Module 4

Water in Agricultural Systems

 Water and Agriculture in India
Surface Water
100 100.0
• Irrigation 80.0
79.7 Agriculture sector

consumes 60.0
40.0
Total sector

more than 80% 20.0

of the available 0.0

83.3 89.6
water in the
Total Water Ground water
country 100 100

Source: indiastat.com (1997)

 Thirsty Crops
• Heavy requirement of water per unit yield of produce
– Blue water
– Green Water
– Grey water
• Identified Thirsty Crops
– Sugarcane: 1500 – 3000 litres/kg of cane
– Cotton: 7000 – 29000 litres/kg of fibre
– Rice: 3000 – 5000 litres/kg of grain
• Basis of identification
– Usage of water
– Usage of inputs and thereby losses
– Area under cultivation
 Framework

Available
Water

Fertilizer Pesticide

Thirsty Crop

Better Management Practices on Thirsty Crop

Results Outcome Impact

Improve water The concept of producing Water to be retained for other
productivity better cotton/sugar gaining ecosystem functions
Reduction in chemical momentum Market transforming towards
input sustainable production base
Improve in gross margin Improved livelihoods for the
producer
 Implementation Approach
Development of Better Management Practices for
each of the thirsty crops under the following
guiding principles,
– Improving water productivity
– Reduction in chemical fertilizers
– Lessening use of pesticides
– Improving gross margin of the farmers
 Water for food production
• Water is a critical input for agricultural production and plays
an important role in food security. Irrigated agriculture
represents 20 percent of the total cultivated land and
contributes 40 percent of the total food produced worldwide.
• Irrigated agriculture is, on average, at least twice as productive
per unit of land as rainfed agriculture, thereby allowing for
more production intensification and crop diversification.
• Due to population growth, urbanization, and climate change,
competition for water resources is expected to increase, with a
particular impact on agriculture.
• Population is expected to increase to over 10 billion by 2050,
and whether urban or rural, this population will need food and
fiber to meet its basic needs.
• Combined with the increased consumption of calories and
more complex foods, which accompanies income growth in
the developing world, it is estimated that agricultural
production will need to expand by approximately 70% by
2050.
• However, future demand on water by all sectors will require
as much as 25 to 40% of water to be re-allocated from lower
to higher productivity and employment activities,
particularly in water stressed regions.
• In most cases, such reallocation is expected to come from
agriculture due to its high share of water use. Currently,
agriculture accounts (on average) for 70 percent of all
freshwater withdrawals globally (and an even higher share
of “consumptive water use” due to the evapotranspiration of
crops).
• The movement of water will need to be both
physical and virtual.
• Physical movement of water can occur through
changes in initial allocations of surface and
groundwater resources mainly from the
agricultural to urban, environmental, and
industrial users.
• Water can also move virtually as the production
of water intensive food, goods, and services is
concentrated in water abundant localities and is
traded to water scarce localities.
• Inter-sectoral water re-allocations and significant shifts
of water away from agriculture will also need to be
accompanied by improvements in water use efficiency
and improvements in water delivery systems.
• Improving the efficiency of water use in agriculture
will also depend on matching of improvements main
system (off-farm) with appropriate incentives for on-
farm investments aiming to improve soil and water
management.
• Such options will require improved water delivery
systems to provide adequate on-demand service as well
as use of advanced technologies (i.e. soil moisture
sensors and satellite evapotranspiration measurements)
to improve efficiency and productivity of water in
agriculture.
• Resolving the challenges of the future requires a
thorough reconsideration of how water is
managed in the agricultural sector, and how it can
be repositioned in the broader context of overall
water resources management and water security.
• Moreover, irrigation and drainage schemes,
whether large or small, represent prominent
spatially dispersed public works in the rural
spaces. Thereby, they represent a logical vehicle
for mobilizing employment opportunities into
communities.
• For example, basin authorities often hold limited ability
to enforce water allocations and to convene
stakeholders.
• Institutions charged with developing irrigation often
limit themselves to capital-intensive larger scale
schemes and tend to rely on public sector-based
approaches rather than developing opportunities for
small-scale private financing and irrigation
management.
• Farmers and their organizations are also often
responding to highly distorted incentive frameworks in
terms of water pricing and agricultural support policies,
which further hinder positive developments in the
sector.
• Given the existing constraints above, the agricultural
water management sector is currently in the process of
repositioning itself towards modern and sustainable
service provision.
• It proposes a singular water approach on building
resilient water services and sustaining water resources,
while also managing risks related to broader social and
economic water-related impacts.
• This includes transforming governance and service
provision as well as supporting watershed management
and greening the sector and can be achieved by
providing improved incentives for innovation, reforms,
and accountability.
 Virtual water trade
International Virtual Water Flows
• The concept of virtual, or embedded, water was first
developed as a way of understanding how water scarce
countries could provide food and other water intensive
goods to their inhabitants.
• The global trade in goods has allowed countries with
limited water resources to rely on the water resources in
other countries to meet the needs of their inhabitants.
• As food and other products are traded internationally, their
water footprint follows them in the form of virtual water.
• This allows us to link the water footprint of production to
the water footprint of consumption, wherever they occur.
• Virtual water flows help us see how the water resources in
one country are used to support consumption in another
country
 Importance of Virtual water trade
• As nations work toward securing food, water, energy and other
essential inputs for people’s well being, livelihoods and the
country’s economic development, most countries rely on imports as
well as exports of goods and services.
• A country may aim to be self-sufficient by relying primarily on
goods that can be produced within its borders. Or a country may
choose to reduce the burden on the natural resources within its
borders by importing water intensive products.
• A country may select energy security by using its natural resources
to produce electricity in exchange for food security by importing
food.
• The water footprint and its translation into virtual water can
illuminate these choices and their inter-dependencies. Virtual water
helps us understand the dependencies our economies have on others’
resources.
• Coupling this with the water footprint enables us to map
out the dependencies and to identify when and where
risks may lie, in terms of scarcity and pollution. This has
implications for food security, economy and diplomacy.
• For water-scarce countries it can sometimes be attractive
to import virtual water (through import of water-intensive
products), thus relieving the pressure on the domestic
water resources.
• This happens, for example, in Mediterranean countries,
the Middle East and Mexico. Northern European
countries import a lot of water in virtual form (more than
they export), but this is not driven by water scarcity.
• Instead it results from protection of their domestic water
resources, land availability and land uses. In Europe as a
whole, 40% of the water footprint lies outside of its
borders.
• Countries can both import and export virtual water
through their international trade relations. Globally, the
major gross virtual water exporters are USA, China,
India, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Australia, Indonesia,
France and Germany and the major gross virtual water
importers are the USA, Japan, Germany, China, Italy,
Mexico, France, the UK and the Netherlands.
• The largest net exporters of virtual water are found in
North and South America (the USA, Canada, Brazil and
Argentina), Southern Asia (India, Pakistan, Indonesia
and Thailand) and Australia. The biggest net virtual
water importers are North Africa and the Middle East,
Mexico, Europe, Japan and South Korea.
 Water Saving by Trade
• Many nations save domestic water resources by importing water-
intensive products and exporting commodities that are less water
intensive.
• National water saving through the import of a product can imply saving
water at a global level if the flow is from sites with relatively high
water productivity (i.e. commodities with a small water footprint) to
sites with low water productivity (commodities with a large water
footprint).
• The total amount of water that would have been required in the
importing countries if all imported agricultural products were produced
domestically is 2407 billion cubic meters per year. These products are,
however, being produced with only 2 038 billion cubic meters per year
in the exporting countries, saving global water resources by 369 billion
cubic meters per year.
• This saving is equivalent to 4% of the global water footprint related to
agricultural production (which is 8 363 billion cubic meters per year).
• National policy makers in water-scarce countries
are likely to be more interested in national water
savings than in global water savings.
• There are many examples of water-poor countries
that save their domestic water resources by
importing water-intensive goods. Mexico, for
example, imports maize and, in doing so, it saves
12 billion cubic meters per year of its national
water resources.
• This is the volume of water that it would need
domestically if it had to produce the imported
maize within the country.
 Irrigation Efficiency
The ratio of the amount of water available
(output) to the amount of water supplied (input) is
known as Irrigation Efficiency. It is expressed in
percentage.
• Water applied – 100%
• Delivery Loss – 15%
• Application loss-35%
• Water used by crops – 50%
 Irrigation Efficiency
1. Water Conveyance efficiency
2. Water application efficiency
3. Water use efficiency
4. Water storage efficiency
5. Water distribution efficiency
6. Consumptive use efficiency
 Water Conveyance efficiency
• This takes into account the conveyance or transit
losses and is determined from the following
expression:

Ec=100(Wf/Wr)

Where,
Ec= Water conveyance efficiency (%),
Wf = Water delivered to the farm or
irrigation plot,
Wr= Water supplied or diverted from
the river or reservoir.
 Water Application Efficiency
The water application efficiency is the ratio of the quantity
of water stored into the root zone of the crops to the
quantity of water delivered to the field. This focuses the
attention of the suitability of the method of application of
water to the crops. It is determined from the following
expression

Ea=100(Ws/Wf)
Where,
Ea= Water application efficiency
Ws= Water stored in the root zone during
the irrigation
Wf = Water delivered to the farm (m3).
 Water Use Efficiency

• It is the ratio of water beneficially used, including

leaching water, to the quantity of water delivered
and is determined from the following expression,
Eu=100(Wu/Wd)
Where,
Eu= Water use efficiency
Wu= Water used beneficially or
consumptively
Wd = Water delivered
 Water Storage Efficiency
The concept of water storage efficiency gives an insight to how completely the
required water has been stored in the root zone during irrigation. It is
determined from the following expression:
Es= 100 (Ws/Wn)

Where,
Es= Water storage efficiency
Ws= Water stored in the root zone during irrigation.
Wn= Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation.
 Water Distribution Efficiency
• It evaluates the degree to which water is uniformly distributed throughout
the root zone. Uneven distribution has many undesirable results. The more
uniformly the water is distributed, the better will be the crop response.
• It is mathematically expressed as:

Where,
• Ed= Water distribution efficiency
• Υ= Average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from average
depth stored during irrigation
• d = Average depth of water stored during irrigation.
 Consumptive use Efficiency
• It is given by

Ecu= 100 (Wcu/Wd)

Where,
Ecu= Consumptive use efficiency
Wcu= normal consumptive use of water.
Wd= net amount of water depleted from root zone of soil.
 Surface Irrigation
• Surface irrigation method is most widely practiced.
• In this method water is conveyed to the point of infiltration directly the
soil surface in channels that vary in shape, size and hydraulic
characteristics.
• The channels may vary from corrugation to long narrow strips or large
fields where water is impounded.
• On the basis of their conveyance size and shape, surface irrigation may be
of following types.

Methods involving complete flooding of the soil surface

• Wild Flooding
• Border Irrigation
• Check Basin Irrigation
Methods involving partial flooding of the soil surface
• Furrow Irrigation Methods
• Basin Irrigation
 Methods involving complete flooding of the soil
surface
Wild flooding
• In this method water flows from the ditch directly to
the field without much control on either side of the
flow. It covers the entire field and moves almost
unguided.

• The rate of advancing front is controlled by the

topography of the field.

• Land leveling is not precisely followed.

• The depth of water sheet at different points may not

be same, somewhere deep causing water logging
and somewhere very shallow leading to water
scarcity a few days after drying.

• Uneven distribution of water and low water

application efficiency are the common drawbacks of
this method. But the method is easy and inexpensive.

• Close growing crops are generally irrigated by this

method.
 Border Irrigation
• Borders are usually long, uniformly graded strips of land,
separated by earthen bunds. The bunds so formed are not to
contain the water from ponding but to guide it as it flows down
the field.
• Border irrigation is generally best suited to the larger mechanized
farms as it is designed to produce long uninterrupted field lengths
for ease of machine operations. Borders can be upto 800 m or
more in length and 3-30 m wide depending on a variety of factors.
It is less suited to small-scale farms involving hand labour or
animal powered cultivation methods.
• Border slopes should be uniform, with minimum slope of 0.05%
to provide adequate drainage and a maximum slope of 2% to limit
problems of soil erosion. Deep homogenous loam or clay soil
with medium infiltration rates is preferred. Close growing crops
such as pasture, alfalfa are preferred. Borders may be either laid
along the slope (straight) or across the slope(contour)
 Check Basin Irrigation
Rectangular check irrigation
• In a relatively uniform land with a gentle slope, checks may be
rectangular and sometimes square. They may be a few square meters
in size for vegetable crops. The size of a check is a function of the
water intake rate of soil, land slope and the available stream size. In
lighter soils the size of a check may necessarily be small to achieve
uniform wetting and in heavier soils the size may be large.
• Water is conveyed to checks by a system of supply channel, laterals
and field channels. Laterals or field channels are laid out in such a
way that a channel passes through a set of two rows of checks.
• Such a channel is used to irrigate checks on both the sides. A supply
channel is constructed on the upper reach of the field and laterals
usually follow the slope, if there is any.
• Check method is adopted for irrigating row crops as well as closely
spaced grain crops, fodder and vegetables in a wide range of soils
having moderate to slow infiltration rates.
Advantages of the method are that,
• Variable size of streams can be effectively used
• It can be adopted for wide range of soils
• Water application efficiency is high
Principal limitations are that,
• Precise land leveling is necessary,
• Considerable land is wasted by bunds and channels,
• Labor requirement is high for preparing the land for
irrigation
• Movements of farm animals, implements and
machinery are often restricted by bunds and channels.
 Methods involving partial flooding of the soil
surface
Furrow Irrigation Methods
• Furrow irrigation refers to irrigating land
by constructing furrows between two rows
of crops or alternately after every two rows
of crops. It wets the land surface only
partly and water in the furrow moves
laterally by capillarity to the unwetted
areas below the ridge and also downward
to wet the root zone of soil. Furrow
irrigation is adopted to irrigate all row crop
such as potato and vegetable crops on
ridges. Plantation and fruit crops are also
irrigated by furrow method.
Principal limitations of the method are:
(i) Land requires precise grading to a uniform
slope
(ii) Labour is necessary to control water in
furrows
(iii) This method is unsuitable for light
irrigation.
 Basin irrigation
• A basin is usually made for one tree sapling but it may include more
than one tree sapling when they are not spaced very wide. Basins
may be square, circular or rectangular.
• Basins are made longer and wider as saplings grow in size. The land
inside basins is flat with the base area of trees kept little raised so
that the sapling stems do not come in direct contact with water.
Only a part of the total land surface is flooded. Water is supplied
through laterals and each basin may be connected with another one
by a small furrow to get the water supply. A lateral or field channel
passes between two rows of trees alternately supplying water to
individual basins on both sides. A basin usually covers the complete
area under the tree canopy. Desired quantity of water is allowed into
a basin for complete infiltration.
Subsurface methods of Irrigation
• Subsurface irrigation, also designated as sub irrigation, involve irrigation to crops by
applying water from beneath the soil surface either by constructing trenches or installing
underground perforated pipe lines or tile lines.
• Water is discharged into trenches and allowed to stand during the whole period of
irrigation for lateral and upward movement of water by capillarity to the soil between
trenches.
• Underground perforated pipe or tiles in which water is forced , trickle out water through
perforations in pipes or gaps in between the tiles. Water moves laterally and upward to
moist the root zone soil under capillary tensions. Pipelines remain filled with water
during the period of irrigation.
• The upper layers of soil remain relatively dry owing to constant evaporation while lower
layers remain moist.
The essential pre-requisite for sub-irrigation are:
(1)existence of a high water table or an impervious sub-soil above which an artificial water
table can be created
(2) highly permeable root zone soil with reasonably uniform texture permitting good lateral
and upward movement of water
(3) irrigation water is scarce and costly and
(4) soil should not have any salinity problem.
• It might be ensured that no water is lost by deep percolation. The
artificial water table is created to a depth of 30 to 120 cm depending
on crops to be grown, nature of soil capillarity and the depth of
impervious soil layer. Uniform topographic conditions and moderate
slope favour sub-irrigation. In places where sprinkler irrigation is
expensive, sub irrigation is adopted. Sub-irrigation is made by
constructing a series of ditches or trenches 60 to 100 cm deep and 30
cm wide, the two sides of which are made vertical. Ditches are
spaced 15 to 30 m.
• The crops, particularly with shallow root system are well adapted to
sub irrigation. Sometimes, sub irrigation is made to high priced
vegetable crops by installing a perforated pipe distribution system
below the soil surface but within the crop root zone. This is often
termed the artificial irrigation. A good quality water supply must be
available throughout the growing season and an outlet for drainage
is provided, particularly in high rainfall areas.
 Advantages and limitations
Advantages of this method of irrigation are,
(i) soil water can be maintained at a suitable
tension favorable for good plant growth and
high yields
(ii) evaporation loss from soil surface is
minimized
(iii) cost of water application is very low and
(iv) it can be used for soils having a low water
holding capacity and a high infiltration rate
where surface method cannot be adopted and
the sprinkler irrigation is expensive.
 Advantages and limitations
Advantages of this method of irrigation are,
(i) soil water can be maintained at a suitable
tension favorable for good plant growth and high
yields
(ii) evaporation loss from soil surface is
minimized
(iii) cost of water application is very low and
(iv) it can be used for soils having a low water
holding capacity and a high infiltration rate where
surface method cannot be adopted and the
sprinkler irrigation is expensive.
 Sprinkler Irrigation
• Sprinkler Irrigation is a method of applying
irrigation water which is similar to rainfall.
Water is distributed through a system of
pipes usually by pumping.
• It is then sprayed into the air and irrigated
entire soil surface through spray heads so
that it breaks up into small water drops
which fall to the ground.
• Sprinklers provide efficient coverage for
small to large areas and are suitable for use
on all types of properties.
• It is also adaptable to nearly all irrigable
soils since sprinklers are available in a wide
range of discharge capacity.
 Drip Irrigation
• Drip irrigation is a type of micro-
irrigation system that has the potential to
save water and nutrients by
allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of
plants, either from above the soil surface or
buried below the surface.
• The goal is to place water directly into
the root zone and minimize evaporation.
• Drip irrigation systems distribute water
through a network of valves, pipes, tubing,
and emitters. Depending on how well
designed, installed, maintained, and
operated it is, a drip irrigation system can be
more efficient than other types of irrigation
systems, such as surface irrigation or
sprinkler irrigation.
 Water pricing
• Water pricing is a term that covers various processes to assign a
price to water.
Agricultural water pricing
• Unlike the views that advocate raising water prices, there are two
distinct views:
– The first declares that agricultural water should be free of charge
to the farmers because it returns to the hydrological cycle.
– The second view stipulates that instead of raising water prices in
agriculture sector, the cost of water supply for agriculture should
be reduced by new technologies.
• It is advised that before adjusting agricultural water price,
institutional reforms are required based on the experiences of other
countries and establishing local water distribution cooperatives.
 Effective and efficient water pricing
• Key to effective and efficient water pricing is a systematic process
to understand:
– (i) the value of water in alternative uses;
– (ii) the private and external costs of supplying water services;
and
– (iii) the multiple options to determine an appropriate water tariff.
• Within the four dimensions of water pricing (uniform versus
variable tariff and flat charge versus volumetric price), there is an
almost infinite number of possible pricing combinations. Within this
choice set, the preferred water tariff depends on multiple factors
including: the goals of water pricing; the capacity of a water
services supplier to allocate its costs, to price water, and to collect
revenues from its customers; the price responsiveness of water
consumers; and what is considered to be a fair or just water tariff.
 Irrigation
• Prices for irrigation water that is being provided by a
public agency are also typically determined
administratively, usually using a flat rate, since metering
is not common in agriculture in most countries of the
world.
• The following pricing systems exist for irrigation:
– Area-based tariffs, sometimes differentiated by type of crop
grown
– Volumetric pricing, which requires measurement
• Tariffs can be paid in the form of labor, which holds
mainly in communal types of management in traditional
irrigation systems, or in cash. Tariffs can also vary
between seasons, with higher tariffs charged during the
dry season.
 Direct abstraction
• In most countries there is no charge for abstracting water directly
from rivers, lakes and aquifers. However, some countries do levy
volumetric charges or fees for water abstraction rights. These charges are
typically levied on industries, utilities and farmers. Fees for water
abstraction and discharge exist for example in France, where revenues are
significant and are re-invested in the water sector by water agencies
established in major basins.
• In Germany abstraction fees exist only for groundwater and only in some
states, and their proceeds go into the general state budget. Mexico also
charges for water abstraction and returns proceeds to utilities, but not to
industries. Outside the OECD countries few countries charge water
abstraction fees.
• Where they are applied the level of fees tends to be nominal, such as
in Morocco, or enforcement is partial, such as for groundwater abstraction
fees in Jordan. In almost all countries that have introduced abstraction fees
agriculture, the major water user worldwide, is exempted from abstraction
fees. Some countries allow water rights to be traded, so that the price for
water itself is formed in the market. Such water trading exist in parts of
Australia, Chile and the Southwestern United States).
Water Quality for Livestock Drinking
• Water is a critical nutrient for livestock and poultry. As with
feed ingredients, livestock water should meet the nutritional
needs of the animal. An adequate and safe water supply is
essential to the production of healthy livestock and poultry.
• Although there is scanty research data on the economic
effects of water quality on livestock performance, logic tells
us that farm water supplies, either surface or ground, should
be protected against contamination from microorganisms,
chemicals and other pollutants.
• Substances that originate on livestock farms and often
contaminate water supplies include nitrates, bacteria,
organic materials, and suspended solids. A high level of
suspended solids and an objectionable taste, odor or color in
water can cause animals to drink less than they should.
• Surface water supplies to which livestock have ready access are
always potential candidates for contamination.
• Shallow dug wells without good surface drainage away from the
well may be subject to infiltration of contaminants.
• The presence of coliform bacteria in a well is an indication that
surface water is finding its way into the well.
• In karst topography, sink holes, losing streams and porous soils may
allow direct contamination of fractured rock aquifers.
• Water can serve as a reservoir for many different disease organisms
and toxins.
• Stagnant water contaminated with manure or other nutrients may
develop blue-green algae, which can poison livestock, causing
muscle tremors, liver damage, and death.
• Farm pond water needs to be observed for the presence of algae and
other harmful organisms during hot, dry weather.
• When water is suspected of causing health problems in livestock,
veterinary assistance should be sought to determine the actual
disease.
• Laboratory diagnostic examination of animals as well as the water
supply may be necessary to evaluate the problem.
• Temporarily changing to a known safe water supply is a useful test
to determine whether the health problems can be solved.
Common water contaminants
• Alkalinity is expressed either as a pH or as titratable alkalinity in the
form of bicarbonates.
• A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH between 7.0 and 8.0 is mildly alkaline;
and a pH of 10 is highly alkaline.
• Excessive alkalinity can cause physiological and digestive upsets in
livestock.
 Nitrate levels
• Nitrates are soluble and move with percolating or runoff water.
• Therefore, ponds with runoff from heavily fertilized or manured
fields and water from poorly cased, shallow wells may contain
nitrates.
• Water from deep wells is usually nitrate free.
• Nitrogen in the form of nitrate is not especially toxic, but when
reduced in the rumen to nitrite and absorbed into the blood, nitrite
reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood by reacting with
hemoglobin.
• Ruminants have an ability to convert some nitrate to usable
products. However, the rumen microbes in cattle and sheep can
readily reduce nitrate to the toxic nitrite form. The total amount of
nitrates in the diet is important and subject to change with growing
conditions of harvested and pastured forage. For example, during a
drought, corn silage may accumulate high concentrations of nitrate
and when added to the nitrate present in water may result in a lethal
combination.
Table: Safe upper limits for several substances that may be contained in water for
livestock and poultry.

Substance Safe upper limit of concentration

Aluminum (Al) 5 ppm
Arsenic (As) 0.2 ppm
Boron (B) 5 ppm
Cadmium (Cd) 0.05 ppm
Chromium (Cr) 1 ppm
Cobalt (Co) 1 ppm
Copper (Cu) 0.5 ppm
Fluoride (F) 2 ppm
Lead (Pb) 0.05 ppm
Mercury (Hg) 0.01 ppm
Nitrate + Nitrite 100 ppm
Nitrite 10 ppm
Selenium (Se) 0.05 to 0.10 ppm
Vanadium (V) 0.1 ppm
Zinc (Zn) 24 ppm
Total dissolved solids 10,000 ppm
Magnesium + sodium sulfates 5,000 ppm
Alkalinity (carbonate + bicarbonate) 2,000 ppm
 Achieving quality water
• To achieve high-quality surface water, fence livestock out of the pond or
stream and pipe the water to a tank or other waterer.
• To obtain the best water from a pond, provide a grassed watershed where
no chemicals or manure are applied and float a screened pipe intake about 2
feet below the surface.
• Water can be pumped from a stream or, in some cases, can be piped to a
tank by gravity. An alternative is to allow limited access for livestock to
drink from a pond or stream.
• Spring water may need to be pumped to the desired waterer location, or the
spring may need to be developed to provide the head necessary for gravity
flow.
• Well sites should be graded to drain surface water away from the well
casing.
• Wells should be cased to comply with the Missouri Well Construction
Rules. Wells should be located as far as practical from chemical mixing
areas (300 feet minimum), feedlots (100 feet minimum), earthen manure
storage basins and lagoons (300 feet minimum), and land application areas
for manure (300 feet minimum).
• Under the EPA's Unified National Strategy for Animal Feeding
Operations, the desired outcome is for all concentrated animal
feeding operations to develop and implement a comprehensive
nutrient management plan.
• Such a plan should address, as necessary, feed management, manure
handling and storage, land application of manure, land management,
record keeping, and other utilization options. In addition to
nutrients, the plan should address other pollutants, such as
pathogens, to minimize the effects of animal feeding operations on
water quality and public health.
• At a minimum, the nutrient management plan should prevent the
application of nutrients at rates that will exceed the capacity of the
soil and planned crop needs. Soils, crop material and manure should
be tested to determine nutrient needs.
• Manure application equipment should be calibrated to ensure that
the quantity of material being applied conforms to a plan. Records
of crops removed annually and the total amount of effluent applied
will allow producers to maintain the desired nutrient balance.
 Water testing
• Annual water tests are recommended for private wells,
especially for shallow wells, and whenever a problem is
suspected.
• Owners of private wells can have their water tested by
collecting a sample themselves or by hiring a qualified
person to do so. The sample should be taken to a
certified laboratory for analysis.
• Sample bottles should be obtained from the testing
laboratory or local health department, because
containers may be especially prepared for a specific
contaminant. Sampling and handling procedures
depend on the water quality concern and should be
followed carefully.
Water analyses typically include the following tests:
– Total coliform bacteria
– pH (acid or alkaline level)
– Total dissolved solids
– Total soluble salt
– Salinity
– Hardness
– Nitrates
– Sulfate
– Other factors such as toxicity problems with specific
minerals or pesticides, or occasionally, heavy algae
growth
 Water pollution from agricultural production

Pollution :

• ‘the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of

substances or energy into the environment, which are
liable to create hazards to human health, to harm living
resources and marine ecosystems’

• Agricultural pollution is, thus, the direct or indirect

introduction of substances – particularly excessive
nutrients (such as nitrates (N) and phosphorous (P) )
- or energy into the environment as a result of mans
agricultural activities.
 How can Agricultural Pollution harm our environment?
• Eutrophic means nutrient-rich, and eutrophication literally means enrichment
with nutrients, although nowadays the term is more often used in a negative
sense to mean over-enrichment.
• Nutrients - especially nitrogen and phosphorus- are vital for marine life. But
the presence of excessive nutrients can seriously disturb the functioning of
marine ecosystems.

• Excessive nutrient inputs into a water body induce biological, chemical and
physical changes in aquatic plant and animal communities, often leading to
oxygen depletion, especially in deeper waters.

• Greenish, murky water is typically the first sign of eutrophication as

microscopic plants and algae grow profusely, consuming the surplus
nutrients. But algae are short-lived, and when they die they sink to the
bottom of the sea, where their decomposition uses up oxygen.

• The worst affected areas can become completely anoxic. In the absence of
oxygen, decomposition can release toxic hydrogen sulphide, poisoning
organisms and making the sea-bed lifeless.
• There are many reasons why governments and authorities
throughout the world are deeply concerned about the effects
of agricultural pollution.
• Not least is the danger to
1) Public health. In drinking water, high concentrations of
nitrate can cause methemoglobinemia, a potentially fatal
disease in infants also known as blue baby syndrome.
2) Fish stocks and marine biodiversity. Eutrophication destroys
habitats for other marine life.
3) The tourist industry. Poisonous and/or unsightly and
odorous coastal waters discourage tourists!
 Agricultural impacts on water quality

Agricultural activity 1. Tillage/ploughing

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Sediment/turbidity: sediments
carry phosphorus and pesticides
adsorbed to sediment particles;
siltation of river beds and loss
of habitat, spawning ground, etc.
Autumn ploughing in Sweden
 Agricultural activity 2. Fertilizing

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Runoff of nutrients, especially phosphorus, Leaching of nitrate to

leading to eutrophication causing taste and groundwater; excessive levels
odour in public water supply, excess are a threat to public health.
algae growth leading to deoxygenating
of water and fish kills.
Fertilizing with anhydrous ammonia
 Agricultural activity 3. Manure spreading

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Carried out as a fertilizer activity; Contamination of ground-water,

spreading on frozen ground results especially by nitrogen
in high levels of contamination of
receiving waters by pathogens,
metals, phosphorus and nitrogen
leading to eutrophication and
potential contamination.
Manure spreading
 Agricultural activity 4. Irrigation

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Runoff of salts leading to salinization Enrichment of groundwater with

of surface waters; runoff of fertilizers salts, nutrients (especially nitrate).
and pesticides to surface waters with
ecological damage, bioaccumulation
in edible fish species, etc. High levels
of trace elements such as selenium
can occur with serious ecological
damage and potential human health
impacts.
Irrigation
 Agricultural activity 5. Clear cutting

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Erosion of land, leading to high Disruption of hydrologic regime,

levels of turbidity in rivers, siltation often with increased surface runoff
of bottom habitat, etc. Disruption and decreased groundwater
and change of hydrologic regime, recharge; affects surface water by
often with loss of perennial streams; decreasing flow in dry periods and
causes public health problems concentrating nutrients and
due to loss of potable water. contaminants in surface water.
Dramatic clear cut on the edges of a lake
 Agricultural activity 6. Silviculture

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Broad range of effects:

pesticide runoff and contamination
of surface water and fish; erosion
and sedimentation problems.
Silviculture – managed forest in Sweden
 Agricultural activity 7. Aquaculture

Impacts
Surface water Groundwater

Release of high levels of nutrients

to surface water and groundwater
through feed and faeces, leading
to serious eutrophication.
Aquaculture – fish farming adds to the nutient burden
Problem-1
2. Determine the Consumptive Water Requirement (CWR), Net Irrigation Requirement
(NIR), Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR) and Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR) of
the Ludhiana Wheat Period of growth in 5 intervals. The following data for different
crop growing seasons are given. Assume application efficiency 68%, and conveyance
efficiency 80%, where
ET0 => Reference Evapotranspiration, Kc=> Crop Factor or consumptive use
coefficient, and Re => Effective Rainfall

Interval 1 2 3 4 5

ETO 15.8 13.1 12.8 15.0 16.2

KC 0.30 0.77 0.90 0.76 0.58

Rainfall - 0.8 0.6 - -

Consumptive Rainfall NIR = FIR = GIR = FIR
Use = ETO * KC Consumptive NIR/applicati /Conveyance
Use - Rainfall on efficiency Efficienccy

4.7 - 4.7 6.9 8.6

10.1 0.8 9.3 13.7 17.1

11.5 0.6 10.9 16 20.0

11.4 - 11.4 16.8 21.0

9.4 - 9.4 13.8 17.3

Sum = 47.1 Sum = 45.7 Sum = 67.2 Sum = 84.0