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entertainment” in “any location where the adult cabaret entertainment could be viewed by a
person who is not an adult.” (ECF No. 19-1 at PageID 93.) This suit seeks to enjoin
enforcement of that statute, alleging that it is an unconstitutional restriction on speech under the
Constitution. Plaintiff Friends of George’s, Inc. moves for a Temporary Restraining Order
(“TRO”) and Preliminary Injunction against Defendants State of Tennessee, Tennessee Governor
Bill Lee, Tennessee Attorney General Jonathan Skrmetti, and Shelby County District Attorney
Steve Mulroy (“Defendants”). (ECF No. 7 & 11.) Defendants responded (ECF No. 19), Plaintiff
replied (ECF No. 20), and this Court held a hearing on the motion. After reviewing the Parties’
filings and considering the arguments from the hearing, the Court GRANTS Plaintiff’s motion
for a TRO.
BACKGROUND
In March 2023, the Tennessee General Assembly passed, and Defendant Governor Bill
Lee signed, Public Chapter No. 2, 113th General Assembly 2023 (“Statute”). (ECF No. 19-1.)
The Statute makes it “an offense for a person to perform adult cabaret entertainment,” either “(A)
On public property; or (B) in a location where the adult cabaret entertainment could be viewed
by a person who is not an adult.” (Id. at PageID 93.) The Statute defines “adult cabaret
minors, as that term is defined in [Tennessee Code Annotated] § 39-17-901, and that feature
topless dancers, go-go dancers, exotic dancers, strippers, male or female impersonators, or
similar entertainers[.]” (Id.) A first violation of this provision is a Class A misdemeanor, and
any subsequent violation is a Class E felony. (Id. at PageID 94.) The Statute will take effect on
centric performances, comedy sketches, and plays.” (ECF No. 10 at PageID 52.) Plaintiff filed
this suit against Defendants under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 alleging that Defendants seek to “explicitly
restrict or chill speech and expression protected by the First Amendment based on its content, its
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message, and its messenger.” (Id. at PageID 62–63.) And so, Plaintiff moves for an injunction
to prevent “this unconstitutional statute from taking effect.” (Id. at PageID 63.)
The Parties submitted briefs, and the Court held a hearing on March 30, 2023. Neither
Party disputes that the Statute restricts expressive conduct—defined as “adult cabaret
entertainment”—that could be protected speech under the First Amendment. What the Parties
dispute is whether Plaintiff has standing to bring this suit, and whether the Statute is
content-based restriction on speech that is also void for vagueness and overbreadth. Defendants
counter that Plaintiff lacks standing to bring this suit, and that the Statute is a narrowly tailored
content-neutral restriction on speech that passes intermediate scrutiny. The Court will now apply
LEGAL STANDARD
A TRO is an extraordinary remedy. Courts issue TROs to “preserve the status quo so
that a reasoned resolution of a dispute may be had.” Procter & Gamble Co. v. Bankers Trust
Co., 78 F.3d 219, 227 (6th Cir. 1996). The movant—here, Plaintiff—bears the burden of
showing they are entitled to a preliminary injunction. See Jones v. Caruso, 569 F.3d 258, 265
(6th Cir. 2009). Courts consider TRO motions under the same four-factor test for preliminary
injunction motions: (1) whether the movant has a strong likelihood of success on the merits, (2)
whether the movant would suffer irreparable harm absent a TRO, (3) whether granting a TRO
would cause “substantial harm” to others, and (4) whether the public interest would be served by
the issuance of a TRO. See Ohio Republican Party v. Brunner, 543 F.3d 357, 361 (6th Cir.
2008). In cases about a constitutional challenge to a state law, “the first factor [likelihood of
success on the merits] is typically dispositive.” Vitolo v. Guzman, 999 F.3d 353, 360 (6th Cir.
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2021). And the third and fourth factors “merge when the Government is the opposing party.”
ANALYSIS
After reviewing the Parties’ briefs and arguments, the Court finds that the factors favor the
issuance of a TRO against Defendants. Plaintiff has carried its burden of proof on all four factors,
supporting the issuance of a TRO. The Court will now address each factor along with Defendants’
arguments in opposition.
A. Standing
Before a Court can hear a case, the Plaintiff must show Article III standing. This means
that Plaintiff must show that it has (1) it suffered an injury in fact—a legally-protected interest
that is concrete, particularized, and actual or imminent, (2) that Defendants likely caused the
injury, and (3) that judicial relief would likely redress the injury. Lujan v. Def. of Wildlife, 504
U.S. 555, 560–61 (1992). The United States Supreme Court has held that overbreadth challenges
Defendants do not dispute Plaintiff’s ability to bring this suit as an organization. But they
do argue that Plaintiff has not shown any of the elements for Article III standing. First, they
contend that Plaintiff has not suffered an injury. This is because Plaintiff does not allege that it
intends to engage in conduct that the Statute prohibits. In that regard, Defendants emphasize that
Plaintiff maintains that its upcoming performances—including one scheduled two weeks after
the Statute takes effect—“risk no harm to anyone.” (ECF No. 19 at PageID 86.) Plus, the
Statute has yet to take effect. Second, they argue that Plaintiff—even if it can prove a cognizable
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injury—fails to prove both the causation and redressability elements for the State1, Governor
Lee, and Attorney General Skrmetti. (Id. at PageID 88.) They contend that Plaintiff “has not
asserted that either the Governor or the Attorney General has taken or might take any
enforcement action against it” under the Statute. (Id.) And so, Defendants conclude that,
because Governor Lee and Attorney General Skrmetti did not cause any injury to Plaintiff, the
Court is unable to redress any injury through a TRO enjoining the two. (Id.)
The Court disagrees and finds that Plaintiff has met its burden of proving both Article III
and prudential standing. One of Plaintiff’s arguments, which the Court will discuss more fully
below, is that the Statute is both vague and overly-broad. Plaintiff therefore has suffered an
actual, concrete, and particularized injury in that it has a reasonable fear of prosecution for
conducting shows similar to those it has performed in the past, which may be punishable by the
Statute with criminal effect. For example, Plaintiff’s upcoming show will take place on April 14,
2023, and the Statute takes effect just two weeks before that. Defendants claim this requires too
much speculation and the timing is not immediate. But April 14, 2023, is not the “‘some day’
intention” which the United States Supreme Court warned about in Lujan v. Defenders of
Wildlife, to be the type of conjecture that fails Article III’s imminence requirement. 504 U.S.
In the meantime, Plaintiff has to try to sell tickets while deciding whether it should add a
previously unnecessary age restriction, cancel the show, or risk criminal prosecution or
investigation. These are not trifling issues for a theatre company—certainly not in the free, civil
society we hold our country to be. Defendants’ approach would have Plaintiff, and those
1
In its reply brief, Plaintiff consented to dismissal of Defendant State of Tennessee under the
doctrine of sovereign immunity. (ECF No. 20 at PageID 102.)
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similarly situated in Tennessee, eat the proverbial mushroom to find out whether it is poisonous.
The law does not require that for standing. Defendant Shelby County District Attorney Steve
Mulroy seems to agree, as his one statement in the hearing underscored the “great uncertainty
and concern among the people of Shelby County,” regarding the Statute’s scope. For his part,
Mr. Mulroy, as an individual Defendant, consents to this TRO. The Court finds Plaintiff has met
The Court acknowledges that causation and redressability are closer questions.
Defendants maintain that the Statute tasks neither the Governor nor the Attorney General with its
enforcement. Defendant District Attorney Mulroy took no official position on whether his office
will enforce the law. Plaintiff counters with a citation to Tennessee’s divided prosecutorial
scheme giving the Attorney General power to begin a criminal prosecution should the local
district attorney “peremptorily and categorically” refuse to enforce criminal laws. Tenn. Code.
Ann. § 8-7-106. Considering that Mr. Mulroy does not oppose the issuance of a TRO here, the
Attorney General’s power to enforce this law is murky at the moment. As for the Governor,
Plaintiff contends he is “not without power to drive enforcement” of the Statute by employing
the Tennessee Constitution’s “take care clause” or the Governor’s executive power over the
State’s policing agencies like the Tennessee Bureau of Investigations and Tennessee Highway
The upshot is that the Statute, which imposes criminal sanctions on those who violate its
restrictions on expressive speech, will take effect tomorrow, April 1, 2023. And not only is the
Statute vague—as the Court further discusses below—but so is the State’s enforcement
mechanism for it. At the risk of chilling speech because of the Statute’s vagueness, the Court
will not let the enforcement mechanism’s ambiguity prevent Plaintiff’s suit here. The Statute
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presents a reasonable risk that both the Governor and Attorney General may investigate and
criminally prosecute, Plaintiff for its performances. See United States v. Stevens, 559 U.S. 460,
(2010) (“We would not uphold an unconstitutional statute merely because the Government
promised to use it responsibly.”); Virginia v. Am. Booksellers Ass’n, Inc., 484 U.S. 383, 393
(1988) (“The State has not suggested that the newly enacted [speech restriction] law will not be
enforced, and we see no reason to assume otherwise. . . Further, the alleged danger of this statute
is, in large measure, one of self-censorship; a harm that can be realized even without an actual
prosecution.”).
Because the Statute still has not gone into effect, granting a TRO will grant Plaintiff relief
by preserving the status quo. The Court finds that Plaintiff has met its burden for causation and
redressability for purposes of this TRO.2 Since the Court finds Plaintiff has standing, it will next
The Court can think of at least three scenarios in which Plaintiff is likely to succeed on
the merits.
i. Content-Based Regulation
Plaintiff argues the regulation here is content-based. The First Amendment generally
prevents states from limiting speech and expressive conduct based on the ideas expressed. Texas
v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397, 406 (1989). So, content-based regulations are presumptively invalid.
R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377, 382 (1992). In Reed v. Town of Gilbert, the United
States Supreme Court observed that there are two ways to determine whether a law is a
2
The Court requests further briefing from the Parties on this standing issue for the preliminary
injunction hearing.
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content-based regulation. 576 U.S. 155, 163–64 (2015). First, a law is content-based on its face
by “defining regulated speech by particular subject matter.” Id. Second, a law may appear to be
content-neutral on its face but courts consider it to be content-based if it was “adopted by the
government ‘because of disagreement with the message [the speech] conveys.” Id. at 164
(quoting Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 791 (1989).
U.S. at 171 (2015). This is an exceptionally high bar—it means that the law is presumptively
unconstitutional. Id. The Court will only uphold the law if it is justified by a compelling
government interest, and it is narrowly drawn to serve that interest. Id. at 175 (Breyer, J.,
concurring) (observing that strict scrutiny in speech cases is “almost certain legal
condemnation”). The Court will now consider whether the regulation here is content-based.
by an entertainer that are “harmful to minors, as that term is defined in [Tennessee Code
Annotated] § 39-17-901, and that feature topless dancers, go-go dancers, exotic dancers,
strippers, male or female impersonators, or similar entertainers[.]” (ECF No. 19-1 at PageID
93.) A reading of Tennessee Code Annotated § 39-17-901 reveals that it largely mirrors the
other words, one way to interpret the Statute—the way the Parties discussed it during the
hearing—is to read Section 1 of the Statute as requiring that the “adult cabaret entertainment” be
both (1) harmful to minors and (2) feature any of the performers of the type listed.
Plaintiff argues that this interpretation of the Statute is not merely content-based, but also
view-point based because an element of the offense is based on the identity (exotic dancers,
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(ECF No. 7.) During the hearing, Plaintiff argued that Section 1 of the Statute tracks the same
Tenn. Code Ann. § 7-51-1401. But rather than penalize the operators of those establishments,
Plaintiff points out that this Statute targets the performers themselves, unlawfully restricting their
Defendants disagree with Plaintiff and contend that the Statute merely lists examples of
performers who could be performing obscene acts as defined by Tenn. Code Ann. § 39-17-901.
Defendants’ basic point is that the statute does not target the identity or viewpoint of the
performers, but only the obscene acts in which they publicly engage. The Court finds
In R.A.V., the United States Supreme Court held that some types of speech—like
obscenity and defamation—can be regulated because of their content. 505 U.S. at 383–84.
Hence, while the government may prohibit obscenity as a whole, it may not target only certain
that prohibits obscenity performed by entertainers like topless dancers, strippers, male or female
impersonators but not others could be a content-based regulation that warrants strict scrutiny.
Based on the record so far, Plaintiff has made a likely case for analyzing the Statute
under strict scrutiny, which would make the Statute presumptively unconstitutional unless
Tennessee can present a compelling government interest. It has yet to do so. The Court
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therefore finds that Plaintiff has shown a sufficient likelihood of success on the merits to grant
this TRO.
One of the Court’s concerns with the statute is its redundancy. During the hearing,
Defendants agreed with the Court’s observation that current obscenity laws already account for
much of the conduct that the Statute seeks to punish. When the Court asked exactly what
conduct this Statute reaches that is outside the scope of Tennessee’s obscenity laws, Defendant
initially answered that the Statute adds very little, and later clarified that in their view, the Statute
is a time, place, and manner restriction. But this answer raises more questions for the Court as it
does little to advance Defendant’s position. So this brings the Court to the second way for a law
by the government “because of disagreement with the message [the speech] conveys.” Ward,
Assuming that the Statute is facially content-neutral, United States Supreme Court
precedent under Reed requires the Court to consider legislative history. See Reed, 576 U.S. at
164. And so the Court now turns to the legislative history to address whether Tennessee enacted
the Statute because of its disagreement with a particular message or messenger. In its complaint,
Plaintiff traces its grievance from October 2022, when “Jackson Pride planned to host its third
annual pride festival.” (ECF No. 10 at PageID 52.) Plaintiff alleges that public backlash from
the city of Jackson, Tennessee resulted in “city officials and members of the Pride Committee”
agreeing to move the event—which included a male or female impersonation otherwise known
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Plaintiff alleges that the Statute’s sponsor, Tennessee State Representative Chris Todd,
filed a lawsuit asking a state court to declare the drag show a public nuisance. (Id.) Citing
Representative Todd’s recorded speech from the Tennessee General Assembly’s house floor
session, Plaintiff points the Court to his comments on how the bill “was intended to cover
conduct like that which he ‘dealt with in [Representative Todd’s] own community this past
year.’” (Id. at PageID 57.) Particularly, Plaintiff claims that “Rep. Todd recounted how his
lawsuit forced Jackson Pride to move the family-friendly drag show indoors and to apply age
restrictions.” (Id.) As Plaintiff presented in its opening argument during the hearing, this statute
Given the Defendants’ lack of a clear answer to the Statute’s purpose considering current
state obscenity laws, along with the Parties’ present filings on the Statute’s legislative history,
the Court finds that Plaintiff has made a likely case for subjecting the Statute to strict scrutiny
here. The Court therefore finds that Plaintiff has a sufficient likelihood of success on the merits
The United States Supreme Court has “traditionally viewed vagueness and overbreadth as
logically related and similar doctrines.” Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352, 358 n.8 (1983). A
its meaning and differ as to its application[.]” Conally v. Gen. Const. Co., 269 U.S. 385 (1926).
A law is unconstitutionally overbroad if it sweeps in more speech than is necessary to satisfy the
state’s interest, regulating both protected and unprotected speech. See Broadrick v. Oklahoma,
413 U.S. 601, 610 (1973). The United States Supreme Court has described the overbreadth
doctrine as a “strong medicine,” that justifies invalidation of laws that can chill the effects of
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speech through self-censorship on the regulated, and can spark the harms of selective
enforcement on the regulator. Id. at 613; Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352, 358 (1983) (noting
that overbreadth and vagueness doctrines check the legislature’s need to establish minimal
At this point, the Court finds that the Statute is likely both vague and overly-broad. As
discussed above, Plaintiff argued during the hearing that Section 1 of the Statute tracks the same
Tennessee Code Annotated § 7-51-1401. Compare Tenn. Code Ann. § 7-51-1401 (“‘Adult
cabaret’ means a cabaret that features topless dancers, go-go dancers, exotic dancers, strippers,
male or female impersonators, or similar entertainers[.]”) with (ECF No. 19-1 at PageID 93
(“[Adult cabaret entertainment] means adult-oriented performances that are harmful to minors . .
. and that feature topless dancers, go-go dancers, exotic dancers, strippers, male or female
To the Parties’ knowledge, the same language in § 7-51-1401 has not been challenged for
its constitutionality in federal court. Plaintiff argues that while § 7-51-1401’s broad language is
limited by subsections of that statute, chief among them that the performance must be limited
within the boundaries of the adult-oriented businesses, here the Statute reaches the conduct of
performers virtually anywhere. Section 2 of the Statute makes it “an offense for a person to
perform adult cabaret entertainment,” either “(A) On public property; or (B) in a location where
the adult cabaret entertainment could be viewed by a person who is not an adult.” (ECF No. 19-
1 at PageID 93.)
Plaintiff argues that this language could mean just about anywhere. The Court agrees.
What exactly is a location on public property or a “location where an adult cabaret entertainment
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could be viewed by a person who is not an adult”? Does a citizen’s private residence count?
How about a camping ground at a national park? What if a minor browsing the worldwide web
from a public library views an “adult cabaret performance”? Ultimately, the Statute’s broad
At the hearing, Defendants characterized the Statute as a time, place, and manner
restriction that complements the state’s obscenity laws. The Court is skeptical because even if
Defendant is correct, the Statute seems to be overly-broad. For a time, place, and manner
restriction, it provides no time and manner restrictions. Its place restriction fares little better as it
can be reasonably read to mean just about anywhere, including private homes.
Defendants advanced no arguments to these concerns during the hearing. Yet they may
very well present satisfactory rebuttals to the Court during the preliminary injunction hearing.
But at this point, Plaintiff has met its burden of proving likelihood of success on the merits for
Defendants’ dispute over this factor is anchored solely on their contention that Plaintiff
lacks standing to sue them. As discussed above, the Court finds that Plaintiff has standing for
this TRO. So, the Court will treat this factor as uncontested.
Absent an injunction here, Plaintiff will be barred by criminal penalties from engaging in
protected First Amendment expression. Roman Cath. Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo, 141 S.Ct.
63, 67 (2020) (“The loss of First Amendment freedoms, for even minimal periods of time,
overbreadth, it is unclear whether Plaintiff’s performances may be penalized. If the Statute takes
effect and Defendants prosecute Plaintiff, it will likely suffer irreparable harm with criminal
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sanctions. These penalties carry with them, among other things, potential loss of liberty and
great reputational harm. But even without enforcement, the vague and overly-broad nature of the
Statute can have a chilling effect on speech.3 Plaintiff has met its burden of proving irreparable
Defendants, assuming that Plaintiff lacks standing to sue, assert that these factors weigh in
their favor because “the public has an interest in ensuring that its officials are not subject to an
aimless injunction.” (ECF No. 19.) Plaintiff alleges that it has been engaging in this type of speech
since 2011 without incident, and that granting the TRO will cause no harm “other than potential
dissatisfaction by some legislators and members of the public who are under no obligation to attend
[Plaintiff’s events].” (ECF No. 7 at PageID 45.) The Court also notes that one of the Defendants,
Shelby County DA Mulroy favored the TRO, citing the “great uncertainty and concern among the
Tennessee took an affirmative step by enacting this law. No one has ever been charged
under this law because it has yet to take effect. Defendants agreed that the state’s existing
obscenity laws can prosecute most—and arguably even all—of the conduct that the Statute seeks
to regulate. So, issuing a TRO here will preserve the status quo and benefit the public interest by
clarifying the scope of a law that could impact the First Amendment rights of Tennessee residents.
3
Plaintiff proffered unopposed evidence to support its contention that other civic groups are also
concerned about the Statute’s vagueness and overbreadth. (ECF No. 23.) A notable example is
from Mystie-Elizabeth Watson, Producer and Director of Absent Friends, a theater organization
that hosts a monthly showing of the movie, “The Rocky Horror Picture Show.” (ECF No. 23-2
at PageID 139 (“Rather than risk the well-being of its drag performers, Absent Friends made the
decision to restrict future performances to audience members 18 years of age and older . . . Were
it not for this law, Absent Friends would not have added an age restriction to its monthly
performances.”).
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Plaintiff has met its burden for these last two factors as well. And the Court finds that all factors
CONCLUSION
The Court is mindful that a TRO is an extraordinary remedy, and that enjoining
enforcement of the Statute precludes, or at least delays, the Tennessee General Assembly’s
legislative act. The Court does not take such actions lightly. But within our country’s federal
framework, states are laboratories of democracy that can test laws and policies enacted by The
People. Even still, these experiments are not without constraints. The United States
Constitution—a law that is supreme even to the Tennessee General Assembly’s acts—has placed
some issues beyond the reach of the democratic process. First among them is the freedom of
speech. If Tennessee wishes to exercise its police power in restricting speech it considers
obscene, it must do so within the constraints and framework of the United States Constitution.
The Court finds that, as it stands, the record here suggests that when the legislature passed this
For the reasons above, the Court GRANTS Plaintiff’s motion for a Temporary
Restraining Order prohibiting Governor Bill Lee, Attorney General Jonathan Skrmetti, and
Shelby County District Attorney Steven Mulroy from enforcing Tenn. Code Ann. § 7-51-1407.
This Order shall expire fourteen (14) days from the date of entry noted below, unless within such
time, the Court extends the Order for an additional period under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure
65(b)(2). The Court will hold a status conference in the coming days with the Parties to schedule
future hearings.
s/Thomas L. Parker
THOMAS L. PARKER
UNITED STATES DISTRICT JUDGE
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