Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Indian Poetics
Indian Poetics
Babasaheb Ambedkar
BAOU
Educa on
for All
Open University
(Established by Government of Gujarat)
CIP-01
Introduction to
Indian Poetics
Message for Students
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University is the only state Open University,
established by the Government of Gujarat by the Act No. 14 of 1994 passed by
the Gujarat State Legislature; in the memory of the creator of Indian
Constitution and Bharat Ratna Dr. Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar. We stand at
the seventh position in terms of establishment of the Open Universities in the
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In order to provide students with qualitative, skill and life oriented education at their threshold, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
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Editor
Prof. (Dr.) Ami Upadhyay
Vice-Chancellor, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University, Ahmedabad
Co-Editor
Dr. Jainee Shah
Assistant Professor, Department of English, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University, Ahmedabad
Reviewers
Prof. (Dr.) Ami Upadhyay
Vice-Chancellor, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University, Ahmedabad
Prof. Darshana Bhatt
Head, Department of English, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad
Prof. Batukdas S. Nimavat
Retired Professor of English, VD Kankiya Arts College, Savarkundla
Content Writers
Prof. Darshana Bhatt1 and Ms. Reeti Pandya2
HoD, Department of English , PhD Research Scholar2, Department of English, Gujarat University, A’bad
1
ISBN: 978-93-91468-04-0
Year: June 2021
1
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Unit 1 01
Indian Poetics – Definition
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Unit 2 21
Constituent Elements of Indian Poetics
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Unit 3 33
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Introduction to Kavyashastra
Check Your Progress-I
1.2.1 Rasa Siddhāṅta
1.2.2 Alaṃkāra Siddhāṅta
1.2.3 Rīti Siddhāṅta
1.2.4 Dhvani Siddhāṅta
1.2.5 Vakrokti Siddhāṅta
1.2.6 Auchitya Siddhāṅta
Check Your Progress-II
1.3 Let Us Sum Up
1.4 Key Words
1.5 Books Suggested
Answers
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
2
genres. It not only distinguishes works of art but also distinguishes
various arts in terms of the medium and manner of works of art. It,
for instance, distinguishes painting from poetry and music from
sculpture and so on.
Scientific: It scientifically studies the end result of the work of art.
It attempts to seek answer as to what is the experience of the artist
when s/he creates that work of art and what is the experience of
the consumer of that art. For instance, it attempts to understand the
psychology of the writer who wrote a work of art and the
psychology of the reader who reads the work of art in terms of
their experiences. It tells us the possible end it serves i.e.
sensuous, imaginative, cathartic, or transcendental.
In this sense Indian poetics has two aspects (1) science i.e. technique
of arts and (2) its philosophy. Indian poetics starts with Bharata‟s
Nātyaśāstra, passes through Bhāmaha, Daṇḍin and Vāmana and attains
vastness in the writings of Ānaṅdavardhana, Abhinavagupta, Viśwanātha
and Paṇdit Jagannatha. The works of ācāryas of poetics are written in
three forms:
Verses: Bharata, Bhāmaha, Daṇḍin, Udbhaṭa, Rudraṭa,
Dhanaṇjaya, Vagbhaṭa I, Jayadeva, Appayadīksita etc. wrote in
verse.
Sutra-vritti: The concepts and principles are written in concise
sutra and explanations are in the commentary. Vāmana and
Ruyyaka used this form. Later on it was adopted by Vagbhaṭa II,
Bhānumiśra, Jagannatha and others.
Kārikā: Kārikā means short couplets or slokas. The basic
principles are in Karika and explanations are given in prose.
Ānaṅdavardhana, Kuṅtaka, Mammata, Hemcaṅdra, Viśwanātha,
etc. used this form.
3. What are the three forms in which works of Sanskrit poetics are
written?
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the singing birds are uddīpan Vibhāva. So uddīpan Vibhāva it is an
external stimulus.
6
mentioned four alaṃkāra, viz. Upamā (simile), Rupaka (metaphor),
Dīpaka (condensed expression), and Yamaka (repetition).
8
No. Śabda Guṇas Artha Guṇas
1 Ojas Ojas
2 Prasāda Prasāda
3 Śleṣa Śleṣa
4 Samatā Samatā
5 Samādhi Samādhi
6 Mādhurya Mādhurya
7 Sukamāratā Sukamāratā
8 Udāratva Udāratva
9 Arthavyakti Arthavyakti
10 Kānti Kānti
Indian poetics has always put emphasis on the word and its
meaning. The meaning is divided into three types:
1. Abhidhā or abhidheyārtha or vācyārth i.e. primary meaning
2. Lakṣaṇā or lakṣyārtha i.e. secondary meaning or derivative
meaning
3. Vyaṅjanā or vyaṅgartha or dhvanyārtha i.e. tertiary or suggested
meaning
The three types of meaning in fact are the three functions of a
word, it denotes (abhidhā), it indicates (lakṣaṇā), and it suggests
(vyaṅjanā). For instance, the sentence „the ball is in your court‟ means, in
vācyārth, that the ball is in the court of the person addressed. But in
lakṣaṇā it means that it‟s your responsibility to take the next step or to
make a decision. We know that the speaker is not talking about the ball or
the tennis court but about the responsibility. It is the vyaṅjanā that makes
poetry. The literal meaning has its importance but it just like the outer
body of the kāvya. The soul of the kāvya is the suggested meaning,
vyaṅjanā. We take an example from a Gujarati poem:
હજો હાથ કરતાલ ને ચિત્ત િાનક
તળે ટી સમીપે હજો ક્ાાંક થાનક.
Here, we know the literal meaning of the words used in these
lines. Anyone who does not know Gujarati can look up the meaning of
the words in dictionary and can understand the literal meaning (abhidhā
or vācyārtha) of the lines. But we know that the lines refer to Narsiṃh
Mehta and Girnār Mountain and Narsiṃh Mehta‟s devotional poetry. This
multiplicity of meaning suggested by the words કરતાલ, થાનક and તળે ટી
makes this simple looking lines great poetry. This is vyaṅjanā. A
sahṛidaya bhāvak, a sensitive reader can understand and appreciate this
meaning.
10
rasa, alaṃkāras, guṇa, mārga etc find a fresh meaning and explanation in
vakrokti theory.
What we can observe from the list is that auchitya also takes into
consideration the time, place and milieu as notion of auchitya is related to
time, place and context. It is Kśemeṅdra‟s contribution that he
emphasized the socio-cultural aspect of interpreting literature The 27
elements enumerated by Kśemeṅdra can be divided into three broad
categories like based on the syntactic aspects of language, based on the
semantic aspects of language and based on the socio-cultural aspects. He
explains these auchityas by providing examples of proprieties and
improprieties from various poets and also suggests changes to do away
with improprieties.
12
2. Which are the four types of acting mentioned by Bharata?
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4. What is Anubhāva?
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5. What is Vyābhicāribhāvās?
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13
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9. What is auchitya?
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10. Which are the three categories in which the 27 elements of auchitya
can be divided?
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11. What are the various terms used for rīti by various āchāryas?
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14
15. What is abhidhā? Give an example.
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16
28. Which are the six important schools of Indian poetics and who are its
leading exponents?
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17
1.4 KEY WORDS
19
Answers
Fill in the Blanks :
1. Philosophy
2. „kāvyaśāstra’
3. Rājaśekhara
4. Nātyaśāstra
5. Vyābhicāribhāvās
6. Anubhāva
7. arthālaṃkāra
8. Vāmana
9. Rīti
10. Ācārya Ānaṇdvardhana
11. Vakroktijivītam
12. Kśemeṅdra
20
UNIT : 2 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF
INDIAN POETICS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sanskrit Poetics: An Overview
2.2.1 Tamil Poetics (Tolkappiyam): An Overview
2.2.2 Modern Indian Poetics: An Overview
Check Your Progress-I
2.3 Major Schools and Concepts of Indian Poetics (Sanskrit,
Tamil, and Modern Indian Poetics)
2.3.1 Major Schools and Concepts of Sanskrit Poetics
2.3.2 Tolkappiyam
2.3.3 Modern Indian Poetics (Dalit, Feminist and Nativist)
Check Your Progress-II
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Keywords
2.6 Books Suggested
Answers
2.0 OBJECTIVES
22
Mammata‟s Kavyaprakash sheds the light on the importance of
shabd, and alamkara. The Sanskrit poetics emphasizes on the fact that the
Kavya is supposed to be made of Imagination and Emotion. The epics like
Ramayana and Mahabharat are considered as the gems of Sanskrit poetic
tradition. Ramayana is also known to be the earliest works of literature
that contains some of the fundamental elements of Sanskrit poetics. It also
describes the origin of the classical Sanskrit sloka (verse). One of the
noteworthy works that provides an authentic account of the origin of
Sanskrit poetics is Rajasekhara's Kavyamimansa. As per the description
given by Rajashekhara, Kavyamimansa was presented to Lord Brahma
and other 64 disciples by Siva. In the treatise on drama, the widely known
Natyashastra the definite information about the poetics can be seen.
Natyashastra provides many poetic concepts like rasa, alamkara, dhwani,
etc. The Sanskrit poetics evolved with the works and contributions of
Bhamaha, Jagannatha, and Dandin. This information will help us to
understand the various concepts given by these scholars in the later parts
of this unit.
Now we have come to a part where the names of the scholars will
sound more familiar as they have often been introduced to us in our
literature texts. It is a known fact that the beginning of the Modern Indian
Poetics was marked with the translation, re-interpretation, and re-
contextualization of the available literary sources and materials. Some of
the known contributors are Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo,
Coomaraswamy, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Sudhir Kakar, Aijaz
Ahmad and many others. The Modern Indian poetics largely promotes
and pursues the subject matters and techniques that directly interest the
Modern society. The Modern Poetics in India has acknowledged the
presence of subjectivity, different marginalized groups and institutions,
socio-political movements, and the re-claiming of one‟s identity. It is a
noteworthy fact that the origin of the Dalit Poetics and the earliest Dalit
writings emerged first in the regional languages. Later, in the year 1990
some of these narratives were translated into English to reach the larger
section of the readers. The Dalit Poetics of Modern India, “situates
personal and collective suffering within a larger discourse of human
rights.” Majority of the Dalit writings consist of “Life writing” that
includes genres as diverse as “autobiographies, autofictions, and
confessional forms.” But, the poetry written by the Dalit writers too, is in
exceptional form. The Feminist writings or the Feminist Poetics of India
questions the dominant Patriarchal structure of the literary tradition of
India which was well-reflected in the available ancient texts and writings.
The writers like Mahasweta Devi, Arundhati Roy, Kamala Markandeya,
and Shashi Deshpande have provided the narratives that discuss Indian
Feminist Movement and its impact on Indian Poetics and literary
tradition. Moreover, the poets like Kamala Das have given a Feminist
voice to the Modern Indian Poetry. „Nativism‟ in Modern Indian Poetics
suggests the return to indigenous practices, as well as one‟s own culture
which existed before Colonial invasion. The most significant treatise that
has been written in this regard is G.N. Devy‟s After Amnesia: Tradition
and Change in Indian Literary Criticism. Later, in the works of Paranjpe
the idea of Nativist Poetics as a part of Modern Indian Poetics witnessed
its evolution.
25
9 Majority of the Dalit writings consist of ________________.
a. Novellas
b. Drama
c. “Life-writing”
d. News-letters
This section discusses in detail the Major school and concepts that
have formed the enormous body of Indian Poetics. These are the major
constituent elements of Indian Poetics and its variants like Sanskrit
Poetics, Tamil Poetics- (Tolkappiyam), and Modern Indian Poetics that
include Dalit Poetics, Feminist Poetics, and Nativist Poetics.
These are the various elements of a Kavya that have been given
much importance by the various scholars all these years. Each School will
be explained in great detail in the following units.
2.3.2 Tolkappiyam
The word “Nativism” can be new for many of you, but if only you
could focus on the word without the suffix, you might understand it in a
better way. Nativism emphasizes on native subject, native culture, and
other native establishments. The ideology of “Nativism” has gained
popularity in the contemporary arena of literary cultures of India. A
recent study shows that this concept was prevalent in Indian literature
even before the Colonial invasion of foreigners, and Colonizers. It is
indicated in that study that, “Bhakti saints like Dhyaneshwar, Tukaram,
Namdeva, Meerabai, Tulsidas, Gurunanak and Kabir actually laid the
modern vernacular languages and their literatures.” You all must have
studied the great creations of these saints in your literature textbooks in
school or at home. Keep those ideas in your mind to have a better
understanding of this concept. One might find the essence of this
“Nativism” in the critical works and essays of Markand Pranjape. The
poetry of Nissim Ezekiel embodies the spirit of Nativism, as it greatly
shows the presence of the use of standard “Indian” English. His poems
29
are also called “very Indian” poems by some of the scholars and critics. In
the poetry of Kamala Das, the readers might find her poetic inspiration
being derived from her memory of childhood and adolescent days.
Jayanta Mahapatra‟s utmost urge to be reconciled with his heroic and
prosperous tradition is not hidden from many of his readers. A.K.
Ramanujan also calls for a revival of the past and “collective memory” in
majority of his poetry collection. Broadly, we need to understand here
that, all these poets longed for the joys of the past, the glory of the
history, the reclaiming of lost identities. You can also read the poems by
the poets that have been mentioned here to understand the concept of
“Nativism” in a better way.
9. One might find the essence of this “Nativism” in the critical works
and essays of ________________.
30
For instance,
Answers
Check your Progress-I
Choose the correct option
1. a. Vedas
2. b. Kavyashastra
3. b. Kavyalankara
4. b. Cankam
5. d. Dravidian
6. c. 4400
7. b. Madurai
8. d. Translation
9. c. “Life-writing”
10. a. After Amnesia: Tradition and Change in Indian Literary
Criticism
Check your Progress-II
32
UNIT : 3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
OF INDIAN POETICS
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sanskrit Poetics: Historical Perspectives
3.2.1 Tamil Poetics: Historical Perspectives
3.2.2 Indian Poetics in other languages
Check Your Progress-I
3.3 Journey through the History of Indian Poetics
3.3.1 Sanskrit Poetics: A Journey through History,
facts, and perspectives
3.3.2 Tamil Poetics: A Journey through History,
facts, and perspectives
3.3.3 Indian Poetics in other languages:
A Journey through History, facts, and perspectives
Check Your Progress-II
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Key Words
3.6 Books Suggested
Answers
3.0 OBJECTIVES
The Sanskrit poetics or the Science of poetry has its roots in the
Alankara-sastra. The Alankara literally means ornaments or
embellishment. If one is to analyze all the canonical poetic works of
Sanskrit literature, like Mahabharata or Ramayana, the traces of
Alamkara-sastra will become more and more visible, not only in the
poetical treatment, but also in the choice of words, figures of speech, and
wide range of characters and subject-matters. In the works of later poets
such as Magha, Harsha, and others the similarities are in abundance.
In the earlier unit, you observed that Tolkappiyam was the earliest
identified treatise on grammar in the history of Tamil poetics. It deals in
great detail with the crucial aspects of linguistics including the
“morphology, phonology, orthography, semantics, and the composition”
of Tamil literature. It was one of the earliest texts that pointed out that the
Tamil language consists of the two halves, sentamil- classical Tamil; and
koduntamil- the Tamil dialects popular during that time. The Historical
period when Tolkappiyam came into existence is popularly known as-
“Cankam/Sangam”.
35
The Modern Indian Poetics and its development through Bhakti
movement in the hands of Srila Rup Swami have to be considered
important as it talks in length about the bhakti-rasa. The exponents of
Dalit, Nativist, and Feminist Indian Poetics have been discussed at greater
length in the earlier unit. The contribution of Tagore, Coomaraswami,
Aurobindo is remarkable in the field of Indian Poetics.
37
In the later ages, Dandin developed a vision on poetic traditions, through
his more systematic approach towards the alankara theory. The form and
language are mainly discussed in the works of Dandin. Vamana, a high
esteemed scholar in the history of Sanskrit poetics marked his way
through his theory of poetry, which was largely centered on the concept
of Guna-riti. His originality in the development of ideas and concepts can
be seen in his Kavyalankara-sutra-vritti.
II- Read more about the interesting stories/ folklores/ oral narratives
dealing with the development and evolution of Indian Poetics.
Write in detail about the story/ folklore/ oral narrative that you find
most intriguing. Don’t forget to paste appropriate pictures or
graphically represent these narratives, and or the timelines on a
plain A-4 size white sheet.
40
3.4 LET US SUM UP
Answers
Check your Progress-I
Choose the correct option:
1. Agnipurana
2. Lalitavistara
3. Bharata
4. Sentamil and konduntamil
41
5. 10
6. Murugan
7. Albadaoni
8. Twarikh
9. Nuh Siphir
10. Srila Rup Swami
42
UNIT : 4 RELEVANCE OF INDIAN POETICS
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Understanding ‘Indian’ in Indian Poetics in the 21st Century
Check Your Progress-I
4.2 Colonization of Indian Psyche
4.3 Indian Poetics as a Means of Decolonization
Check Your Progress-II
4.4 Is Indian Poetics a Frozen Tradition?
Check Your Progress-III
4.5 Rethinking Poetics in India in the Present Context
4.6 Let Us Sum up
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Books Suggested
Answers
4.0 OBJECTIVES
43
4.1 UNDERSTANDING ‘INDIAN’ IN INDIAN POETICS IN
THE 21ST CENTURY
44
became a part of India. The 19th century saw the rise of English education
followed by Indian English literature and criticism. The second half of the
20th century saw newer discourses like Dalit discourse, feminist discourse,
nativist discourse, tribal literature, oral and folk tradition etc.
2) How would you define the term „Indian Poetics‟ in the present
context?
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3) Do you think the origin of Indian Poetics can be traced back to the
Vedic period? Justify.
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45
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“We are to enlighten and inform the minds of the subject of our
East Indian Empire... by enlightening the minds of the natives, we
should root out their errors, without provoking their
prejudices…. the principles of the Hindus are so good, their morals
are so pure and better than our own, as we are told by more than one
gentleman, that to attempt to communicate to them our religion and
our modality is, to say the least, a superfluous, perhaps a mysterious
attempt.” (quoted in Avadhesh Kumar Singh Discourse of
Resistance in the Colonial Period 19-20)
46
Kapoor, in his Literary Theory: Indian Conceptual Framework, makes
the following observations:
Thus, it is the need of the hour that the theorists and poeticians in
Indian English and other regional languages should be prescribed, taught
and read, because these critics have been exposed to their own traditions
and at the same time responded to developments in the field of critical
and literary theory. For example, Namvar Singh in Hindi, Suresh Joshi in
Gujarati or Bhalchandra Nemade in Marathi have all responded to
Postmodernism in English but keeping in mind the Indian context. The
exclusion of native Indian critical traditions would mean their deliberate
rejection without examining them. It would also mean deeming Indian
critical tradition as static and frozen. The suitable path is to allow a
mutual interaction and illumination between the contemporary Western
and Indian critical traditions so that a contemporary young Indian
mind can judge both by their merits and demerits.
48
II. Does intellectual imperialism still prevail in the Indian academic
world, especially in higher education? How can Indian Poetics be a
means of decolonizing the Indian mind? Think upon the issue and
write a critical response in about 200 words:
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The Indian critical tradition flows like the sacred river Gangā
after its origin (āvirbhāva) and many tributaries join on its way
and get merged into it (antarbhāva). The antarbhāva leads to
disappearance (lopa). The river, if there comes a mountain or
any other intervention in its way, goes ahead after deflection.
Some distributaries go out of it as branches and that may appear
as the re-emergence (pradurbhāva) of what was submerged. This
process of submergence of some and re-emergence of some
other goes on continuously... (Revisiting 419)
49
through kathā, pravachanas etc. to the masses. Adaptation would mean
changing the mode of presentation of a text, for instance, a series based
on Mahābhārata or Rāmāyana. Recreation would mean taking the text as
a source and creating a new work out of it. For example, many of Bhāsa‟s
plays were based on Mahābhārata. In each case, there is a source text;
there are primary texts, samgraha texts, recensions and a long line of
commentators through which the tradition lives on. This is how, for
instance, the Upanishads and Darshana texts are still alive.
Again, the poetical tradition in India has seen several critical turns
or deflections in the last five centuries, especially after Pandit Jagannath.
The first deflection is the Bhakti period (15th century) which saw the
lokbhāshākarana of Indian poetics i.e. the critical ideas from Sanskrit
branching out into the regional languages and dialects, reaching common
people even through creative works by Mira, Kabir, Nanak, Eknath,
Namdev, Narsinh Mehta etc. The second deflection (1650-1850) was
marked by the prosodic rendition of the tradition in the Indian languages.
An example of this in Gujarati is Dalpat‟s Pingalśāstra. The third
deflection (1850-1900) in the 19th century saw the rise of prose and
consequently, critical discourse now began to be written in regional
languages in prose. Critics like Anandshankar Dhruv and R V Pathak in
Gujarati may be cited as examples here. The fourth deflection happened
in the 20th century, Indian poetics saw English translation of many
classical texts (viz. Manmohan Ghosh‟s translation of Natyaśāstra) and
histories and critical works on Indian Poetics being written in English by
scholars like S K De, P V Kane, V Raghavan, Krishna Chaitanya, K
Krishnamoorthy, Kunjunni Raja, V K Chari, Kapil Kapoor, etc.
50
c) The lokbhāshākarana of Indian poetics happened in the ______
century.
d) Critical discourse began to be written in regional languages in prose in
the ______ century.
e) The river metaphor for Indian Poetics has been given by _______.
If these issues of the day are addressed by the study of Indian poetics, its
relevance will certainly multiply in the twenty-first century.
4. 6 LET US SUM UP
52
Kapoor, Kapil. Literary Theory: Indian Conceptual Framework.
New Delhi: EWP, 2013.
______, Singh, Avadhesh Kumar (ed.) Indian Knowledge
Systems. New Delhi: D K Printworld, 2005.
Nandi, S.K. Studies in Modern Indian Aesthetics. Simla: Indian
Institute of Advanced Study, 1 975.
Sethuraman. VS, ed. Indian Aesthetics: An Introduction. Chennai:
Macmillan, 2005.
Singer, Milton. When a Great Tradition Modernises: An
Anthropological Approach to Indian Civilization. London;
University of Chicago press, 1980.
Singh, Avadhesh Kumar. Discourse of Resistance in the Colonial
Period. New Delhi: Creative Books, 2005.
________. In(ter)ventions: Literary and Critical Discourses. New
Delhi: Creative Books, 2007.
________. Revisiting Literature, Criticism and Aesthetics in India.
New Delhi: D K Printworld, 2012.
________. Samkaleen Alochana Vimarsha. New Delhi: Vani
Prakashan, 2016.
________. “Towards a Compoetics in India”. Quest of a
Discipline (ed. Rizio Yohannan Raj). New Delhi: Cambridge
University Press, 2012. pp 225-246.
Sreekantaiyya, T N. Indian Poetics (trans. N Balasubramanya).
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Answers
Check your Progress-I
1) Aesthetics is a branch of Western philosophy that deals with the
perception of beauty. Poetics is the theory of poetry.„Poetics‟ and
„Aesthetics‟ do converge at a point i.e. the point of aesthetic
experience which is a category of Poetics. This aesthetic experience
has been called Rasa in Indian Poetics and catharsis in Aristotelian
Poetics.
2) „Indian Poetics‟, presently, is a generic term for the conglomerate of
poetics/aesthetics of Sanskrit, many modern Indian languages, Indian
dialects, oral narrative traditions and subaltern discourses.
3) In India, the tradition of Poetics is rooted in the Vedas – the oldest
surviving body of literature. Rigveda (10.71) talks about the creation
of Vāk (speech), the basis of all literature. When men of wisdom
create verses after winnowing words, men of equal sensibility
recognize the meaning.” (10.71.2) Vedic literature views Kavi (poet)
as a drashtā (seer).
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subordination of mind which is evident in almost mechanical adoption
and application of critical theoretical models of the West. The Indian
scholar has become an uncritical receiver of these theories. Thus, it is the
need of the hour that the theorists and poeticians in Indian English and
other regional languages should be prescribed, taught and read, because
these critics have been exposed to their own traditions and at the same
time responded to developments in the field of critical and literary
theory.
II. (a) commentary (b) Adaptation (c) 15th (d) 19th (e) Pandit Bhagvat
Shastri
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