gears between these working elements.
Figure 4 shows the details of the behaviour of the position deviation at standard
speed range during simultaneous transfer. It is possible to state that the servomotors
are capable of maintaining the mutual position settings in relation to the maximum
Fig. 3 Behaviour of the position of the needle cylinder and dial at a speed of 180 rpm
Electronic Link Between the Needle Cylinder and the Dial … 335
Fig. 4 The behaviour of the position deviation of the needle cylinder and dial for the applied
speeds
permissible deviation. In the real knitting machine system, a component of the drive
is an in-line gear from the servomotor on the needle cylinder, thanks to which the
resultant value is expanded by the value of tooth play in the gear.
4 Conclusions
Fig. 5 Dependence of the amplitude of the position deviation on a speed of 120–400 rpm, during
simultaneous transfer, after settling of the transition phenomenon
336 J. Skřivánek et al.
cylinder (up to 400 rpm). With regard to the drives used with a working speed
range of 4000 rpm, their suitability for use in low-speed applications with a
requirement for high precision and uniformity of speed was proven. With increasing
working drive rotations, the synchronisation deviation dropped and at the used
speeds and higher speeds, the requirement for the maximum permissible deviation
was fulfilled.
The graph in Fig. 5 clearly shows that the position deviation declined with
increasing speed up to a speed of 180 rpm. This phenomenon can also be attributed
to the more suitable operating conditions of the drives, particularly for the drive of
the dial, which rotates at six-fold the speed of the drive of the needle cylinder.
Acknowledgments The paper has been elaborated with the financial support of TUL in the
framework of specific university research competition.
References
1. Skřivánek, J., Bílek, M.: New structure of the drive of small-diameter knitting machines.
AUTEX Res. J. 12(1), March 2012 © AUTEX (2012). ISSN 1470-9589
2. Skřivánek, J., Bílek, M.: Analysis of dynamic model of the drive of small diameter knitting
machines Ange 18.1. Acc J. XVII 2011, Liberec, 2011 (2011). ISSN 1803-9782
3. Skřivánek, J., Bílek, M., Kašpárek, M.: Control optimization of the new drive of small diameter
knitting machines. AUTEX Res. J. 17(3), September 2016 © AUTEX (2016). ISSN 1470-9589
[ahead of printing]
4. Vaclavik, M., Jirasko, P.: Research and application of displacement laws of electronic cams. In:
Proceedings of the 13th IFToMM World Congress, Besancon, France, 18–21 June 2007
5. Tesar, D.: Intelligent mechanical systems, plenary paper. In: Proceedings of the 11th IFToMM
World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Tianjin, China, 1–4 Apr 2004
Utilization of Magnetic Accumulators
for the Traversing Rod of the Yarn
Winding System on Rotor Spinning
Machines
J. Valtera
1 Introduction
The central traversing system on rotor spinning machines provides the guidance of
yarns, which are wound upon the output cross-wound bobbins [1, 2]. The required
rectilinear movement of the traversing rod is delivered from the central drive unit,
which is placed at one side of the machine. The traversing rod is formed out of
serially-coupled one-section-length rods and reaches a length over 50 m. Despite of
using rods made of advanced materials (carbon composite or high-strength
J. Valtera (&)
Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
aluminium alloy [3]), the excessive dynamic force limits this system for modern
machines with more sections and/or high operational traversing speed [2, 4].
Therefore several systems of dynamic force reduction of traversing rod [5–7] are
investigated and analysed. This article describes the utilization of a new magnetic
system and its optimal distribution on the rotor spinning machine in order to
enhance its dynamic behaviour at high operational speeds.
The traversing reciprocating motion is characterised by linear and transition
sections. The latter one is defined by the parameter γ which describes the necessary
length of the stroke (or virtual cam angle) for the moving elements to deaccelerate
towards the dead-centre position and accelerate from it. Generally, the traversing
motion consists of the main stroke of e.g. 148 mm and additional one, called the
reversal point shift (RPS). It provides slight shift of the end of the traversing stroke
from the inner reversal point (rpin) towards the outer reversal point (rpout). This
additional motion is commonly described by means of harmonic function with the
amplitude of e.g. 4 mm and enables diminution of the negative impact of non-zero
transition section on winding quality [8]. Generally, there are two basic types of
RPS on rotor spinning machines. The conventional type of RPS is generated by
means of e.g. cam mechanism supplemented with additional crank mechanism. The
stroke boundaries of this type are shown in Fig. 1a. In Fig. 1b, the variable RPS is
generated by means of electronical control of e.g. a belt mechanism or a linear
drive.
Previous results of carried-out analyses with sets of magnetic-mechanical
accumulators proved that the implementation of this system enables significant
reduction of the dynamic force and total deformation [7]. However, it also showed a
new negative phenomena of losing the value of RPS with inappropriate distribution
rpout rpout
rpin rpin
stroke S [mm]
stroke S [mm]
rpin rpin
rpout rpout
0 γ 1/2π π−γ π π+γ 3/2π 2π−γ 2π 0 γ 1/2π π−γ π π+γ 3/2π 2π−γ 2π
a) virtual cam angle φ [rad] b) virtual cam angle φ [rad]
Fig. 1 Modification of the traversing movement due to the reversal point shift (RPS) [from the
inner reversal point (rpin) to the outer one (rpout)]. a Conventional. b Variable [7]
Utilization of Magnetic Accumulators for the Traversing Rod … 339
2 Magnetic Accumulator
Fig. 2 Scheme of magnetic accumulator for the traversing rod of the rotor spinning machine
50
ΔF
[N]
45
axial
Desired chracteristic
Repelling magnetic force F
Mg - sim
Mg - mea
rpin rpout
0
-50 -6.5 -1.5 0
Magnet distance [mm]
Fig. 3 The force characteristic of the magnetic spring of the magnetic accumulator
340 J. Valtera
For the mathematical description of the studied system, the discrete model of the
traversing rod was used. The model, created in MSC Software, module Adams
View is described in [3]. For the purpose of cam mechanism, kinematic excitation
describing the required motion by means of the defined acceleration of the first
element was used. The force characteristic Fm(x) of the devised geometry of
magnets was solved in the model carried out in software Ansys/Maxwell and
applied to appropriate rod elements as displacement-depended force. The mathe-
matical description of the model can be expressed by differential Eq. (1), where
matrices (with size 320 × 320) represents: M—elements mass, B—viscous damp-
ing, K—stiffness, vectors Fv—passive resistance and x—element displacement. The
presumptions of the model are: the difference in ideal-stiff excitation of the model
and cam mechanism can be neglected; dynamic magnetic effects between the static
permanent magnets and translating rod sections which are made of conductive
material are neglected.
M €x þ B x_ þ K x þ Fv þ Fm ðxÞ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
Dynamic analyses were carried out for the range of traversing speeds from 100
to 200 dspm (1.6–3.3 Hz) (dspm—double-stroke per minute).
There were several various layouts of magnetic systems analysed. Out of them
the one with 9 systems applied in the middle of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 12th,
15th and 18th section was evaluated as the most promising one. The evaluation was
based on the minimal reaction force, minimal total deformation and minimal losing
of RPS point of view. Results of dynamic analysis of this layout are shown in
Fig. 4. Figure 4a illustrates the reaction force F along the traversing rod with
respect to the traversing speed and RPS. Figure 4b then illustrates the difference in
the dead end position DP along the traversing rod with respect to traversing speed
and RPS.
Utilization of Magnetic Accumulators for the Traversing Rod … 341
Fig. 4 Dynamic analysis results: parameter dependence on the section number with respect to the
traversing speed and RPS. a Reaction force. b Difference in dead centre position
4 Experiments
Measurement of the traversing rod was carried out on the test rig with 20
section-length rod. As the driver a new system with linear drive was used. The
measurements was carried out for two variants of traversing rods: 1: traversing rod
without any magnetic systems (v0), 2: traversing rod with magnetic systems in
layout according to the selected variant from dynamic analyses (v9). In Fig. 5,
comparison of results of these two types for both the simulation and the mea-
surement is shown. Figure 5a illustrates the maximal force Fmax with respect to the
traversing speed. Figure 5b shows the maximal difference of the dead centre
position DPmax.
342 J. Valtera
Fig. 5 Comparison of measurement and analysis results: selected parameters dependence on the
traversing speed with respect to RPS and traversing system type (v0—without any magnetic
system, v9—with 9 magnetic systems) a Maximal force, b Maximal difference in dead center
position
5 Conclusion
The simulation and the measurement results show the relative equal decrease of
both evaluated parameters when applying the magnetic systems to the traversing
rod in the selected layout. At the speed 200 dspm, the DPmax was reduced from
approximately 3.3 mm to values bellow 1.75 mm. The average value of the max-
imal difference of DPmax due to the RPS change is in both cases bellow 0.55 mm,
which is within 7 % of the given overall RPS stroke. Despite of that, the model
results does not fully corresponds to the measurements, which may be caused by the
different stiffness of the linear drive and ideal kinematic excitation of the model.
Improving of the mathematical description of the system will be therefore the
subject of the further work.
However, presented paper shows, the magnetic systems applied to the central
traversing system of the rotor spinning machine in the appropriate layout improves
the dynamic behaviour considerably. Similar approach can be applied to modern
high-performance machines with more spinning units and higher operational
speeds.
Utilization of Magnetic Accumulators for the Traversing Rod … 343
Acknowledgments The research presented in this article was supported by the Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sports in the framework of the targeted support of the “National Programme
for Sustainability I” LO 1201 and the OPR&DI project “Centre for Nanomaterials, Advanced
Technologies and Innovation”, CZ.1.05/2.1.00/01.0005.
References
1. Ernst, H.: The Reiter Manual of Spinning—Rotor Spinning, vol. 5. Rieter Machine works Ltd.
ISBN 13 978-3-9523173-3-4 (2014)
2. Kaniok, J.: New trends in mechanisms for the distribution of yarn in textile machines. In:
Proceedings of 6th International Scientific Conference Transfer (2004)
3. Valtera, J., Beran, J.: Mathematical model of the long traversing rod with a discrete flexible link
utilization. In: Proceedings of the International Conference Transfer (2011)
4. Černohorský, J.: Extreme dynamics on eCAM linear drive. In: Proceedings of 14th International
Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference EPE-PEMC (2010)
5. Foune, F., et al.: The influence of magnetic accumulators equipped with permanent magnets on
the drive of a mechanical system with the periodical reciprocating movement and its behaviour.
In: Proceedings of 10th International conference of Vibration problems ICOVP (2011)
6. Valtera, J., Beran, J.: Magnetic-mechanical accumulator of kinetic energy. Autex Res. J. 14(1),
1–6 (2014). doi:10.2478/v10304-012-0038-0
7. Valtera, J., Žabka, P., Beran, J.: Enhanced central system of the traversing rod for
high-performance rotor spinning machines. Autex Res. J. (2015). doi:10.1515/aut-2015-0038,
November
8. Beran, J, Valtera, J.: Yarn distribution process during winding thereof onto a bobbin located in a
winding mechanism of a textile machine workstation and apparatus for making the same, patent
number: 304685 (2014)
9. Valtera, J.: Design of magnetic spring characteristic with finite element method utilization. In:
Proceedings of the conference Výpočty konstrukcí metodou konečných prvků MKP (2015)
Mechatronic Model for Traversing Rod
Longitudinal Vibration Analysis
P. Žabka
Abstract The paper deals with analysis of vibration of traversing rod on rotor
spinning machines. The rod is part of winding system and it should provide a
precise motion in order to ensure quality package. However the rod is subject of
dynamic load that excites detrimental longitudinal vibrations. In order to better
understand the behaviour of the rod a mathematical model in Matlab/Simulink is
used to describe the system. The traversing rod was described using finite element
method while a dq model was used for the permanent magnet synchronous motor
description. To verify the mathematical model the simulation results were compared
to experimental data. Results from the simulation proved the model to be well
suited for the system description.
1 Introduction
The paper deals with analysis of vibration of traversing rod on rotor spinning
machines. The rotor spinning is after ring spinning the second most used tech-
nology in yarn production [1]. Once the yarn is produced it is stored in packages by
winding mechanisms that are incorporated directly into rotor spinning machines.
The machines are equipped either with individual winding mechanisms or with
central winding system. The winding process consists of two motions: rotation of
the package and traversing motion of a yarn guide. When a central system is used
the traversing motion is generated by a central mechanism and it is distributed along
the machine by the traversing rod.
The traversing rod is assembled from sections of aluminium alloy rods and
carbon composite rods. It is placed along the whole length of the machine that can
reach almost 50 m. With the diameter of 12 mm the length to diameter ratio of the
P. Žabka (&)
Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
rod reaches 4000. During the operation the rod is subject to dynamic load and
longitudinal vibrations are excited. These vibrations can have detrimental effect on
the quality of output packages and the lifetime of the system [2].
To obtain cross wound package the yarn guide must follow a periodical recti-
linear motion, see Fig. 1. Each period consist of section with constant velocity and
motion reversion near dead-centres. In order to ensure high quality package, two
additional motions are included: anti-patterning and stroke displacement.
Anti-patterning ensures that the yarn does not create pattern zones that are hard to
unwind while stroke displacement compensates for yarn accumulation near package
edges [1]. Both of these additional motions are slow compared to the main
traversing motion [3].
Several systems can be used for generating the required traversing motion such
as cam mechanism, belt mechanism or mechanism with linear motor [4, 5]. For the
analysis of the rod a system with crank mechanism was used. The scheme of the
winding system is shown in Fig. 2.
The traversing rod is placed along the packages that are shown on the right side.
The main motor marked with M is a permanent magnet synchronous servomotor. It
ensures main traversing motion along with anti-patterning motion. Because the
crank mechanism has fixed dead-centre positions an additional motor with an
eccentric is used for stroke distortion.
Fig. 1 Stroke, velocity and acceleration diagrams of the required motion (for 150 rpm)
2 Mathematical Model
dIq
Uq ¼ RS Iq þ Lq þ pp U B x ð3Þ
dt
SD
TR
MS AP DR CM
SM
dx M MZ
¼ ð4Þ
dt J
3 Experiment
In order to verify the mathematical model the simulations results was compared
with an experiment [2]. The measuring set-up is shown in Fig. 4. A rod of 20
sections was used with the overall length of 47 m. The system was measured with
speeds in range from 100 to 190 rpm. The stroke was 148 mm and for the sake of
simplicity anti-patterning and stroke displacement motions were disabled during the
measurement.
The measured parameters were the position and acceleration on selected sections
along the rod and the force on the first section between the rod and the crank
mechanism. For measuring acceleration inductance sensors were used while the
force was measured by means of industrial force transducer. Beside that several
parameters such as crank position and motor current were read from servo drive.
4 Results
Number of data was obtained from the measurement as well as from the simulation.
To enable comparison of the mathematical model with the measurement, the
mathematical model was provided with parameters of the testing set-up. Even the
masses of sensors were included. For obtaining all the necessary parameters
additional tests were performed.
Results of acceleration on the first section are shown in Fig. 5. One plot depicts
the measurement data while the other shows results of the mathematical simulation.
The acceleration is selected because the differences between both plots as well as
the appearance of residual vibrations are best noticeable.
From Fig. 5 a good match could be seen between the measurement and the
simulation. The peak values are matched almost precisely. Some difference is in the
frequency of residual oscillation where the mathematical model exhibits higher
frequency than the measurement.
5 Conclusion
A mathematical model of a system with the traversing rod was created. The model
includes both servomotor and the traversing rod. The complexity of the model is
important as both parts influence dynamic behaviour of each other.
350 P. Žabka
In order to verify the model the simulation results were compared with mea-
surement on testing set-up. Results of comparison provided a good match in all
measured quantities. It means that the model properties were set correctly and all
assumptions were appropriate for the purpose. The simulations proved to provide a
reliable description of the real system.
The created model can be used for understanding of the behaviour of current
systems as well as for designing new systems. Results of the simulation are fast and
inexpensive compared to an experiment. The model can be employed in design
modification, dimensions optimization or servo-drive control testing.
Acknowledgments The research presented in this article was supported by the Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sports in the framework of the targeted support of the “National Programme
for Sustainability I” LO 1201 and the OPR&DI project “Centre for Nanomaterials, Advanced
Technologies and Innovation”, CZ.1.05/2.1.00/01.0005
References
1. Ernst, H.: The Rieter Manual of Spinning—Rotor Spinning, vol. 5. Rieter Machine Works Ltd.,
Winterthur (2014). ISBN 13 978-3-9523173-5-8
2. Žabka, P., Valtera, J., Beran, J.: Dynamic properties of traversing rod. In: XI International
Conference on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, TMM2012, p. 469. Springer, Liberec
(2012). ISBN 978-94-007-5124-8
3. Valtera, J., Beran, J.: Magnetic-mechanical accumulator of kinetic energy. Autex Res. J. 14(1),
1–6 (2014). ISSN (Print) 1470-9589. doi:10.2478/v10304-012-0038-0
4. Beran, J., Valtera, J., Žabka, P.: New trends in yarn distribution systems on spinning machines.
In: STRUTEX 2008, Liberec, 2008, p. 579 (2008). ISBN 978-80-7372-418-4
5. Černohorský, J.: Extreme dynamics on eCAM linear drive. In: Proceedings of 14th International
Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference EPE-PEMC (2010)
6. Rydlo, P.: Řízení elektrických střídavých pohonů. TUL, Liberec (2006). ISBN 80-7372-117-1
Adaptive Timing of Relay Nozzles
of an Air Jet Weaving Loom
J. Žák
Abstract In this paper we present our approach to optimize air jet usage by using
an adaptive timing of nozzles, with some excursion to the general theory of air jet
weft insertion. Our algorithm of adaptive timing of relay nozzle valves relies on this
theory of weft introduction. By exploiting only the potential of digital control of the
loom and without any single change to its mechanics, we succeeded in saving of
about 20 % of compressed air. In addition, other textile technology parameters,
such as number of weft breaking, also went increasing.
1 Introduction
The first task was to provide both air consumption of individual systems of weft
introduction and the impact of these systems on its quality. When determining
consumption of main nozzles and relay nozzles we started from previous mea-
surements made in VÚTS earlier. Moreover, it was possible to use certain analogies
and similarities for the tandem nozzle (hereinafter identical to main nozzles) and for
so-called “auxiliary weak-jet” and for the tensioning nozzle. It was therefore con-
cluded that the air consumption of each individual nozzle in a steady mode
depending on the air pressure was known. It was also necessary to determine the
sensitivity of weft introduction on the input parameters. For evaluation of quality of
the pick weft arrival time was chosen, more precisely the angle of the machine in a
circular diagram (terms of “time” and “angle” further used indifferently thus). This
value is provided as a statistical average of an arbitrarily large set of data of weft
arrival time acquired by the control system of the loom. Variable input parameters
were the pressure on the individual nozzles and their opening times. At the very
beginning we have rejected the possibility of changing the position of the nozzles
J. Žák (&)
VÚTS, a.s. Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
and their possible shape optimization. This has been done many times before, both
in VÚTS, as well as by other manufacturers or research institutes, and it was clear
that textile-technological constraints would not allow any major breakthrough in
this domain.
At this stage, experiments were performed to determine the sensitivity of the quality
of the pick on the fore mentioned parameters. The measurements became the basis
for a deeper analysis of the influence of variable parameters on the movement of the
weft in the shed, the results, however, fall out of the scope of this work.
Due to the number of relay nozzles (up to 36, divided into 5–7 independently
timed sections) the overall sensitivity (Jacobian) matrix of the pick was not eval-
uated analytically. This analysis was done in a very simplified manner by gradually
shutting down of individual sections.
The performed sensitivity analysis has given the following conclusions:
– Main nozzle pressure sensitivity is high. However, this fact is known and is used
to control the time of weft arrival to satisfy the textile-technological require-
ments by setting this pressure.
– Sensitivity to the opening time of main nozzle is surprisingly low.
– The pressure at the inlet to the relay nozzles (the same for all sections) and the
time of their opening have minimal influence on the angle of arrival.
In carrying out the experiments, however, it became clear that chosen pick
quality criterion, this is angle of arrival, is not sufficient. Especially when sensitivity
measurements of parameters of relay nozzles being carried out the repetitive “short
pick”, i.e. incomplete introduction of the weft into the shed, happened frequently,
although the statistical average angle of arrival t remained at the required value, it
was not influenced by changes of parameters of relay nozzles. It was therefore
necessary to establish additional criteria of pick quality. For this criterion the
standard deviation was selected:
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rX
r¼ ðti tÞ2
i
Given the global air consumption analysis, sensitivity analysis, and also with
regard to the technical limitations we made the following conclusions, which were
the basis for the next steps:
– Pressure on main nozzle will remain independent parameter, as a mean of
automatic regulation the angle of weft arrival; although its impact on con-
sumption is not negligible, it is the only parameter by means of which weavers
can control the textile-technological requirements of the pick.
Adaptive Timing of Relay Nozzles of an Air Jet Weaving Loom 353
– Pressure on the relay nozzles has a big impact on overall air consumption, costs
associated with the installation of an electronically controlled throttle valve on
new machines, however, are high and this is a hardly realizable modification on
existing machines. In the future, there is likely to use it, for now this option was
postponed.
– Air consumption of all nozzles is directly proportional to the time of opening of
the relevant nozzle valves. Their timing is controlled by a digital control system
and it is therefore relatively easy to vary this timing to reduce air in comparison
with a fixed setting. This fixed valve timing has to cover all the possible timings
of the weft being driven into the shed. The quality of the weft, however, changes
with time, e.g., depending on the unwound length of the yarn or on the wear of
the reed and on changes of its aerodynamic characteristics, or is subject to
mechanical errors of other picking devices, such as feeder or weft brake (ABS).
Our goal, thus, will be to adjust adaptively the timing of the relay nozzles so that
at any moment of the pick only the necessary number of valves be open, and this
depending on the actual operating conditions.
To be able to optimize nozzle timing for each picking jet, we need to know at any
moment the position of the weft in the channel. For a description of the movement
of the weft pick at the air we came out of the work [1, 2]. Basically, to solve the
motion equation for the position of weft head L versus time:
Z
a
cD qðn; tÞ cðn; tÞ L_ dn ¼ ðk þ fO Þ L_ þ L L
€
2
ð1Þ
L
Given that α, λ and cD in this equation are the material constants of the weft at a
given time, describing its inertial properties and interaction with the air jet; in
general it would be necessary to determine them for each type of weft. Furthermore,
the density ρ (ξ, t) and speed c (ξ, t) are difficult to determine, either in position and
either in time varying parameters of the airflow. Parameter fO describes simply the
empirically determined drag of the feeder and ABS. Analytical solution of this
integral-differential equation is therefore virtually impossible.
Actual procedure of solving this equation of motion, used in the machine control
system, was presented at 30th conference Computational Mechanics 2014 in
Železná Ruda, see [3], here let us mention only the resulting relationship, used in
the next presentation:
354 J. Žák
LðtÞ ¼ v1 t 2 B þ eB ðt þ 2 BÞ
t
ð2Þ
As previously stated, our goal was to enable the control system continuously
respond to changes in the quality of the pick. The first step was to integrate an
algorithm evaluating the quality of the pick into the existing control system. As
mentioned above, for the quality measure standard deviation of angle was chosen.
As our goal was to respond to constantly change in the pick quality, the values of t
and σ are calculated as the floating value of the last n values.
It should be noted that the time of arrival of the weft does not meet exactly
normal probability distribution. However, since the values of n are chosen suffi-
ciently high, normally n ≅ 50, the normal probability distribution can be used.
To find the actual optimum settings we accepted the following considerations:
– The main propulsive force in introducing the weft is the drag of the main nozzle.
Relay nozzles create a sort of “dragless” environment in picking channel. But
then, it is just sufficient to open only those relay nozzles over which the head of
the weft is moving. However, the problematics is somewhat more complicated,
more profound analysis lies out of scope of this abstract.
– Theoretical position of the current weft pick is known at any time due to the
approximation of the measured values of coil times by using the function (2),
see also [3].
– Times of arrival of individual picks differ and analogically differ the times of
passage of weft over individual relay nozzles. The time probability distribution
of passage over a given point will also follow a normal probability distribution.
Standard deviation from nominal mean value increases linearly from 0 for the
L = 0 up to σ for L = width of picking.
To derive the algorithm of relay nozzle timing it was still necessary to solve the
problem of fast calculation of v1 and B. As mentioned above, it is possible to use
some of regression techniques, but this practice is not suitable due to nonlinearity of
function (2). During the theoretical calculations, however, it was found that it
should be possible to find values sufficiently accurately approximating as follows:
LN1 L2
v1 ¼ ð3Þ
TN1 T2
1 LN1
B ¼ TN1 ð4Þ
2 v1
Adaptive Timing of Relay Nozzles of an Air Jet Weaving Loom 355
In these relationships N is the total number of coils, L2 and LN1 are the posi-
tions of the weft head after unwinding 2 and N − 1 coils (known total length of the
windings up to 2 and to N − 1) and T2 and TN1 are the times of passage over these
positions (values read by the sensor on the feeder) respectively. This approximation
is based on the fact that conventional wefts, at least wefts woven on air looms,
achieve the speed v1 very quickly, practically during the first coil unwinding. For
extremely heavy, slowly accelerating wefts or for small width, for which N could be
less than 4, it would be necessary to modify this approximation.
The implementation itself into the control system utilizes certain geometrical
properties of the construction of the loom; these values are available in the control
system. Relations (3) and (4) then take the form:
N þ q12 1
v1 ¼ L
N ð aD a0 Þ
q12 1
B¼ L
N v1
Here L is the woven width, q12 is the ratio between the duration of the first and
second coil. a0 and aD are times (angles) of the beginning and the end of the pick
(time of arrival of the weft). Theoretical transit time through the position Li for
i ≥ 2, this is for second and subsequent coils, then is:
Li
Ti ¼ a0 þ þB
v1
Li Li
Ti k r ; Ti þ k r
L L
Note: Implementation of the algorithm into the control system of VERA and
CAMEL looms was somewhat more complicated, since it was necessary to take
into account the grouping of relay nozzles into sections with different numbers of
nozzles per valve. In addition, because of the conservatism of some users it always
allows manual entry of additional opening times, both before and after automati-
cally calculated minimum interval. The following Fig. 1 shows an example of
timing of a pick.
356 J. Žák
Position [m]
Angle [deg]
A theoretical estimation of air saving, particularly for the case of relay nozzles
grouped into sections, is difficult to quantify, however, without knowledge of the
exact scatter of weft properties and thus without knowledge of changes of σ during
weaving. Bigger the scatter of weft properties is and thus σ is high, bigger the air
saving can be.
This algorithm has been implemented into the existing control system of 10
weaving machines CAMEL, installed by a customer. After performing operational
tests of 5 weeks of continuous duty it was achieved a saving of around 20 % of the
compressed air while maintaining or improving other quality indicators.
Acknowledgments The research work reported here was made possible by the program LO
1213-Excelentní strojírenský výzkum (2013-2018 MSMT), LO-NPÚ 1.
References
J. Antoš
Abstract Conception of ball screw, gearbox, pinion and rack are commonly used
for linear and rotary axes of machine tools. Issues of these applications are back-
lash, increased moments of inertia and friction. These disadvantages can be elim-
inated by using of direct drive motors. In this case, it has to be taken into account
that the entire mechanical stiffness of the axis is formed only by closed loop control.
Before using of this technology, required properties and behavior of motors has to
be practically tested in specific situations on real device. The first goal of this
project was design and implementation of unique stand for testing of direct linear
and direct torque drive motors in order to use in special-purpose machine tools. The
second goal was design and implementation of complete control system for testing
of dynamics and position accuracy. Both of the test stand and the control system
based on Siemens Simotion C controller were successfully constructed and
implemented in accordance with the design. Created solution allows measuring of
position accuracy, speed and torque for standardized displacements law and it can
be done in manual or automatic mode. It also allows developing and evaluating the
quality of the control system. Attention was paid to the new method of transmission
data of displacement law from the USB flash memory to the controller based on the
Client-Server communication. Result of this project is decision about recommen-
dation of this concept for practical application for special-purpose machine tools.
Keywords Direct linear drive Direct torque drive Simotion Displacement law
1 Introduction
Demands for linear movement with high dynamic performance and for accuracy
and elimination of backlash and increased moments of inertia caused by conven-
tional mechanical conceptions can be solved by usage of linear motor. Linear
J. Antoš (&)
VÚTS, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
2 Mechanical Part
The flywheel has a function of load as well as reduction for cam clamping on
Siemens 1FW3150 [2]. Stroke length of the linear motor is 450 mm and is deter-
mined by six permanent magnets Siemens 1FN3050. Feedback from absolute
encoder by using Heidenhain LC483 is indispensable for closing of control loop [3]
(Fig. 1). Measuring probe MSL50.152KA is used for accurate measuring of the
length coordinate in short measuring range. Measuring step is 5.0 µm. Siemens
Simotion C control system was selected because of this system satisfies demands
for controlling of multiaxis systems with possibility of design and modification of
displacement laws within program execution. Speed and current loop control are
closed here [4]. Specific requirement is controlling of the motors by pendant control
station with hand wheel. General safety supplemented by special circuit for safe
Fig. 1 3D model of the testing stand of the direct servo drives Siemens and real stand
The Testing Stand of the Direct Linear and the Torque … 361
servo drives switching off by safety integrated. Double motor module uses enable
pulse which determines if sequence of functions like timer and OFF3 will be started.
Function OFF3 ensures safe stop of servo motor via ramp function.
3 Software Part
Software architecture is decomposed into manual mode, the operator of cam panel
and automatic mod. Monitoring of position, speed, positioning, jog, homming,
enable axes, synchronization the virtual and the real axis alllows manual mode.
Upload displacement law with USB portable memory, display it for inspection and
then exported to the memory controller allows cam panel. All synchronization of
the three axes are using the gear and cam handles automatic mode. The whole
system is controlled by a single virtual axis. Virtual gear rotational axis is attached
virtual axis. Displacement law between the rotational axis and a linear is use. First,
parameters and hardware configuration were set during program initialization.
Then, the stops were solved. Real system contains mechanical stops which are
supplemented by virtual ones 10 mm earlier and programmed ones 20 mm before
real stop. That means triple protection against collision between linear and torque
motor. In the case of program error and moving into virtual stop, motor goes
immediately into disable state. Remedy is deleting of position error, putting motor
in enable state and leaving the restricted area with negated speed. This information
is displayed by LEDs on electrical switchboard and on HMI panel throughout
remedy. Errors can be acknowledged on HMI panel. Conventional total stop on
electrical switchboard and on pendant control station is supplemented by software
stop. The safety integrated function is activated during emergency stop of the motor
and it executes delayed switching off. This makes possible to stop motor with
defined deceleration.
Visualization and controlling by using Weintek 8070iH HMI and Simotion PLC
are based on Client-Server communication. Although these two systems do not
support each other, because the motion control system Simotion uses the indirect
(symbolic) addressing, bidirectional communication can be established by means of
this application. Application of “Client-Server” based on functions in a develop-
ment environment EasyBuilder and Siemens Scout is described in report
Client-Server application for the operator panel Weintek and the control system
Siemens Simotion [5].
Source data of displacement law are saved in controller memory. That is stan-
dard practice. Large attention is paid to the new method for displacement law data
transfer via USB to the Simotion controller memory. This transfer is based on
mentioned unique Client-Server communication and on Weintek HMI panel usage.
This new technique allows user friendly data transfers from any USB flash memory
directly into Simotion memory. Simotion unlike Weintek uses indirect addressing
and so this option is not standardly possible. Typical situation for dynamic tests is
displacement law modification on system input. Within few seconds, displacement
362 J. Antoš
law can be uploaded, displayed for checking and exported into the controller during
RUN mode and without any change of programme in the PLC. That is possible
thanks to the Client-Server method [5].
Application for the testing stand of the direct linear and the torque servo drives
Siemens is divided into the three basic windows: Main panel, Cam panel (Fig. 2)
and Control panel. The first window (Main Panel) is responsible for: axes posi-
tioning, actual position and speed showing, axes homming, axes enabling, syn-
chronization between three axes and activate of pendant mode. Particular axes,
theirs multiple of position, jog and hand wheel are possible to be selected on
pendant control station. Because of security, operator has to use both hands and be
pushing enable pulse button with defined pressure.
The second window (Cam Panel) is designed to select one of the predefined
displacement laws for the electronic cam. Electronic cam is alternate option to the
conventional mechanical cams. Quick change of displacement law is one of the
biggest advantages of the electronic cam. Solving of cam movement dynamics is on
the contrary disadvantage. Periodic type of cam from VDI 2143 standard was used
for electronic cams dynamics testing [6]. This cam has high dynamics and interval
with constant nonzero speed. Relation between positions of master and slave axes
(displacement law) is saved in *.xls format and sampling step of master axis is 0.5°.
Therefore, one displacement law in 0–360° range with two axes with mentioned
sampling period needs 1440 elements. Data file on USB flash memory has to be in
*.emi format and its name has to be in range EM0-EM9. Conversion from *.csv
format to *.emi format is done by Recipe Editor [7]. Particular elements of the data
field are in float type and the file is saved into root of USB flash memory. After this,
the data are ready to be connected into HMI panel. After connection of the flash
drive to the panel, this memory is as accessible as inner memory with EM0-EM9
attributes. File saving is done by data transfer function with definition of source
(EM0.emi), destination for saving into HMI panel memory registers (LW514),
uploaded data size (1440) and mode (touch trigger). Afterwards, the USB flash
memory can be removed without losing of data. Rendering of the electronic cam
displacement law on the HMI screen is done by plot function with definition of
rendered data size. Four bytes are necessary for every position value. Information
about displacement law is carried by slave axis so 2880 elements are necessary.
The Testing Stand of the Direct Linear and the Torque … 363
Size of the field is always used as a multiple of 512. Here is divided into 6 parts
with size of 512 due the limitation of maximal field size during Client-Server
communication. Displacement law which is saved in the inner HMI panel registers
is saved into field of 3072 size. Afterwards, two times nested for loop is used for
sending the packets of 512 Byte size. Communication channel on the 9001 port is
reserved for this.
The third window (Control panel) allows showing of actual position and speed
of all axes, showing and acknowledging of errors of the axes selected electronic
cam type. This window defines the master axis speed set point and active automatic
mode and finally switching the main contactor in front of the frequency converter.
This mode is block of instructions that are executed automatically. Initial
assumptions are successful enable of the motor with zero errors and activated active
line module contactor. Two automatic modes were used in this project. First one
tests dynamic parameters of both motors. These parameters are position, speed,
torque and position error of standardized VDI 2143 displacement law with 1800
values per one revolution. These points are linearly interpolated. Testing system has
virtual master axis. This axis is rotating at a constant speed 125°/s and is syn-
chronized with real torque axis by displacement law. Resulting graph on the Fig. 3
presents displacement law of linear and torque motor.
Second automatic mode simulates machining for measuring the zero position
error of the measuring probe. Synchronization of particular axes (real and virtual) is
done by displacement law. Whole process is separated into approach, machining
simulation and departure. Approach and departure is done by moving at 120°/s into
the safe distance. Then the speed is decreased at 3°/s due to the safe movement on
required position.
Synchronization of all three axes is realized during this process. Double syn-
chronization is made for machining simulation. Entire system is controlled by
master axis speed which revolves real torque axis via gearbox with 1:1 ration.
Electronic cam defined by 1800 values is between torque and linear motor. Real
steel asymmetric cam was manufactured thanks to known x and y coordinates and it
was placed directly on the torque motor. Linear motor was mounted with measuring
probe. Torque motor rotates at constant speed 3°/s and linear motor copies contour
of the cam.
364 J. Antoš
4 Conclusions
The first goal of the project, assembling of the stand, was successively and com-
pletely accomplished. The biggest attention was paid to the perpendicularity of
linear rails and to the accuracy of air gap between primary and secondary section in
whole range. Concept of contact between measuring probe and cam is area where
further development is required. Radial stress acting on measuring probe is bigger
than 0.2 N. That can bring difficulties during higher speeds. Solution of this issue
can be application of measuring probe with roller, contactless measuring, etc.
Nevertheless, the used concept of measuring probe with sphere was fully sufficient
for required speeds.
The second goal of the project, design and implementation of complete control
system for testing of dynamics and position accuracy, was successfully accom-
plished. The biggest attention was paid to the safety and to the transmission of
displacement law. This new transmission method facilitates and speeds up manu-
facturing process. Its next application can be transfer via company network from
office computer to the production hall using the same principle.
Fulfillment of these goals had allowed testing of dynamic properties of motors in
real situations. It also proved that replacement of conventional conception by direct
motors is proper solution and that control system fulfills all demands and therefor
can be recommended.
References
1. Jirásko, P.: Metodika aplikací elektronických vaček v pohonech pracovních členů mechanismů
výrobních strojů. Liberec (2010). Available from:http://www.fm.tul.cz/files/autoreferat_jirasko.
pdf
2. Souček, P.: Servomechanismy ve výrobních strojích. Vydavatelství ČVUT, Praha (2004).
ISBN:80-01-02902-6
3. Heidenhain: linear encoders for numerically controlled machine tools. Measuring principles
[online]. 2016 [cit. 2016-04-18]. Available from: http://www.heidenhain.de/fileadmin/pdb/
media/img/571470-28_Linear_Encoders_For_Numerically_Controlled_Machine_Tools.pdf
4. Lindr, D.: Řízení servopohonů v dynamicky náročných aplikacích. Liberec (2011)
5. Antos, J., Busek, M.: Client-server application for the operator panel weintek and the control
system Siemens Simotion. Mechatronika. VÚTS a.s. Liberec [online]. (2014) [cit. 2016-04-18].
ISBN 978-1-4799-3527-7. Available from: http://ecopyright.ieee.org/xplore/down.html
6. VDI 2143, Bl. 1: Blatt 2 Motion rules for cam mechanisms; practical application.
VDI-Fachbereich Getriebe und Maschinenelemente (2002)
7. Weintek: Professional in human maschine interface [online] (2012) [cit. 2016-04-18]. Available
from:http://www.weintek.com/global/download/Download.aspx?wFun=byM&c=Manuals&S=
HMI_0002
New Method of Contactless Measurement
and Analysis of CNC Machine Spindle
Lopping
1 Introduction
During extension of a horizontal spindle out of a headstock, the spindle sinks due to
the effect of gravity force—i.e. the bending of the spindle and change of defor-
mation of its mounting occurs. These inaccuracies are significant especially in the
The measurement and evaluation of the spindle lopping is calculated for various
spindle extensions and for various weights simulating the spindle mass load at the
end. At first the reference measurement is made without weights and fully retracted
spindle state. Then, the measurement is repeated for partial or full spindle exten-
sion. The same scheme is used for the weight influence measurement. Figure 1
shows fully extended spindle with weights 50 kg, info and details of CNC machine
and measurement are described in [2]. Each evaluation of the spindle lopping is
compared with the reference measurement without weights.
Schematic illustration of the spindle inclination and lopping measurement prin-
ciple including dimensions for calculation is shown in Fig. 2. The laser beam, which
is skew to the spindle rotation axis in general, transcribes a rotational hyperboloid
during the spindle rotation. The cuts of hyperboloid by recording planes have
elliptical shape (in Fig. 2 shown in rotated state). The centers of ellipses are eval-
uated from paths of laser beam at the sensor and changes of their position after
New Method of Contactless Measurement and Analysis of CNC … 367
Fig. 1 Photo of extended spindle of CNC machine with weights and laser beam battery source
Fig. 2 Schema of measurement principle with scanning of laser beam paths by two cameras
(indexes 40, 42)
extension are marked y1 and y2. The centers of ellipses are not identical with the
intersection of the spindle axis in the recording plane, but errors are maximally in
hundredths of μm under given conditions. Therefore the results of the spindle
inclination α and spindle lopping y are calculated according to the Eqs. (1) and (2).
y2 y1
tan a ¼ ð1Þ
a
y2 y1
y ¼ y1 ðb xÞ tan a ¼ y1 ðb xÞ ð Þ ð2Þ
a
368 Z. Braier et al.
Fig. 3 Schematic figure of sensor box with two cameras (indexes 40, 42) and laser beam trace
The laser beam paths are a little complicated in the real sensor box, which is
schematically shown in Fig. 3. Input laser beam is split into two paths in first
semipermeable mirror. The first camera (index 40) is situated in nearer optical
distance from spindle. Distance of laser beam trace to the second camera (index 42)
is extended by using another two mirrors.
Images from both cameras are pre-processed (two dimensional FFT filter,
finding the optimal brightness value, image defects elimination, etc.), then the laser
beam traces centroid is evaluated by software with focus on threshold parameters
and changes of image intensity. Two dimensional matrix of the centroids coordi-
nates is approximated by a general ellipse using SVD method (Singular Value
Decomposition) for linear regression. The deviation (diffusion) of points and ellipse
parameters (center, the length of semi axis, the angle of main axis) can be extracted
from the SVD.
Measurement, analysis and evaluation were prepared and realized with minimal
rpm of the CNC machine spindle. An example of the laser beam traces evaluation
of the camera 42 sensor (in retracted and extended states) is shown in Fig. 4. One
pixel is 2.2 µm. Measured points, fitted ellipses as well as their major axes indi-
cating the ellipses centers are drawn. Calculation were carried out from 620 points
(images of each camera) measured at approximately 5 rpm of spindle. It is evident
that a small displacement occurred even in the horizontal direction. The overall
spindle lopping evaluation with 50 kg load from 0 to 800 mm extension is dis-
played in Fig. 5.
New Method of Contactless Measurement and Analysis of CNC … 369
Fig. 4 Example (zoom) of laser beam trace at camera 42 sensor. Large ellipse corresponds to
retracted state, small ellipse corresponds to extended state of spindle. Ellipses major axes are
drawn
4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments The research work reported here was made possible by the Czech Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sports, project LO1213.
References
1. Česká technická norma ČSN ISO 230-1, 20 0300, Test code for machine tools—Part 1:
Geometric accuracy of machines operating under no-load or quasi-static conditions, ISO
230-1:2012, ÚNMZ, (2014)
2. Richter, A., Vencl, T., Škop, P., Braier, Z., Žďárek, P.: Modulová řada vřeteníkových jednotek
obráběcích strojů nové generace. Program TIP, ev. no. of project FR TI4-182, Zpráva o řešení k
17.8.2015 v rámci projektu TIP, report no. AUT-01/2015, VÚTS, a. s. (2015)
3. Patent CZ305542 (B6): Šidlof, P., Škop, P.: Method of determining lopping and/or lopping
characteristic and/or determining angle of incline and/or incline characteristic of horizontal or
skew spindle, especially machine tool horizontal or skew spindle, and pick-up device for
making the same, VÚTS, a.s., publication info 25 Nov 2015
Smart Rehabilitation Splint
Abstract In the scientific papers there are various mechatronic devices, with smart
sensors, biofeedback systems and high end components. These system are mostly
designed like replacement after amputation. The second are aim to exoskeleton
concept, where the human capability is increased. Our rehabilitation device aim to
area of temporary rehabilitation or recondition. The conventional motorized splint has
limited possibilities for advance control and typically has no diagnostic functions.
1 Introduction
The rehabilitation process is very important process, with two basic aspects. At first,
the return of the post traumatic patient to active life, which have financial aspects
for him as well as for the society and psychical aspect, that active movement and
physical load produce endorphins that help patient to be motivated and also
influence him and his surroundings.
The conventional physiotherapeutic care is irreparable, in one hand, because
physical contact and human care also helps the patient psychical mood at the other
the skilled personnel use own perception system and own muscular system to use
proper forces and movement limits according to actual possibilities of the patient.
The mechatronics systems in rehabilitation are more and more popular nowadays;
the motivation is mainly physiotherapist overload and independent validation of
rehabilitation progress.
The knee is the biggest joint in human body with quite complicated anatomical
structure, include bones, cartilages, muscles and ligament, skin and other structures.
There are tree bones are femur, tibia and patella (Fig. 1).
This joint can be segmented into femorotibial and femorpaterlar part. The
femorotibial jon hase medial and lateral part with meniscus divided to femor-
omenikal and meniskotibial part.
In the literature there are many models of joints generally and knee joints as
well. The releology model is one of used and this model is easy to understand to
people with technical knowledge, because it is based on terms like stress, stench,
viscosity, plasticity and deformation. This description has usually time varying
parameters, therefore the overall description is more difficult to e.g. metallic
material description [2].
The knee joint is one of the most loaded joint in human body. The flat ground
walking is described in many papers, the load depends a little on movement
stereotype [3].
The phases of the motion can be described by diagram. The motion start with
heel strike (HS), than slide flexion to reduce the shock during impact to floor up to
maximum stance flexion MSF, and then extension to maximum stance extension
MSE. In this part of the motion the most of the torque is applied. After this phase,
the two “passive” phases are followed which moves leg to start position to next heel
strike to start new cycle. These swings operates with leg mass, not with human
body mass, therefore the torque are lower. This description is suitable only for flat
surface, in case of stairs or even knee bend exercise is load much higher then Fig. 2.
The next problem is in locomotion speed, where dynamic of movement influence
overall energy.
The movement stereotype are slightly different person to person too, but overall
gait cycle description in general is well known. In our further design we focus to
rehabilitation device, the highest demands are similar or lower to regular flat gait.
3 Rehabilitation Devices
The post traumatic therapy is very important phase in healing, there are two general
goals, to increase the limited movement abbilitity to pre traumatic state. The
bending limits are extended in proper way, e.g. the people can place the leg to next
stair. The second goal is enhance the performance of the joint, where pretraumatic
limits are reached at least with little limitation, e.g. the people is able to move the
mass to healed leg and go up-stairs without help. The dynamic movement, running,
volleyball spikes are really long term processes. The combine injury with neural
system illness is a problem, the special devices combine locomotion and functional
electrostimulation is applied. The multichannel electro stimulators are capable to
emulate electrical signal in channels to create the step forward. In our case we
focused to simple mechatronic device, which can helps with rehabilitation and
measure the progress of exercises.
There are several types of exoskeletons on the market, which are worth to mention.
For instance ReWalk, which is wearable robotic exoskeleton, which belongs between
untethered, active, lower-body exoskeletons. ReWalk is licensed by the FDA in the
USA, it has CE mark and it is licensed in Canada. This exoskeleton has motors at knee
and hip joints and it’s designed for people suffering from spinal cord injury. Suit
should enable people with this kind of injury to stand, turn around, walk and even run
or climb stairs. Unfortunately the climb stairs function is not currently available in the
US. ReWalk offers two versions of exoskeleton, personal for use at home and reha-
bilitation for use at specialized ReWalk clinics. Both devices are controlled by remote
wrist-worn control (Fig. 3).
374 J. Cernohorsky and M. Cadek
The key element of rehabilitation splint is electric motor. We have selected Maxon
motor ECDC flat motor. This motor has high moment of inertia to other non-flat
motors, but low profile, with is important for mechanical design. The output torque
is about 0.5 Nm and speed less than 3000 RPM. The motor is equipped with
harmonic gearbox with ratio 100. It means, that we are able to fulfill the load during
gait cycle with one motor. The encoder system is built-in and has 3600 puls/turn
resolution. The motor controller is Maxon Epos 2, that is not programmable motion
controller, but there is option to control the drive via CANopen. The main control
system can be arrange like PC based system or industrial controller. We have used
the entry level PLC made X20CP1380. The main benefit of this system is low
power consumption and wide spread of input and output modules.
In our first design of rehabilitation splint we assume to use two motors, each
from one side of the splint and use drives without gearboxes for low torque
rehabilitation. In current version with gearbox we suppose to use only one drive for
knee, node id2, the second motor node id3 will be implemented for hip joint.
Mechanical design depends on the type of the device. Currently, there are two
types of exoskeleton like devices being developed. Both are designated for reha-
bilitation, both are untethered and for the lower-body. First has two EC flat motor
concentric with a knee joint. Second has one motor, which is located on the outside
of a knee joint. Another motor is located at the hip joint. Work on the second kind
of design is still in progress and it’s not part of this paper. Both designs uses
Maxon EC flat motors combined with Maxon harmonic gearboxes. Such harmonic
drives and motors allows the design to be light and compact with appropriate
dynamics.
Smart Rehabilitation Splint 375
There are currently two pre-designs of wearable robotic orthoses with two
motors being concentric at the knee joint. Design of orthosis (Fig. 4 left) is based
on composite materials, such as carbon fiber, which could be shaped to achieve
ergonomic surfaces as on the CAD model below. Another advantage of such
materials is indisputably strength/weight ratio, which could be very high compared
to metallic materials. The alternative solution (Fig. 4 right) is based on cheaper
metallic materials and cheaper manufacturing process.
The final version of the design is modular, which means that modules with gearbox
and motor can be easily replaced by joint with bearing. The orthosis can be easily
adjusted for left or right leg and the motor is on outer side of the orthosis. The
configuration of positive motion and other adjustment is made in configuration menu.
The control algorithm has several operation modes. The first of them is simple
passive mode. The splint is fixed to patient knee and after that the patient and
physiotherapist set motion limits, the maximal flexion and extension. The limit
values are displayed in HMI interface and can be freely modified.
The next operation mode is conventional motorized splint mode, where number
of cycles is set. The velocity and acceleration of this motion can be adjusted
according to patient feeling. The special feature is the continual torque measure-
ment, where e.g. spasm can be detected.
The other operation mode is the releology diagnostic mode, where the load is
applied to patient leg and the output data are torque characteristic of the knee.
This characteristic has hysteresis shape and the hysteresis can be used for per-
formance description.
The multi task system is one feature of used PLC system, however in our case
we use only two task. One for drive control via CANopen thru PDO objects. The
376 J. Cernohorsky and M. Cadek
basic configuration via SDO object is made in special program this program is in
longer task. The visualization realized in 400 ms task class. The response of the
visualization interface in not very impressive thanks to low computing power of
PLC, where the visualization is processed in idle time. The key communication
interface is CANopen. The Maxon Epos and used Maxon Epos2 used CANopen,
Epos3 is EtherCAT based. The CANopen communication is quite simple and
thanks to process data object are important data cyclically updated. The PDO
configuration can be made inside Automation Studio.
6 Conclusion
The control software uses position control and torque diagnostic is made, the
mechanical design is made in two variants. The manufacturing process in now in
progress. The overall concept is validated in no load operation. In the future must
there must be designed the battery pack and model is ready for higher model
predictive control to utilize the orthosis to actual motion stereotype, walk, stairs and
run.
Acknowledgments The results of this project were obtained through the financial support of the
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in the framework of the targeted support of the “National
Programme for Sustainability I LO1201” and the OPR&DI project “Centre for Nanomaterials,
Advanced Technologies and Innovation CZ.1.05/2.1.00/01.0005”.
References
P. Dostrašil
Abstract Electronic cams are used for different manufacturing systems, but in
terms of displacement diagrams, they have common characteristics. The emphasis
is usually placed on maximum accuracy, the machine cycle time and the dis-
placement diagram has a simple shape. This paper addresses a completely different
case, which shows that the use of electronic cams is very diverse. A Yaskawa’s
electronic cam was used to control the kinetic art sculptures. It was necessary to
develop an implementation that will be able to accommodate a large number of very
long and complex displacement diagrams. Sculptures contained up to 150 inter-
polating axes and their programs took up to half an hour. The proposal builds on the
basic animation and designer’s demands, but it must comply with all limits of the
mechanism (maximum speed, torque, etc.). The classic electronic cam uses a data
table and interpolation function. This approach has been replaced with a new
feature that composes the movement from polynomial of the 5th order. For this
purpose, it was developed an independent software tool. The final displacement
diagram is composed by defining the 0th, 1st, and 2nd derivatives at the key points.
This method of design has proved to be very effective, and in addition, this
implementation brought a significant saving of memory and reducing of compu-
tational complexity.
1 Introduction
For production systems, displacement diagrams are usually supplied by the con-
tracting authority or generated by specialized software tools (in VÚTS, we use our
own tools KINZ and KINZ2 [1]). Displacement diagrams (Fig. 1) can be composed
P. Dostrašil (&)
VÚTS a.s., Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: [email protected]
2 Division on Polynomials
The displacement diagram was divided into sections which were replaced with
individual functions. As a general replacement, it was chosen to the 5th degree
polynomial. The function is determined by conventional notation [2].
Implementation of Specific Displacement Diagrams … 379
y ¼ c5 x5 þ c4 x4 þ c3 x3 þ c2 x2 þ c1 x þ c0 ð1Þ
y ¼ ððððc5 x þ c4 Þx þ c3 Þx þ c2 Þx þ c1 Þx þ c0 ð2Þ
c 0 ¼ y ð 0Þ ð3Þ
c 1 ¼ y ð 0Þ 0 ð4Þ
yð0Þ00
c2 ¼ ð5Þ
2
!
1 y ð 1Þ y ð 0Þ 2yð1Þ0 þ 3yð0Þ0 00
c3 ¼ 20 4 þ yð1Þ 3yð0Þ00
2ðxð1Þ xð0ÞÞ ð x ð 1Þ x ð 0Þ Þ 2 x ð 1Þ x ð 0Þ
ð6Þ
!
1 y ð 1Þ y ð 0Þ 7yð1Þ0 þ 8yð0Þ0
c4 ¼ 30 þ2 2yð1Þ00 þ 3yð0Þ00
2ð x ð 1Þ x ð 0Þ Þ 2 ðxð1Þ xð0ÞÞ2 x ð 1Þ x ð 0Þ
ð7Þ
!
1 y ð 1Þ y ð 0Þ y ð 1Þ 0 þ y ð 0Þ 0
c5 ¼ 12 6 þ yð1Þ00 yð0Þ00 ð8Þ
2ðxð1Þ xð0ÞÞ3 ðxð1Þ xð0ÞÞ 2 x ð 1 Þ x ð 0 Þ
Based on the data from the customer’s animation software, physically realizable
displacement diagrams were created by specialized software tools. Curves are
usually made up of many functions (in some cases up to 60 functions) of the 5th
order polynomial. The software tool also implements a library with a Modbus TCP
communication protocol, which allows direct communication with the PLC, as
shown in Fig. 3. Displacement diagrams or more precisely parameters of functions
are directly transmitted as data frames, stored in a predefined format (see Fig. 4)
into the PLC memory. For a definition of one polynomial, there are necessary seven
coefficients (x-coordinate of the end point and 6 polynomial coefficients).
The control program in the PLC in the first step (before starting the electronic
cam) searches the currently used polynomial by the position of the VM.
Subsequently, displacement is calculated according to (2) until the interval of the
current polynomial is exceeded. Due to the length of polynomials and the step size
of the VM, we can safely assume that we always change no more than one
polynomial.
Polynomial 0 Polynomial 1 …
x1 c00 c01 c02 c03 c04 c05 x2 c10 c11 c12 c13 c14 c15 …
Fig. 5 Practical demonstration creating of displacement diagram (green stroke, blue motor speed,
red motor shaft torque) (Color figure online)
Consider the already mentioned situation when we want to control the 75 drives.
The displacement diagram has a shape as shown in Fig. 5 and it is replaced by 5
polynomials. If we calculate similar complexity also for other axes, we can estimate
the overall memory demands according to the following relation (9) to the 2625
coefficients.
4 Conclusion
References
1. Dostrašil, P.: Kinetostatic synthesis of stepping mechanism with a classical and electronic cam.
Liberec 2014. Dissertation, Technical University of Liberec, Faculty of Mechatronics,
Informatics and Interdisciplinary Studies (2014)
2. Koloc, Z., Václavík, M.: Cam Mechanisms, 1st edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1993). ISBN
04-449-8664-2
3. Lasvit: Supernova [online]. [cit. 2016-04-06]. http://lasvit.com/bespoke-glass-installations/e-
motions/supernova–309/about
Semi-automatic Transmission in a Car
Abstract Automatic clutch may be seen as the latest achievement of the modern
times, however this is not always the case. The history of automatic and semi-
automatic transmission is as extensive as the history of the car itself. Nowadays
there are many different solutions for clutch control in cars with manual trans-
mission. The clutch control system described in this paper is particularly unique
with very specific properties. There is a similar device to the aforementioned which
allows automatic control of the clutch pedal and is mainly used for physically
disabled drivers. However, this concept has never been selected for mass produc-
tion. Electro-hydraulic cylinder will be connected to the original hydraulic clutch
system without impairing its functionality. This will enable the driver to select the
mode in between the conventional pedal clutch control and an automatic intelligent
clutch control. This article discusses the different measurement methods of input
parameters of the control system and different ways of controlling the clutch
mechanism. The first part of the article is focused on measurement of the force
applied directly to the gear shift stick when shifting gears manually. The subsequent
parts will address the measurement of the gear shift stick position, measuring chain
principle, processing of the measured values and the design of a control unit for
controlling the clutch mechanism.
Keywords Clutch Gearbox Clutch control Strain gauge Accelerometer
Electro-hydraulic cylinder Measuring chain
1 Introduction
Automatic clutches may seem to be a product of modern times, however this is not
always the case. History of automatic clutches is as wide as history of automobiles
itself. Some of the car manufacturers are moving not only towards automatic
gearboxes but also towards cheaper versions called sequential gearboxes. These are
ordinary manual gearboxes. The only difference is that moves such as controlling
the clutch stick or mechanical clutch are not controlled by humans and are instead
controlled by the control unit with electric motors. This idea of controlling the
manual clutch is used by a number of companies. Those companies are making and
installing the equipment into the cars with manual clutches in order to make cheap
cars available for people with physical disabilities.
Following the aforementioned content about devices allowing the automatic
control over the clutch pedal in cars for people with physical disabilities, this article
will discuss the different measurement methods for the control systems and clutch
mechanisms [1].
Nowadays there are many solutions out there to operate clutch in a vehicle with
manual gearbox. Clutch control system mentioned in this article is unique with
specific properties. Figure 1 shows the connection between electro-hydraulic
cylinder and original hydraulic clutch system without overriding its functionality.
This gives the driver the ability to choose between control of clutch by using pedal
or intelligent clutch control without requiring driver to intervene. The present article
is looking at the development of a measuring system, which could estimate and
determine the position and force action of controlling gearstick for following
control of clutch system. The device will be based on electro-hydraulic cylinder
which will be controlling hydraulic clutch system. Control and display panel,
measuring system and control unit for processing and operation of the whole
process are also critical parts of the system. Block assembly schematics for all
required electronic components can be seen on Fig. 2. In the process of collecting
experimental data, it is necessary to assemble the measuring chain so that the
measured data meet the demands of accuracy and temporal association signal.
A metered chain consists of measuring card NI 9215 accompanied with acceleration
sensor MMA7361L and unified signal from the strain gauges to measure force. In
addition to this, input/output interface for PID controller and program controller
itself to control the hydraulic cylinder were also designed [2].
Resistive sensor converts the measured value to change the electrical resistance. Its
main advantage is the ease of transformation. The electrical resistance increases by
the prolongation of the metal wire. Magnitude of the change depends on the
geometry size and material properties. This phenomenon is used for resistive strain
gauge [3]. Input power on the gear stick is the human hand. It influences many
factors when choosing the right method of measuring the power load on the gear
stick. The gear stick has seven different positions, causing different values of
operating uniaxial strength. The arrangement of the gears of the letter H indicates
that it is sufficient to measure the force required for changing gear in one direction.
For measuring on the gear stick, it will be used the special Wheatstone-bridge
assembly for measuring the deformation clamped beam. This connection is used for
the measurement of small loads. This is a simple cantilevered beam with four strain
gauges in which the two are fixed to the upper surface of the beam and two on the
lower surface of the beam. All four strain gauges are parallel to the axis of the
beam. Given that the change in resistance of strain gauge is very small and therefore
it has small change in voltage, voltage signal must be amplified. It is more con-
venient to measure the change in voltage with differential amplifier. It is possible to
use any operational amplifier. To accurately measure it is recommended to use an
integrated circuit INA122 displayed in Fig. 4. The advantage of such devices is that
they have the necessary components and filter built directly inside the circuit. Small
integration ensures little interference from the environment and increases accuracy.
In the mentioned circuit, it is simple to alter its amplification with resistor R1 and
set offset with resistor splitter R2 and R3. This way, the output signal transforms
into a voltage signal between 0 and 5 V, with a median 2.5 V which determines idle
state.
Omega strain gauges will be used on the gear stick, which are originally attached
to a custom aluminum profile. The principle of operation as well as the measuring
member is shown in Fig. 5.
For easy determination of the position of the gear stick, two accelerometers are
used. Their property of measuring direction of gravitational force in idle state will
be used. The first accelerometer is attached to the body of the car and the car will
measure acceleration in three axes. The second accelerometer is mounted on the
gear stick to measure its acceleration. A simple comparison of the measured values
and subsequent subtraction shows precise acceleration of the gearstick in an uneven
movement of the car. The gear stick trajectory describes letter H. In the neutral
position, the gravitational force is parallel to the axis of the accelerometer and
therefore the value of the X and Y axes are zero. In other positions of the gear lever,
R, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, the force of gravity is distributed among the x, y, z axis. Processing
and comparison of these values determines exact position of the gear stick by
application program. Figure 6 is the visual layout of gravity force in two axes of N,
3 and 4 gears. When the selected gear is 1, 2, 5, R, the power is distributed to the
third component y. Figure 7 shows the entire measurement system that is equipped
on a gear stick.
The chosen application program for evaluation of measured data is LabView. Given
that programing environment is very intuitive, it was easy to experiment with
measured data. In order to visibly interpolate the measures, all four analog inputs
were adjusted with simple filters [4].
388 M. Gašparík et al.
Measured data were saved to.txt file, from where the measured characteristics
have been drawn. The following graphs—Figs. 8 and 9—are the expected objec-
tives of this measurement. They interpret the force action of a human hand on a gear
stick and also gear stick position in gear units.
3 Conclusions
References
1. Minh, V.T., Rashid, A.A.: Automatic control of clutches and simulations for parallel hybrid
vehicles. Int. J. Aut. Technol. 13(4), 645–651 (2012)
2. Wang, X., Xie, X., Wu, X., Yu, T.: Precise position tracking control based on adaptive neuron
PID algorithm for automatic clutch driven by DC motor. In: IEEE Vehicle Power and
Propulsion Conference (VPPC), Harbin, China, 3–5 Sept 2008
Semi-automatic Transmission in a Car 389
3. Klement, J., Plánička, F., Vlk, M.: Modelová podobnosť, elektrická oporová tenzometrie,
experimentální určování zbytkový chnapětí, vyhodnoceníe xperimentálně získaných dat.
Fakulta aplikovaných věd, Plzeň (2004)
4. Klementev, I., Kyška, R.: Elektrické meranie mechani kých veličín. Alfa, Bratislava (1990)
Improvement of Dynamic Characteristics
of the Car in the Light of Technological
Evolution
F. Palčák
Abstract The Member States of European Union are required to enact the
Vibration Directive [4] into national legislation. This paper describes the devel-
opment of car technology aiming to reduce the impact of unwanted forced vibration
on a change of position of the chassis when car is passing over bumpy road. It is
about the transition from the preset (passive) mechanical suspension to the adaptive
(active) mechatronical suspension. The new breakthrough solution without com-
promises uses the rules, procedures and tools of the TRIZ approach. Adaptive car
provides the best ride comfort and driving safety at the same time.
F. Palčák (&)
Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovakia
e-mail: [email protected]
Vertical ride comfort describes the ability of the vehicle to absorb road excitation
so, that car body vibration is minimized. The basic evaluation measure for ride
comfort criteria in ISO 2631 [1] is the root-mean-square value RMSðaw Þ of
weighted acceleration aw :
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u N
u1 X
RMSðaw Þ ¼ t a2 ð nÞ ð1Þ
N 1 w
where
where mwh is the wheel mass, g is the acceleration of gravity, lf is the distance from
the center of mass to the front axle, c is the suspension spring constant, and d is the
suspension damping constant, uz , resp. u_ z is the vertical displacement, resp. velocity
of the center of gravity of the car body, uy is pitch angle and u_ y is pitch angular
velocity (Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5).
The driver is most sensitive in the bandwidth 1–2 Hz (eigenfrequency of car
body-sprung mass) and about 6–8 Hz (eigenfrequency of wheel
suspension-unsprung mass), so this low ride comfort is in contradiction with high
Improvement of Dynamic Characteristics of the Car in the Light … 393
Fig. 1 Target conflict between ride comfort A and driving safety B for a passive suspension, and
for b active suspension
driving safety due to the highest values of PSD of normal tire force [2]. Peaks in
frequency response PSD of normal tire force are unwanted, because they cause
discomfort to the driver. The damping of the main shock-absorber has the main
influence on the ride comfort (70 %), while for driving safety the tire stiffness is
actually the most sensitive parameter (70 %) [3].
Vehicle suspension system performance is typically rated by its ability to pro-
vide improved road handling (driving safety) and improved passenger ride comfort.
The fixed setting of passive suspension properties is always a compromise between
ride comfort and driving safety for given road conditions on the one hand and
payload suspension parameters on the other. When developers attempt to improve
car driving comfort (A) so that no sudden changes in the position of the car body
(under minimum acceleration), this deteriorate driving safety (B) in the form of
undesirable jumps of the wheels. Thus arose the concept of family car that has good
ride comfort (AD) on Fig. 1a, but bad driving safety (BZ) and sports car that has
good driving safety (BD), because it maintains the wheels in constant contact with
the road (without jumps), but it has poor ride comfort (AZ).
The only possible solution for improving the dynamic properties of a car has
long been regarded the optimization, but it results in compromise: either optimal
family car (AO), or optimal sports car (BO). The main objective of suspension
systems is to reduce movement of the car body (sprung mass). Then the challenge
for breakthrough perfectioning of driving performance of a car is to overcome the
Improvement of Dynamic Characteristics of the Car in the Light … 395
contradiction (opposing ride comfort and driving safety) and to achieve the best
possible ride comfort and driving safety (AP ≡ BP) in Fig. 1b simultaneously.
the second part (driving safety B on the level of wheel). The overall principle for
overcoming global contradiction is to search and remove the local-physical
contradiction when one part satisfies conflicting properties simultaneously.
– The local-physical contradiction on the single part level: the suspension of the
car body has to ensure zero change in the force transmitted to the car body for its
desirable zero heave, and at the same time to ensure non-zero change in the
force which pushes the wheel onto the road. Then the car provides the best
possible ride comfort and driving safety (AP ≡ BP) on Fig. 1b simultaneously.
An expert on cars, who works without knowledge of the TRIZ approach, uses
only his area of knowledge, therefore he tries to remove a local conflict through
new resources (additional equipment to produce force). The result is of high value
but high costs (Fig. 6) Magic Body Control system [5] with a camera which scans
irregularities of the road ahead. Then the Active Body Control system uses a
hydraulic piston to act on each steel coil spring to quickly and independently adjust
the suspension on each wheel and provide the best possible ride comfort and
driving safety (AP ≡ BP) on Fig. 1b simultaneously. The Master of the TRIZ
approach has the mission to guide the car expert how to intentionally search for
initiatives in successful patents from all areas of knowledge and warns that the
removal of local conflict has to be to take advantage of local resources (drive and
braking torque) which makes it possible to achieve high value at low cost (Fig. 6).
Figure 7 shows the transition from preset (passive) features of a mechanical
suspension to a hydraulic suspension with self-adaptable change of a magneto
rheological fluid properties, to a hydro-pneumatic suspension, to the adaptable
(active) suspension with electronic management of features, toward the recent
removal of unwanted movements of the car body (vertical heave, yaw, roll and
pitch) for desirable ride comfort by quick control of the drive and braking torque
acting on the wheel motors (LEAF [6]) and ensuring necessary wheel load
simultaneously.
3 Conclusions
The example of the use of the TRIZ approach for improving the dynamic of the car
in this paper explains why successful universities and companies have already
integrated Computer Aided Innovation (CAI) based on the TRIZ approach into
education and research. The benefit of the TRIZ approach is that it leads to the
Improvement of Dynamic Characteristics of the Car in the Light … 397
Acknowledgments This work was written within the objectives of the Civic Association TRIZ
SK (www.triz.sk) thanks to the support of the company SOVA Digital, Inc., Bratislava.
References
Abstract This paper deals with a mechatronic model of a rotary table machine. An
ideal course of movement of the carousel plate during the working cycle is obtained
by modification of the input parameters of the servo drive. The simulation also
shows power and torque demands and bearing loading.
1 Introduction
Growing demands on the production efficiency require very fast and precise
machines. In our case, a demand for a rotary table machine (Fig. 1.) with an accuracy
of 40 µm and a positioning time 0.5 s. Diameter of the table is 1000 mm and total
moment of inertia is 100 kg m2. For such a short positioning time, there is a problem
how to determine a proper drive with a suitable control to avoid residual oscillation
at the end of the cycle.
The carousel machine serves as a base of a multifunction machine tool. On the
carousel plate, 16 beds for clamping workpieces are symmetrically distributed.
Within 0.5 s the carousel moves to the exact position (rotation by 22.5°). Then
follows a 0.5 s milling period, during which the carousel is stationary. The total
cycle of the machine is 1 s. What is important is the positioning accuracy in
establishing the plate before machining.
From many design proposals, a variant was chosen that meets the criteria of high
precision and short times—a cam mechanism.
The first estimates and calculations were based on the required parameters of the
machine combined with the knowledge and experience of the designer with the
problem. From the parameters affecting the dynamic properties of the system, the
ideal gear and demands on the drive were determined using preliminary (no contact,
no elastic links) calculations.
In order to ensure the accuracy of operation and programmable control, a ser-
vomotor was chosen. The motor drives the axial cam by a backlash free reduction
belt gear. The cam rotates the carousel plate also with a reduction gear. When the
theoretical ideal running, the dependencies of rotation (motor, cam, plate) are as
follows: uM ¼ 1:25uC ¼ 40uP . Angular velocity is ω, acceleration is α (Fig. 1).
The main problem of the design was to correctly calculate and model the axial
cam (Fig. 2). For the calculation, relations for the production coordinates [1] were
used. The size of the axial cam was determined according to the static load and the
stress-strain analysis (outer diameter 140 mm, length 326 mm, diameter of the
rollers 30 mm). The resulting data, i.e. the coordinates of the points of the curves x,
y, z were transferred into the SOLIDWORKS design program and a 3D model of
Rotary Table Machine Input Parameters Optimization 401
the axial cam was modeled, as well as that of the carousel. The entire structure of
the carousel machine was sufficiently dimensionally stiffened and strengthened for
long durability.
3 Mechatronic Model
When creating a mechatronic model, design data from the SOLIDWORKS program
were used and converted into MSC.ADAMS through a neutral format. Static
members and assemblies that do not affect the dynamic properties of the system
were neglected and excluded from the model. An elastic belt as well as friction in
the main bearing were considered in the simulation of the contact between the axial
cam and the rollers.
where KE is the voltage constant of one coil of the motor and it is the same for all
three coils. The relation between the electrical angular velocity x0 —rotational
speed of magnetic field of the stator and mechanical angular velocity ω—rotational
speed of the motor rotor is given by the equation:
x ¼ x0 =pp ð3Þ
in which pp indicates the number of pole pairs of the electromotor. Electrical angle
θ is bound to mechanical angle φ by the number of pole pairs pp by the equation:
u ¼ h=pp , which is based on the integration time of the dependence (3) of
mechanical speed ω on the angular frequency of supply voltage x0 . The expression
for the resulting electromagnetic torque MElMg is:
2 4
MElMg ¼ KM iU sin h þ iV sin h þ p þ iW sin h þ p ; ð4Þ
3 3
where KM represents the torque constant of one coil of the motor and it is the same
for all three coils. The mathematical model of the synchronous servomotor is
defined on the basis of Eqs. (1)–(4).
In the vector control of this electromotor type, the cascade arrangement of the
control circuit with three hierarchically arranged feedbacks: current, speed and
positional, is almost exclusively used, see Fig. 3. Holding of the required value of
position u , angular velocity x and current i is ensured by PID linear controllers.
The control of the output quantity is done by the sum of the proportional, integral
and derivative components of the controller. The relation between the output
quantity—action (control) quantity uðtÞ and the input quantity—control deviation
eðtÞ is defined by the equation:
0 1
Zt
1 deðtÞA
uð t Þ ¼ K @ e ð t Þ þ eðsÞds þ Td ; eðtÞ ¼ wðtÞ yðtÞ: ð5Þ
Ti dt
0
Rotary Table Machine Input Parameters Optimization 403
The proportional component of the PID controller is equal to K, the integral one
is equal to the ratio K=Ti and the derivative one is equal to the product K Td .
Constant Ti expresses the integral time constant of the controller and Td the
derivative time constant. The control deviation eðtÞ is given by the difference
between the desired quantity ðwðtÞ u ; x ; i Þ and the actual output from the
system—controlled quantity ðyðtÞ u; x; i).
The Ziegler-Nichols experimental method was used for setting individual con-
stants of the regulators, see, e.g. [4].
To control the position of rotation of the carousel, the following motion functions
were used: cycloidal, parabolic and fifth degree polynomial. Each of the control
functions has its advantages and disadvantages. In terms of the smallest demands on
starting torque, the best function is parabolic. However, it has the lowest positional
accuracy and requires higher engine output. It is preferable to use the fifth degree
polynomial. It has the lowest demands on engine performance and enables the
carousel positioning most accurately in the given time.
By default, the parameters of the regulator caused a carousel deviation of
0.2 mm from the correct position. It was insufficient. By tuning the proportional
component of the PID regulator (i.e. gradually increasing its value), a significantly
higher accuracy was achieved, but at the cost of larger oscillations of the system.
Eventually, a positional deviation of up to 0.01 mm with acceptable oscillations
was attained (Fig. 4).
404 A. Richter and J. Ondrášek
0,04
0,03
Carousel Plate Position Error
0,02
0,01
0,00
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
[mm]
-0,01
-0,02 Cycloidal
-0,03
Fifth degree polynomial
-0,04
-0,05
Parabolic
-0,06
Time [s]
5 Conclusions
A mechatronic model of a carousel machine with its control was created. Due to a
proper setting of parameters of the controller and choosing the appropriate control
function, the specified requirements for the machine cycle and its accuracy can be
met. According to the simulation of required the drive maximum torque and power,
a suitable servomotor was chosen. An appropriate bearing was chosen based on the
calculated load of the bearings.
Rotary Table Machine Input Parameters Optimization 405
References
1. Koloc, Z., Václavík, M.: Cam Mechanisms, Elsevier, ISBN 0-444-98664-2 (1993)
2. Souček, P.: Servomechanismy ve výrobních strojích, Vydavatelství ČVUT, ISBN 80-01-
02902-6, Praha
3. Bimal, B.K.: Modern power electronics and AC drives, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-016743-6
(2001)
4. Åström, J.K., Murray, M.R.: Feedback Systems: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers,
http://www.cds.caltech.edu/*murray/FBSwiki
5. https://www.yaskawa.com/pycprd/products/sigma5-servo-products/rotary-servo-motors/sgmgv