Indian Poetics

___________ Dr.
Babasaheb Ambedkar
BAOU
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for All
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Certificate in Indian Poetics
CIP-01
Introduction to
Indian Poetics
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Ahmedabad
CIP-01
Introduction to Indian Poetics
Editor
Vice-Chancellor, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University, Ahmedabad
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Dr. Jainee Shah
Assistant Professor, Department of English, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University, Ahmedabad
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Prof. Darshana Bhatt
Head, Department of English, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad
Dr. Kirtida Shah
Head, Department of Gujarati, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad
Reviewers
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Head, Department of English, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad
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Retired Professor of English, VD Kankiya Arts College, Savarkundla
Content Writers
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HoD, Department of English , PhD Research Scholar2, Department of English, Gujarat University, A’bad
1
Dr. Ketan Pandya

Associate Professor, Department of English, M. B. Arts & Commerce College, Gondal
Mr. Parth Joshi
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Dr. Jainee Shah
Assistant Professor, Department of English, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University, Ahmedabad
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ISBN: 978-93-91468-04-0
Year: June 2021
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CIP-01
Introduction to Indian Poetics
Block
1
____________________________________________________________________
Unit 1 01
Indian Poetics – Definition
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Unit 2 21
Constituent Elements of Indian Poetics
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Unit 3 33
Historical Perspectives of Indian Poetics

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Unit 4 43
Relevance of Indian Poetics

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UNIT : 1 INDIAN POETICS - DEFINITION
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Introduction to Kavyashastra
Check Your Progress-I
1.2.1 Rasa Siddhāṅta
1.2.2 Alaṃkāra Siddhāṅta
1.2.3 Rīti Siddhāṅta
1.2.4 Dhvani Siddhāṅta
1.2.5 Vakrokti Siddhāṅta
1.2.6 Auchitya Siddhāṅta
Check Your Progress-II
1.3 Let Us Sum Up
1.4 Key Words
1.5 Books Suggested
Answers
1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we shall discuss:

 What is poetics?
 Introduction to Indian poetics
 Basics of Indian poetics
At the end of this unit you will be able to:
 Understand the meaning of poetics
 Have basic understanding of Indian poetics
 Have basic understanding of terms of Indian poetics
 Have basic idea of various schools of Indian poetics
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Oxford English dictionary defines poetics as „art of writing poetry‟ or

„the study of poetry, literature‟ etc. So the term poetics means the study of
literature. Our question is what literature is. Drama, novel, poetry, short
story etc. are considered to be works of literature. So literature is any
work of art that uses language in a creative and imaginative way. Poetics
is a study of such work of art individually or collectively. It attempts to
answer such questions:
 What is literature?
 Why do we write or read literature?
 What constitutes literature?
 What are the qualities of literature?
 How to write literature?
 How is one work of literature different from other?
By seeking answer to such questions, poetics tries to define literature,
understand the nature and function of literature with reference to both the
writer as well as the reader, understand its constituents, classify the works
of literature on the basis of different characteristics, analyse the works of
literature so as to be able to define good or bad literature. Poetics, thus,
can be defined as the systematic study of (1) the nature and function of
literature, (2) its constituent elements, (3) its genres, (4) its medium and
manner, and (5) to devise tools to evaluate works of literature.
Literature differs from other writing in its use of language. Indian

scholars were aware about the uniqueness of language used in literature.
They knew and there was a general agreement that sound and sense are
the two important elements blending of which makes poetry what it is.
The different schools or saṃpradāyas of Indian poetics emerged out of
different speculations about the ways in which the blending of sound and
sense takes place. So we have rasa saṃpradāya, or alaṃkāra saṃpradāya,
or dhvani saṃpradāya or vakrokti saṃpradāya, etc.
Poetics is both science as well as philosophy. It is science because of

the following characteristics
 Objectivity: It looks at work of art objectively. It sets objective

criteria to understand and judge a work of art.
 Analytical: It analyzes works of art according to its constituent
elements. The aim of poetics is to analyze a work of art using
objective tools to understand it. Poetics also analyzes the products
for the ends it serves such as hedonistic, pedagogic, didactic, or
mystic. It also analyzes works of art for meanings and
differentiates the various meanings such as literal, symbolic,
secondary, intentional, or suggested.
 Classification: Poetics attempts to classify works of literature on
the basis of their characteristics and classifies them into different
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genres. It not only distinguishes works of art but also distinguishes
various arts in terms of the medium and manner of works of art. It,
for instance, distinguishes painting from poetry and music from
sculpture and so on.
 Scientific: It scientifically studies the end result of the work of art.
It attempts to seek answer as to what is the experience of the artist
when s/he creates that work of art and what is the experience of
the consumer of that art. For instance, it attempts to understand the
psychology of the writer who wrote a work of art and the
psychology of the reader who reads the work of art in terms of
their experiences. It tells us the possible end it serves i.e.
sensuous, imaginative, cathartic, or transcendental.
It is a philosophy, especially in Indian context, because Indian poetics

attempts to understand the experience a work of art produces in terms of
various schools of Indian philosophy. The works of poetics in India are
concerned with the experience that is aroused in the aesthete and that
experience is looked at from the perspective of different schools of
philosophic thought in India. The three arts, poetry, music and
architecture were believed to present the Absolute, the ultimate truth
conceived by the Indian philosophic thought.
In this sense Indian poetics has two aspects (1) science i.e. technique
of arts and (2) its philosophy. Indian poetics starts with Bharata‟s
Nātyaśāstra, passes through Bhāmaha, Daṇḍin and Vāmana and attains
vastness in the writings of Ānaṅdavardhana, Abhinavagupta, Viśwanātha
and Paṇdit Jagannatha. The works of ācāryas of poetics are written in
three forms:
 Verses: Bharata, Bhāmaha, Daṇḍin, Udbhaṭa, Rudraṭa,
Dhanaṇjaya, Vagbhaṭa I, Jayadeva, Appayadīksita etc. wrote in
verse.
 Sutra-vritti: The concepts and principles are written in concise
sutra and explanations are in the commentary. Vāmana and
Ruyyaka used this form. Later on it was adopted by Vagbhaṭa II,
Bhānumiśra, Jagannatha and others.
 Kārikā: Kārikā means short couplets or slokas. The basic
principles are in Karika and explanations are given in prose.
Ānaṅdavardhana, Kuṅtaka, Mammata, Hemcaṅdra, Viśwanātha,
etc. used this form.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO KAVYASHASTRA
Sanskrit word for poetics is „kāvyaśāstra’. Another word used for

poetics is kāvyamimāṃsā. Mimāṃsā means study, discussion, inquiry.
The word „kāvyamimāṃsā‟ was first used by Rājaśekhara, a tenth century
poet from Kashmir who wrote a treatise named Kāvyamimāṃsā. Prior to
that, the study of literature was known as alaṃkāraśāstra. Other terms
used for poetics are Sāhitya and Kriyākalpa The reason why it was called
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alaṃkāraśāstra was that the ancient scholars thought of kāvya as
something that was characterized by one or the other alaṃkāra or verbal
ingenuity. Kāvya was, for them, embellished with alaṃkāras. Later on,
when other aspects of works of art came to be acknowledged, the term
alaṃkāraśāstra was found to be inadequate. Hence, other nomenclatures
were used.
The central concern of various scholars of Kāvyaśāstra who are

addressed as acharyas has been the language of literature. They were
aware about the creative possibilities of use of language in literature. So
language of literature is at the forefront of discussion among the acharyas
who have written about poetics or Kāvyaśāstra. The Indian acharyas were
concerned about the problems associated with language of literature.
Krishnaswamy aptly observed, “the whole field of Sanskrit poetics may
be regarded as one continued attempt to unravel the mystery of beauty of
poetic language.” The various schools of Indian aesthetics and poetics
study different aspects of language of literature. Dhvani School, for
instance, looks at language as having infinite possibilities of expression or
individuation. Rājaśekhara says it is not the object described in literature
that gives us pleasure, it is the creative use of language that makes it
pleasant. Various schools of Indian poetics have examined the creative
use of language through various perspectives.
Before we proceed further, it is important to understand that in

Indian poetics kāvya does not mean only poetry. Kāvya included drama
also. Dramatists were also known as kavi which in most modern Indian
languages means a poet.

1. Who used the term kāvyamimāṃsā for the first time? What is the
meaning of the term mimāṃsā?
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2. What is poetics?
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3. What are the three forms in which works of Sanskrit poetics are
written?
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4. How did the different schools of Indian poetics emerged?

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1.2.1 Rasa Siddhāṅta
The earliest exponent of Rasa siddhāṅta (theory of aesthetic

experience) is Nātyaśāstra of Bharata. Nātyaśāstra is a treatise on
dramaturgy. Since the work is on drama Rasa Siddhāṅta is founded on
four types of acting – angika abhinaya (non verbal expression or
gestures) to depict the emotion, vācika abhinaya (verbal expression i.e.
dialogue etc) like tone, pitch, etc., aharya abhinaya (costume and other
things, stage properties, etc) to enhance the emotion, sāttvika abhinaya
(involuntary non verbal expression) like wide eyes, change of face colour,
trembling of hands etc. to express the deepest of emotions. After Bharata,
several noted scholars like Bhattanāyaka, Lollata, Śaṅkuka,
Abhinavagupta, Mammata, and Ānaṅdavardhana have added to Rasa
Siddhāṅta.
The origins of Rasa theory is in the sixth chapter of Nātyaśāstra,

the Rasasutra. Bharata writes: विभािानभ ु ािव्यभभचारिसंयोगाद्रसननष्पवि.
The sutra means that the aesthetic pleasure of an emotion happens by the
integration of three elements: vibhāva, anubhāva and vyābhicāribhāvās.
Let‟s understand the three terms in detail. Vibhāva means

something that causes the rise of an emotion. So vibhāva is a cause or
determinant of an emotion. It is हे तु, कािण, or ननभिि. It is the objective
condition producing the emotion like a set of objects, a situation, or a
chain of events that would cause certain emotions.
The primary purpose of Vibhāva is to create the awareness of the

emotions that the author intends to. Vibhāvas are of two types: one is
ālamban Vibhāva and the other is uddīpan Vibhāva. Ālamban Vibhāva
means the person or persons with reference to whom the emotion is
manifested. Uddīpan Vibhāva means the external circumstances that help
in enhancing the emotion. Let us understand this with an example. The
hero and the heroine see each other for the first time. They are in a
garden. The cool fragrant breeze is blowing. The birds are singing. The
hero and the heroine are attracted towards each other. Here, the hero and
the heroine are the ālamban Vibhāva and the garden and the breeze and
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the singing birds are uddīpan Vibhāva. So uddīpan Vibhāva it is an
external stimulus.
Anubhāva means the expressions. In the above example, the

gestures, smile, and glances of the hero and the heroine would be
anubhāva. The gestures are expressive of what is going on the heart and
mind of the two persons here.
Vyābhicāribhāvās are transient emotions which are not primary

emotions but reinforce the primary emotion. For instance, a woman
eagerly waiting for her husband may feel anger for his being late, may
feel anxious thinking that something might have happened to him, may
feel happy at the thought of endearing words he would say upon arrival.
She may be feeling these entire emotions one after the other. They are not
the primary emotions but they reinforce the primary emotion which is
śṛṅgār here.
The interplay of vibhāva, anubhāva and vyābhicāribhāvā leads to

sthāyibhāva. There are eight sthāyibhāvas discussed by Bharata in
Nātyaśāstra and there are eight corresponding rasas.
No. Sthāyibhāva Rasa

1. Rati śṛṅgār
2 Hasa Hāsya
3 Śoka Karuna
4 Krodha Raudra
5 Utsāha Vira
6 Bhaya Bhayāṅakar
7 Jugupsa Bibhatsa
8 Vismaya Adbhuta
1.2.2 Alaṃkāra Siddhāṅta
The Alaṃkāra (figures of speech) school believed alaṃkāra as the

essence of poetry. Alaṃkāra means, in its broadest sense,
kāvyasauṅdarya, or the charm or beauty of poetry itself and, in its narrow
sense, means the figure of speech like simile or metaphor. Up to the tenth
century poetics was known as Alaṃkāraśāstra which shows how
important alaṃkāra was for the early acāryas and indicates the importance
of embellishments in poetry. Bharata mentioned four alaṃkāras in his
Nātyaśāstra and he discussed thirty six lakśaṇas or bhūṣaṇas which have
similarity with alaṃkāra. Bharata differentiates alaṃkāras from lakśaṇas.
For him, lakśaṇas are something integral to kāvya whereas alaṃkāras are
additional embellishments. He was comparing lakśaṇas to sāmudrik
lakśaṇas like lines on the palm or slim waist or bright forehead.
Alaṃkāras are like earrings or bangles. The former were in the body
itself whereas the latter were external embellishments. Bharata has
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mentioned four alaṃkāra, viz. Upamā (simile), Rupaka (metaphor),
Dīpaka (condensed expression), and Yamaka (repetition).
Bharata did not attempt a detailed study of poetics. Bhāmāhā and

Daṇḍin are the first scholars to attempt a serious and independent study of
poetics with an independent investigation into the language of poetry and
alaṃkāras. Bhāmāhā can be regarded as the exponent of this school.
Other proponents of this school are Udbhaṭa, Daṇḍin, Rudraṭa,
Pratiharendurāja, Jayadeva and Appayadīksita. Bhāmāhā does not accept
the view of externality of the lakśaṇas and considers them at par with
alaṃkāra. So he has discussed thirty five alaṃkāras, excluding the sub-
varieties, which includes most of the thirty six lakśaṇas discussed by
Bharata. Bhāmāh took the word alaṃkāra in its literal sense. Alaṃkāra
literally means that which gives sufficiency (alaṃ karoti). So, alaṃkāra
gives sufficiency to poetry to be called poetry. Daṇḍin had 38 alaṃkāras,
Udbhaṭa had 41, Rudraṭa 68, Vāmana 31, Mammata 67, Ruyyaka 79,
Viśvanātha 84, Jayadeva 100, and Appayadīksita had 124.
Alaṃkāra is divided into two main types: śabdālaṃkāra and

arthālaṃkāra. Śabdālaṃkāra means figures of speech based on the word
and arthālaṃkāra means figures of speech based on the meaning or sense
of the word. Anuprāsa is a śabdālaṃkāra as the beauty of the alaṃkāra is
the alliteration or repetition of the same sound. If we replace a word with
a synonym, the beauty is lost. Similarly, simile is an example of
arthālaṃkāra. Here, the beauty emerges out of the meaning of the word
and not the sound. Also, there are ubhayalaṃkāra which is a mixture of
śabdālaṃkāra and arthālaṃkāra. A simile with alliterative sound would be
an example of this. A poet may employ more than one alaṃkāra at the
same time which then is an example of miśrālaṃkāra. Here is an example
of anuprāsa:
कल्पान्त: क्रूरकेलऱ: क्रतक ु दनकर: कुन्दकपरु कान्न्त: क्रीडन्कैऱासकुटे
कलऱतकुमदु दनीकामक
ु : कान्तकाय:
कङ्काऱक्रीडनोत्क: कलऱतकलऱकऱ: काऱकाऱीकलऱपत्र: कालऱन्दीकाऱकण्ठ:
कऱयतु कुशऱम ् कोऽपप कापालऱको न:
We can see here the repetition of the sound /k/. Here is another
example: चञ्चलचारुचन्द्द्रनयने चालयतश्च िे चचिि ्. The two restless and
beautiful moons (eyes) on her face make my heart restless. Here we have
one figure of speech that is anuprāsa which is a śabdālaṃkāra and the
other figure of speech is utprekśa which is an arthālaṃkāra where the
eyes are compared to the moon. So we have here an example of
ubhayalaṃkāra.
Bhāmāhā said that poetic composition is not possible without alaṃkāras

and alaṃkāra comes out of vakrokti (oblique expression) and atiśayokti
(hyperbole). For him there cannot be kāvya without alaṃkāra and
alaṃkāra is not possible without vakrokti. Daṇḍin differs from Bhāmāh
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and holds the view that there can be poetry without vakrokti. For him
alaṃkāra could be of two types: vakrokti and svabhāvokti i.e. natural
expression.
Other scholars also have enumerated alaṃkāras and suggested

divisions also. Most scholars of this school also accepted the importance
of rasa, dhvani, guna, etc. We find differing views about the relative
importance of alaṃkāra in poetry but there is a consensus that alaṃkāras
are what makes poetry as they impart a special character to language of
poetry.
1.2.3 Rīti Siddhāṅta
Vāmana is considered to be the founder of rīti saṃpradāya.

However, the concept of rīti was not completely new sidddāṅta in Indian
poetics; it is Vāmana who developed rīti as a systematic school of poetics.
Vāmana delves deep into the nature of poetry and considers rīti to be the
soul of poetry. His famous dictum rītirātmā kāvyasya (rīti is the soul of
poetry) is unequivocal assertion that it is rīti that differentiates poetry
from other forms of writing like philosophy or other sciences.
Rīti means style or characteristic way of presentation adopted by

the poet. Other words used by other scholars are mārga, gati, pantha, and
prasthāna. Earlier Daṇḍin had referred to two mārgas of representation:
Vaidarbhi and Gaudi. Daṇḍin had said that each has a characteristic style.
Vāmana added third one to it Pāncālī. Other scholars added more rītis to
it. Rudraṭa added Latiya and Raja Bhoja added Avaṇtikā taking the total
to five.
For Vāmana, rīti means a particular arrangement of words and

phrases (viśiṣṭapadaracanā). So rīti is a result of phrasal and verbal
organization in a work of art. Vāmana has divided the organization in
three ways. The first is asamāsa. As the name suggests there are no samās
or compounds in this style. It creates mādhurya and is apt for depicting
śringār, karuṇa and śānta rasa. The second is madhyama samāsa where
only small compounds are used. And the third rīti is dīrgha samāsa where
large compounds are used. This is helpful in depicting vira, bibhasta or
raudra rasa.
Vāmana puts emphasis on guṇas. Guṇas determine the particular

rīti and they are both inextricably bound together and they create beauty
in poetry whereas alaṃkāras enhance the beauty created by Guṇas. Thus,
Vāmana gives primacy to rīti over alaṃkāras. Guṇas are the qualities or
poetic excellences which create beauty in poetry as against doṣas which
are blemishes of poetry. So guṇas are an essential condition for poetry.
Bharata and Daṇḍin both had enumerated ten guṇas. Vāmana retained the
same ten guṇas but he created two sets of the same ten guṇas under two
categories: śabda guṇas and artha guṇas.
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No. Śabda Guṇas Artha Guṇas
1 Ojas Ojas
2 Prasāda Prasāda
3 Śleṣa Śleṣa
4 Samatā Samatā
5 Samādhi Samādhi
6 Mādhurya Mādhurya
7 Sukamāratā Sukamāratā
8 Udāratva Udāratva
9 Arthavyakti Arthavyakti
10 Kānti Kānti
Thus, Vāmana has explained guṇas in terms of śabda (word) and

artha (sense). For example, prasāda (lucidity) as a śabda guṇa gives
lucidity so the text becomes easy to read and prasāda as an artha guṇa
gives appropriateness of meaning.
Mammata names the three rīti as upanāgarikā, pauruṣa and

komalā. Ānandavardhana names rīti as samghaṭanā. Bhoja, like Daṇḍin,
calls rīti as mārga. Kuṅtaka has enumerated three mārgas- sukumāra
marga, vicitra mārga and madhyama mārga corresponding to vaidarbhi,
gaudi and pāncāli respectively.
1.2.4 Dhvani Siddhāṅta
Vāmana‟s contribution is that he gave currency to a thought which

recognized and emphasized both the soul of poetry and the body of
poetry, what makes the poetry beautiful and what enhances the beauty of
poetry. This paved the way for a new theory of which is theory of
suggestion i.e. dhvani siddhāṅta. Dhvani is primarily concerned with the
levels of meaning. It views suggestion as a special function of language
which is exclusively found in poetry as it differentiates it from other non
literary uses of language. Ācārya Ānaṇdvardhana propagated the dhvani
theory but he considered dhvani to be the soul of poetry and not rīti. All
other theories more or less concentrated on the external that is expressed
meaning but Dhvani School pays attention to the suggested meaning. So a
dhvanikāvya is a work of literature where the expressed meaning is
subordinate to the suggested meaning.
Sanskrit poetics is a continuum. When a scholar propounds a new

theory, he partakes of his predecessors and adds his own contribution to
the tradition. Thus, tradition of Indian poetics keeps flowing like a river
taking new turns while still retaining the original flow. So Ānaṇdvardhana
did not negate the importance of rasa or alaṃkāras but believed that rasa
is not made, it is revealed. The object of a kāvya is the ultimate
9
enjoyment of the sahṛdaya bhāvaka i.e. an empathetic reader who is a
connoisseur and that enjoyment is the result of rasa. The manifestation of
rasa is best when it is done through dhvani, the suggested meaning rather
than the expressed meaning.
Indian poetics has always put emphasis on the word and its
meaning. The meaning is divided into three types:
1. Abhidhā or abhidheyārtha or vācyārth i.e. primary meaning
2. Lakṣaṇā or lakṣyārtha i.e. secondary meaning or derivative
meaning
3. Vyaṅjanā or vyaṅgartha or dhvanyārtha i.e. tertiary or suggested
meaning
The three types of meaning in fact are the three functions of a
word, it denotes (abhidhā), it indicates (lakṣaṇā), and it suggests
(vyaṅjanā). For instance, the sentence „the ball is in your court‟ means, in
vācyārth, that the ball is in the court of the person addressed. But in
lakṣaṇā it means that it‟s your responsibility to take the next step or to
make a decision. We know that the speaker is not talking about the ball or
the tennis court but about the responsibility. It is the vyaṅjanā that makes
poetry. The literal meaning has its importance but it just like the outer
body of the kāvya. The soul of the kāvya is the suggested meaning,
vyaṅjanā. We take an example from a Gujarati poem:
હજો હાથ કરતાલ ને ચિત્ત િાનક
તળે ટી સમીપે હજો ક્ાાંક થાનક.
Here, we know the literal meaning of the words used in these
lines. Anyone who does not know Gujarati can look up the meaning of
the words in dictionary and can understand the literal meaning (abhidhā
or vācyārtha) of the lines. But we know that the lines refer to Narsiṃh
Mehta and Girnār Mountain and Narsiṃh Mehta‟s devotional poetry. This
multiplicity of meaning suggested by the words કરતાલ, થાનક and તળે ટી
makes this simple looking lines great poetry. This is vyaṅjanā. A
sahṛidaya bhāvak, a sensitive reader can understand and appreciate this
meaning.
1.2.5 Vakrokti Siddhāṅta
The Indian poetics has always deliberated on the meaning of

words in literature. Just like Dhvani School another school that
emphasized meaning in poetry is vakrokti. Sanskrit word vakrokti is a
compound of two words: vakra (crooked, bent) and ukti (saying or
expression). So vakrokti literally means oblique expression. Kuṅtaka is
credited for the propagation of this theory. He lived between 950 - 1050
AD. His Vakroktijivītam is a landmark work in Indian poetics. When
Kuṅtaka appeared on the scene, Indian poetics had developed
considerably. Ānandvardhana had presented dhvani theory which
synthesized the earlier theories of rasa and alaṃkāra. The concepts of
10
rasa, alaṃkāras, guṇa, mārga etc find a fresh meaning and explanation in
vakrokti theory.
However, vakrokti was not unknown to Indian ācāryas. Ācāryas

have dealt with vakrokti in different ways according to their own view of
language in literature and philosophical leaning. Bharata has mentioned
vakrokti only in passing. Bhāmaha considers vakrokti as atiśayokti.
Daṇḍin understands vakrokti as distinct from svabhāvokti and treats it
like an umbrella term for all alaṃkāras. It was Kuṅtaka who imparted a
new dimension to vakrokti and propounded an elaborate theory of
vakrokti calling it jivita or life force of poetry raising it from a mere
verbal poetic figure to the essence of poetry.
Vakrokti in poetics means that unique way of expression, vaicitrya

or strikingness, which transcends the ordinary expression and imparts a
charm to kāvya. So Vakrokti is a pleasant blending of word and meaning
in an artistic expression which yields artistic pleasure or rasa to the
sahṛdaya reader. Kuṅtaka emphasized the kavi kauśala or poet‟s own
creative power.
According to Kuṅtaka, vakrokti operates at six levels:

1. Varṇa-vinyāsa vakratā: at the level of the phoneme
2. Pada-pūrvārddha vakratā: lexical obliquity or at the level of the
word
3. Pada-parārddha vakratā: at the level of the grammatical form like
tense, case etc.
4. Vākya vakratā: sentential obliquity at the level of sentence
5. Prakaraṇa vakratā: obliquity at the level of episodes or incidents
6. Prabaṅdh vakratā: at the level of the whole composition.
So Kuṅtaka has invented an elaborate system of vakratā from the
smallest unit of language i.e. phoneme to the largest unit of writing that is
the whole composition. He has also elaborated on the various subtypes of
all these six vakratā.
1.2.6 Auchitya Siddhāṅta
Kśemeṅdra, the Kashmiri scholar, is the pioneer of auchitya

siddhāṅta. Auchitya means propriety. According to Kśemeṅdra, auchitya
is the rasajīvitabhūta or the life force of rasa which imparts camatkāra to
kāvya. Like all other siddhāṅtas of Indian poetics, traces of auchitya are
also found in Bharata‟s Nātyaśāstra. Bharata mentions auchitya as one of
the dramatic elements. After him, other scholars have discussed auchitya
in connection with other concepts like rasa, guṇa, alaṃkāras, etc.
Ānaṅdavardhana stressed the importance of auchitya and believed that
anauchitya (impropriety) was a doṣa and it caused hindrance in enjoying
rasa. Rudraṭa uses the word vyutpatti which he explains as
यक्
ु तायक्
ु तवििेक which means sense of propriety. Kśemeṅdra looked at
the issue differently and said that auchitya in fact contributes to rasa.
11
Auchitya means all the components of kavya are appropriate and
are used properly and they are blended together in a befitting manner. So
in this sense, any guṇa, or alaṃkāra will yield pleasure and look beautiful
when it is appropriate (ucita). It will generate rasa. It is the context that
decides the appropriateness. A doṣa might become guṇa if it is
appropriate to the rasa.
So auchitya is a force that synthesizes all the parts into an

integrated whole and this integral parts generate rasa. Auchitya is in this
sense abstract and hence it is difficult to grasp as compared to the other
aspects of poetry like sabda, artha, guṇa, alaṃkāra, rīti, or dhvani.
Kśemeṅdra himself was aware about this difficulty of perceiving or
identifying auchitya. He wrote:
यस्य जीपितमौचित्यं पिचिन्त्यापप न द्रष्यते

It means that the essence of auchitya is difficult to grasp even after
contemplation. But just because it is difficult to identify, it does not mean
it does not exist. Kśemeṅdra details 27 elements of poetry where auchitya
is required. 1. the word 2. the sentence 3. the central theme of poetry 4.
the merit 5. the figure of speech 6. the sentiment 7. the verb 8. the
declension 9. the gender 10. the number 11. the adjective 12. the
preposition 13. the particle 14. tense 15. the context 16. the family or race
17. the vow 18. the philosophical truth 19. the spirit 20. the clear
implication 21. the nature 22. summarization 23. wit 24. the period 25.
thoughtful description 26. the proper name and. 27. Benediction.
What we can observe from the list is that auchitya also takes into
consideration the time, place and milieu as notion of auchitya is related to
time, place and context. It is Kśemeṅdra‟s contribution that he
emphasized the socio-cultural aspect of interpreting literature The 27
elements enumerated by Kśemeṅdra can be divided into three broad
categories like based on the syntactic aspects of language, based on the
semantic aspects of language and based on the socio-cultural aspects. He
explains these auchityas by providing examples of proprieties and
improprieties from various poets and also suggests changes to do away
with improprieties.

1. In which work do we find the earliest discussion of rasa?
___________________________________________________________
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2. Which are the four types of acting mentioned by Bharata?
___________________________________________________________
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3. Explain Vibhāva and discuss its types.

___________________________________________________________
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4. What is Anubhāva?
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5. What is Vyābhicāribhāvās?
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6. Write the eight Sthāyibhāva and rasas corresponding to them.

___________________________________________________________
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7. What is the difference between alaṃkāra and lakśaṇa, according to

Bharata?
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8. What are the types of alaṃkāra?

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___________________________________________________________
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9. What is auchitya?
___________________________________________________________
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10. Which are the three categories in which the 27 elements of auchitya
can be divided?
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11. What are the various terms used for rīti by various āchāryas?
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12. Explain asamās, madhyama samāsa and dīrgha samāsa.

___________________________________________________________
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13. Why does Vāmana give more importance to rīti compared to

alaṃkāras?
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14. What is Ānaṇdvardhana‟s view of rasa and alaṃkāras with reference

to dhvani?
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14
15. What is abhidhā? Give an example.
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16. What is lakṣaṇā with reference to meaning? Give an example.

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17. What is vyaṅjanā? Give an example.

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18. Explain the meaning of vakrokti.

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19. Enumerate the six levels of vakrata in brief.

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20. Write a note about the importance of Bharata Muni‟s Nātyaśāstra in

the origin and development of Indian poetics.
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21. Write a note on the importance of rasa in Indian poetics.

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15
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22. What is poetics? Write a brief introductory note on Indian poetics.

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23. Elaborate on the alaṃkāra school of Indian poetics.

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24. Explain rīti as a siddhāṅta of Indian poetics.

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25. What is vakrokti?

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26. What is auchitya siddhāṅta?

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27. Which school of Indian poetics is concerned with the layers of

meaning in a work of art?
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16
28. Which are the six important schools of Indian poetics and who are its
leading exponents?
___________________________________________________________
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Fill in the Blanks:

1. Poetics is both science as well as __________.
2. Sanskrit word for poetics is __________.
3. The word „kāvyamimāṃsā‟ was first used by __________.
4. __________ is a treatise on dramaturgy.
5. The aesthetic pleasure of an emotion happens by the integration of
three elements: vibhāva, anubhāva and __________.
6. __________ means the expressions.
7. Alaṃkāra is divided into two main types: śabdālaṃkāra and
__________.
8. __________ is considered to be the founder of rīti saṃpradāya.
9. __________ means style or characteristic way of presentation
adopted by the poet.
10. __________ propagated the dhvani theory.
11. __________ is a landmark work in Indian poetics, written by
Kuntaka.
12. __________, the Kashmiri scholar, is the pioneer of auchitya
siddhāṅta.
1.3 LET US SUM UP
Bharata‟s Nātyaśāstra is believed to be the earliest extant work of

Indian poetics. This exhaustive work on Indian poetics continues to be the
store house of ideas for later scholars and thinkers. Indian poetics is a
continuous tradition in which each scholar or achāryā borrows from his
predecessors and adds his own contribution retaining some of the key
ideas of his predecessors and sometimes modifying it by adding his own
interpretations. The ideas like rasa, alaṃkāra, guṇa, rīti, etc are pillars on
which Indian poetics stands tall. The primary concern of Indian poetics
seems to be the use of language in literature and the function of literature
i.e. the ultimate experience that the reader or the Sahṛidaya Bhāvak
experiences. It is both normative and practical. It tells potential writers
how to write good poetry and at the same time it attempts to critically
evaluate works of arts. It is a rich tradition that has an all encompassing
influence on all fine arts like dance, music, architecture, painting etc in
addition to literature. So it is aesthetics in this sense.
17
1.4 KEY WORDS
 Nātyaśāstra is an ancient work on performing arts by sage

Bharata Muni. It is believed to be written sometime in the second
century BC to second century AD. It has 36 chapters and around
six thousand ślokas. It is a comprehensive work on the art of
drama and covers such subjects as dramatic composition, structure
of a play, stage, acting, costumes, make up, direction, music,
musical instruments, and use of music in drama. It is considered to
be the source of most schools of Indian poetics that flourished
later on.
 Kāvyamimāṃsā: kāvyamimāṃsā means poetics. Other words
used for poetics in Sanskrit are alaṃkāraśāstra, Sāhitya and
Kriyākalpa.
 Kāvya: Kāvya, in Sanskrit poetics means not just poetry but it
also includes drama. Similarly kavi means either a poet or a
dramatist or a writer.
 Alaṃkāra: Alaṃkāra literally means ornament. In poetics
alaṃkāra means figures of speech.
 Rasa: Rasa is the aesthetic experience a sahṛidaya bhāvak
experiences.
 Vibhāva: Vibhāva is the cause of the emotion. It is the stimulant
like an object, or a situation or a chain of event that causes the
emotion. They are divided in two types uddīpan Vibhāva and
Ālamban Vibhāva.
 Anubhava: Anubhava means the expressions that manifest the
emotions involved.
 Vyābhicāribhāvā: Vyābhicāribhāvā is the transient and
supportive emotions which are not primary emotions but reinforce
the primary emotion.
 Sthāyibhāva: There are eight sthāyibhāvas detailed by Bharata.
Sthāyibhāvas are permanent, emotional states inherent to
mankind. A work of art has any one of the sthāyibhāvas which
leads to rasānubhuti.
 Śabdālaṃkāra: Śabdālaṃkāra means figures of speech based on
the word as against its meaning or sense.
 Arthālaṃkāra: Arthālaṃkāra means figures of speech based on
the meaning or sense of the word.
 Ubhayalaṃkāra: Ubhayalaṃkāra is an instance where two types
of alaṃkāras are used simultaneously. Ubhaya means two. So here
we have a combination of Arthālaṃkāra and Śabdālaṃkāra.
 Rīti: Rīti means style or characteristic way of presentation
adopted by the poet. It means means a particular arrangement of
words and phrases.
 Asamāsa: Asamāsa is a style in which samāsa or compounds are
not used. It is a simpler sytle. According to rīti school, this style is
useful for śringār, karuṇa and śānta rasa as it has mādhurya.
18
 Madhyama samāsa: In this kind of style only small compounds
are used.
 Dīrgha samāsa: As the term suggests, this style has long
compounds or samāsas. It is helpful in depicting vira, bibhasta or
raudra rasa
 Guṇas: Guṇas are the qualities or poetic excellences which create
beauty in poetry. Guṇa means quality.
 Abhidhā: Abhidhā means the literal meaning of the word. It is the
primary meaning of the word
 Lakṣaṇā: Lakṣaṇā means the secondary meaning of the word. It is
indicative meaning of the word. When the literal meaning if not
hindered, we derive another meaning of the word which is based
on the customary or idiomatic use of the word. It is lakṣaṇā.
 Vyaṅjanā: It is the third meaning of the word or implicative
meaning of the word. It is the suggestive meaning of the word.
When the first and the second meanings are exhausted and there is
a meaning which is not literal or indicative but deeper and subtler
meaning, it is the third meaning. This is vyaṅjanā.
 Sahṛidaya Bhāvak: Sahṛidaya Bhāvak means a reader or
spectator or a performer who has the heart that is same as that of
the writer or performer. One who is a connoisseur and is endowed
with the pratibhā just as the writer or the poet is endowed with the
unique pratibhā for creating a work of art. Sahṛidaya means
sensitive heart same as the writer or performer and Bhāvak means
one who enjoys.
 Varṇa: Varṇa means phoneme or individual sound
 Pada: Pada means word
 Prabaṅdh: Prabaṅdh is a literary work like a poem or a drama. A
composition.
1.5 BOOKS SUGGESTED
 Chakrabarti, Arindam. The Bloomsbury Research Handbook of

Indian Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art. Bloomsbury, 2016.
 Dalai, B. K., and Mu e Ravīndra Ambādāsa. Introduction to
Indian Poetics and Aesthetics. Centre of Advanced Study in
Sanskrit, University of Pune, 2014.
 Garg, Ganga Ram. Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. Concept
publishing company, New Delhi, 1992.
 Raghavan, V. Studies on Some Concepts of the Alaṅkāra Śāstra.
The Adyar Library, Adyar, 1942.
 Raghavan, Venkatarama, and Nagendra. An Introduction to Indian
Poetics. Macmillan and Company Limited, 1970.
https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.142231/2015.142231.
An-Introduction-To-Indian-Poetics_djvu.txt
19
Answers
Fill in the Blanks :
1. Philosophy
2. „kāvyaśāstra’
3. Rājaśekhara
4. Nātyaśāstra
5. Vyābhicāribhāvās
6. Anubhāva
7. arthālaṃkāra
8. Vāmana
9. Rīti
10. Ācārya Ānaṇdvardhana
11. Vakroktijivītam
12. Kśemeṅdra
20
UNIT : 2 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF
INDIAN POETICS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sanskrit Poetics: An Overview
2.2.1 Tamil Poetics (Tolkappiyam): An Overview
2.2.2 Modern Indian Poetics: An Overview
2.3 Major Schools and Concepts of Indian Poetics (Sanskrit,
Tamil, and Modern Indian Poetics)
2.3.1 Major Schools and Concepts of Sanskrit Poetics
2.3.2 Tolkappiyam
2.3.3 Modern Indian Poetics (Dalit, Feminist and Nativist)
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Keywords
2.6 Books Suggested
Answers
2.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we shall:
● Discuss the Constituent Elements of Indian Poetics in detail

● Show how the different types of Indian Poetics that have evolved
to constitute an inimitable literary tradition
● The role of Sanskrit, Tamil and Modern Indian Poetics in the
creation of Indian literary identity
On completing this Unit, you should be able to:
● Understand the distinctive features of Indian Poetics

● Distinguish between the various types of Indian Poetics in the
given context
21
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the beginning, it is important for you to understand that the

structure of Indian Poetics is constructed on the strong pillars of religion,
philosophy, culture, and spirituality. The scholars (the sages/ Vedic
scholars/ Modern intellectuals) have nurtured it with motherly care. The
content of Indian Poetics is critical and aesthetic in nature, it is loaded
with the elements of universality, and comprehensiveness. It is a known
fact that the Sanskrit poetic tradition is vast as an ocean, “it takes into its
strides all the aspects of human knowledge.” Similarly, Tolkappiyam- the
most ancient surviving work of Tamil literature has also established itself
as a literary and cultural monument of great importance. The Modern or
Contemporary Indian Poetics represents not only the great ancient literary
richness, but at the same it “re-interprets”, and “re-contextualizes” the
ancient texts to bring a major paradigm (meaning: a pattern or model)
shift in the discourse (a broad area of study) of Indian Poetics. It deals
with the Dalit, Nativist, and Feminist ideologies and perspectives. For
your better understanding, the following sections will delve deeper into
the discussion of how these different schools of Poetics have emerged and
what are the major constituent elements of this system.
2.2 SANSKRIT POETICS: AN OVERVIEW
You must have studied the basics of Sanskrit language in your

school. But, here we are trying to know more about the literary history
and the origin as well as structure of our ancient Sanskrit Poetic tradition
in detail. The history of Indian Poetics has a vast scope of providing the
profundity (meaning: great depth of insight) of knowledge. The most
significant and widely known is the Sanskrit Poetics. The origin of the
Sanskrit Poetics can be traced back to the origin of Vedas. (Try to recall
the names of these four Vedas and then read further). The four Vedas-
Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Adharvana evidently provide the basis for the
Sanskrit poetics as well as the earliest literary traditions of India. The
themes of these Vedas were dominantly the worship of the supreme lord,
the elements of Nature, and the power of the divinity. It is believed that a
proper scientific and systematic study of Indian Poetics should always
begin with Sanskrit Poetics (Kavyasastra) or Kavyalankara by Bhamaha.
Kavyasastra was formerly known as Kavyalankara, the name
Kavyasastra was given to this discourse by Bhoja. Udbhata‟s
Kavyalamkarasarasam is another noteworthy text in the present
discussion. Later came Dandin‟s Kavyadarsha, which talked about the
knowledge of metres, which can be used as rafts to cross over the deep
ocean of Kavya (poetry). It gives rhythmic structure to the poetry, which
makes it different from simple and plain prose.
22
Mammata‟s Kavyaprakash sheds the light on the importance of
shabd, and alamkara. The Sanskrit poetics emphasizes on the fact that the
Kavya is supposed to be made of Imagination and Emotion. The epics like
Ramayana and Mahabharat are considered as the gems of Sanskrit poetic
tradition. Ramayana is also known to be the earliest works of literature
that contains some of the fundamental elements of Sanskrit poetics. It also
describes the origin of the classical Sanskrit sloka (verse). One of the
noteworthy works that provides an authentic account of the origin of
Sanskrit poetics is Rajasekhara's Kavyamimansa. As per the description
given by Rajashekhara, Kavyamimansa was presented to Lord Brahma
and other 64 disciples by Siva. In the treatise on drama, the widely known
Natyashastra the definite information about the poetics can be seen.
Natyashastra provides many poetic concepts like rasa, alamkara, dhwani,
etc. The Sanskrit poetics evolved with the works and contributions of
Bhamaha, Jagannatha, and Dandin. This information will help us to
understand the various concepts given by these scholars in the later parts
of this unit.
2.2.1 Tamil Poetics (Tolkappiyam): An Overview
This section requires your extra attention, as the information given

here is comparatively new for the learners of your age. It is a known fact
that India is an ocean of different languages, cultures, and literary
traditions. In spite of the vast gap amongst various cultures owing to the
geographical distance and the variants of languages, the splendid literary
traditions of this variety create a large body of literature. The earliest
references to the Tamil rulers like The Cheras, The Pandyas, and The
Cholas can be found in the Indian epics. Cankam (pronounced as
Sangam) marks the beginning of a great literary tradition in India. It is
important to note here that The Tamil Poetic tradition is based on the
pillars of the writings of Cankam period. The poems of the Cankam
literature talks about the origin of Dravidian literary tradition. It is a
popular belief that there are three types of Cankams which were
established by the Pandya Kings. The earliest known Tamil poetry is
known as the Cankam poetry, it was named after the „assembly‟ or
Cankam of poets. The first Cankam lasted for about 4440 years. It was in
the now- submerged south Madurai. A popular belief suggests that Lord
Siva, and other gods as well as sages were its members. The second
Cankam had its establishment in Kapatapuram, it lasted for 3700 years.
Later, Kapatapuram was claimed by the sea and Madurai became the
centre of the third Cankam. It lasted for merely 1850 years. Tolkappiyam
is amongst the few surviving texts of Cankam literature. It is a book of
grammar and rhetoric, and eight anthologies (Ettuttokai) of poetry-
Ainkurunuru, Kuruntokai, Narrinai, Akananuru, Kalittokai,
Patirruppattu, Purananuru, and Paripatal. (You only need to remember
the names as they will be explained in detail in the following units). A
ninth anthology, Pattupattu, consists of 10 idylls (meaning: a short/ small
description of verse) that present a picture of early Tamil life. These
23
works roughly belong to a period that extended from 500 B.C. to 300
A.D.
2.2.2 Modern Indian Poetics: An Overview
Now we have come to a part where the names of the scholars will
sound more familiar as they have often been introduced to us in our
literature texts. It is a known fact that the beginning of the Modern Indian
Poetics was marked with the translation, re-interpretation, and re-
contextualization of the available literary sources and materials. Some of
the known contributors are Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo,
Coomaraswamy, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Sudhir Kakar, Aijaz
Ahmad and many others. The Modern Indian poetics largely promotes
and pursues the subject matters and techniques that directly interest the
Modern society. The Modern Poetics in India has acknowledged the
presence of subjectivity, different marginalized groups and institutions,
socio-political movements, and the re-claiming of one‟s identity. It is a
noteworthy fact that the origin of the Dalit Poetics and the earliest Dalit
writings emerged first in the regional languages. Later, in the year 1990
some of these narratives were translated into English to reach the larger
section of the readers. The Dalit Poetics of Modern India, “situates
personal and collective suffering within a larger discourse of human
rights.” Majority of the Dalit writings consist of “Life writing” that
includes genres as diverse as “autobiographies, autofictions, and
confessional forms.” But, the poetry written by the Dalit writers too, is in
exceptional form. The Feminist writings or the Feminist Poetics of India
questions the dominant Patriarchal structure of the literary tradition of
India which was well-reflected in the available ancient texts and writings.
The writers like Mahasweta Devi, Arundhati Roy, Kamala Markandeya,
and Shashi Deshpande have provided the narratives that discuss Indian
Feminist Movement and its impact on Indian Poetics and literary
tradition. Moreover, the poets like Kamala Das have given a Feminist
voice to the Modern Indian Poetry. „Nativism‟ in Modern Indian Poetics
suggests the return to indigenous practices, as well as one‟s own culture
which existed before Colonial invasion. The most significant treatise that
has been written in this regard is G.N. Devy‟s After Amnesia: Tradition
and Change in Indian Literary Criticism. Later, in the works of Paranjpe
the idea of Nativist Poetics as a part of Modern Indian Poetics witnessed
its evolution.

Choose the correct option
1 The origin of the Sanskrit Poetics can be traced back
to_______________.
a. Vedas
b. Granthas
c. Stutikathas
d. Bodhpath
24
2 A proper scientific and systematic study of Indian Poetics should
always begin with ______________________.
a. Rasashastra
b. Kavyashastra
c. Lavanyashastra
d. Madhushastra
3 Kavyasastra was formerly known as __________________.

a. Akarmkara
b. Kavyalankara
c. Samkara
d. Natyakara
4 The Tamil Poetic tradition is based on the pillars of the writings of

_________________ period.
a. Namanam
b. Cankam
c. Chanakam
d. Rajam
5 The poems of the Cankam literature talks about the origin of

________________ literary tradition.
a. Mauryan
b. Krishnam
c. Madhubani
d. Dravidian
6 The first Cankum lasted for about _____________ years.

a. 2600
b. 1000
c. 4400
d. 6700
7 When Kapatapuram was claimed by the sea ______________

became the centre of the third Cankam.
a. Annamalai
b. Madurai
c. Kanchipuram
d. Kanyakumari
8 Modern Indian Poetics was marked with the ________________

of available material and sources.
a. Editing
b. Filming
c. Narration
d. Translation
25
9 Majority of the Dalit writings consist of ________________.
a. Novellas
b. Drama
c. “Life-writing”
d. News-letters
10 The most significant treatise that has been written in context of

Modern Indian Nativist Poetics is G.N. Devy‟s
________________________.
a. After Amnesia: Tradition and Change in Indian Literary
Criticism
b. Orientalism
c. Resisting Voices
d. Tradition and Immortality
2.3 MAJOR SCHOOLS AND CONCEPTS OF INDIAN

POETICS (SANSKRIT, TAMIL, AND MODERN INDIAN
POETICS)
This section discusses in detail the Major school and concepts that
have formed the enormous body of Indian Poetics. These are the major
constituent elements of Indian Poetics and its variants like Sanskrit
Poetics, Tamil Poetics- (Tolkappiyam), and Modern Indian Poetics that
include Dalit Poetics, Feminist Poetics, and Nativist Poetics.
2.3.1 Major Schools of Sanskrit Poetics
The different Schools in Sanskrit Poetics have been explored by

various critics and scholars in their treatise and doctrines. The study of the
development of Sanskrit Poetics and the related Schools is important as it
provides the intricate (meaning: complex/ detailed) details of this matter
and helps in the better understanding of rather a difficult discourse. The
Schools of Sanskrit Poetics are largely interrelated. Different Scholars
(Sages) have made their valuable contribution to provide a definite
understanding of them.
As per the description given by Rajashekhara, “the rasa was first

explained by Nadikesvara.” But, there are hardly any evidences which
may support this statement. The credit is mostly given to Bharata to be
the earliest exponent of rasa in his Natyashastra. But, in that text the rasa
has been referred with reference to the Drama and dramaturgy. In the later
works it was employed in the theories of Kavya (Poetry). And, thus the
Rasa School was informally established. The scholars firmly believe that
the rasa is the soul of poetry. It should always be promoted as the central
theme in the creation of Kavya (poetry). The doctrine of rasa begins with
a famous sutra by Bharata: “vibhavanubhava- vyabhicarisamyogat
rasanispattih”. Rasa is roughly translated as the Poetic sentiments by
some of the modern critics.
26
Alamkara literally means “the ornaments”, here we can refer to it as the
“poetic ornamentation.” The alamkara School promotes alamkara as the
essence of poetry. They even go to the extent to say that, “a Kavya
without alamkara is fire without the quality of burning.” Bhamaha is
known to be the pioneer of this School. Dandin defined alamkara as the
“qualities conducive to creation of poetry‟s luster.”
The credit of establishing the riti School can be given to Vamana,

who also authored a famous text, Kavyalamkarasutravrtti. Vamana
defines riti as the “particular arrangement of words.” Kamdhenu
commented on Vamana‟s statement and explained that, “riti is the
particular character of poetry which differentiates poetry from
philosophical writing that lacks the sweetness of poetry.” Riti can be
called the “style” or the “fashion” of poetry.
The credit of explaining dhvani theory goes to Acharya

Anandvardhana, who is known for his scholarly treatise Dhvanyaloka.
Some scholars believe dhvani to be the expansion of rasa. In simple
terms, dhvani indicates sound. It heightens the status of poetry. The
dhvani theorists mainly focus on the meaning rather than the word.
Vakrokti literally means “crooked speech”, but poetics defines it

as “unique utterance beyond the common way of speech blended with
charm.” Mere words and meaning cannot create the great poetry, but the
involvement of poetic muse provides it the poetic quality. Vakrokrti has
been defined, and re-defined for many years. Many critics and scholars
have provided varied point of views to explain its concept.
Ksemendra is believed to be the exponent of aucitya. He defined it

as “that which is suitable to a proper thing is ucita.” “The idea of being
proper is named as propriety.”
These are the various elements of a Kavya that have been given
much importance by the various scholars all these years. Each School will
be explained in great detail in the following units.
2.3.2 Tolkappiyam
The scholars of ancient Tamil literature and Poetics have defined

Akam and Puram as the most important elements of Tolkappiyam. The
akam symbolizes the inner truth of human life. Akam, describes an ideal
or perfect human being (man or woman), but akam in poetry represents
the autobiography of the individual from the fundamental universal point
of view. Whereas, puram deals with the various aspects of war and the
phenomenal victory of human life. Paripatal, the eighteenth collection
contains poems of both these types. It contains poems about Vishnu,
Shiva, Durga, and Murugan.
27
Another important aspect of the literary theory of Tolkappiyam is the fact
that, it addresses the use of dramatic monologues in the structure of
poetry. It suggests that in the era the void of narrative poetry and epics
was filled by the series of dramatic monologues.
The attempt by the poet to capture the poetic quintessence by

using living phrases, poetic metaphors and similes have also been
discussed in great detail in Tolkappiyam. Tolkappiyar (the author of the
existing parts of Tolkappiyam) lays emphasis on the poetic sentiments or
rasa which is called meyppatu.
The phonology and morphology of the poetry have been given

much importance. The alphabetical sounds or phonemes (Eluttu), the
duration (Mattirai), the knitting together through syllables (Acai), the feet
and syllables (cir), the integration of feet into lines (ati), the length of the
verse (alavu), the context making the meaning (munnam) etc. have been
discussed at great length.
2.3.3 Modern Indian Poetics (Dalit, Feminist and Nativist)
The scholars have repeatedly suggested in the available critical

doctrines that the “Dalit literary movement” started in Maharashtra, the
home-state of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar. The most notable among the
Dalit poets are “Narayan Surve, Namdeo Dhansal, Keshav Meshram,
Yashwant Manohar, Raja Dhale, Arjun Dangle, J.V. Pawar, and many
others”. The Dalit poetry builds its structure with Dalit sensibility. And,
thus the themes of “isolation, alienation, protest, suffering, revolt,
freedom, bondage” can always be found. The Dalit poetics gives voice to
the “muted” who has initiated a fight against conventions and orthodoxy.
Other major elements of Dalit poetics are the vision and empathy for the
socially, economically, and politically exploited people. The language and
structure of the Dalit poetry is vastly different from that of the
“conventional” or “traditional” poetry in terms of choice of words,
versification, symbols, motifs and themes.
As you all to a certain extent know the meaning of the term

“Feminism”, owing to the media exposure and access to the various
digital mediums, we will not go in the depth to understand the literal or
contextual meaning of it. But, broadly speaking, we can say that
Feminism stands for equality, in terms of equal opportunities, education,
and socio-political rights. In India, access to the English education mainly
gives way to Feminist poetics and literary writings. It is important for us
to know that the women and men who actively participated in this “niche”
literary movement after the Post-colonial independent times, wanted to
give voice to their voicelessness, they simply wanted to break the chain of
Patriarchy embedded even in the literary structure for ages, right from the
beginning, from the Vedic era. However, some references show that the
28
early Vedic era, had witnessed the growth and empowerment of women,
as the references to women Vedic scholars like Gargi and Maitreyee can
be found in the scriptures and documents. Moreover, “Vak, Saraswati,
Ubhayabharati, Lopamudra, Apala, Savitri, Yami, etc. contributed their
verses to be incorporated in the Vedas and Puranas.” It was only during
the Puranic and Smriti ages that the doctrines challenging the status of the
women became prevalent. The example of Manu Smriti has often been
given by the modern Feminist thinkers and writers in this discussion.
During the Bhakti movement, which is a very significant literary
movement as during this time, the devotional poetry flourished and fully
bloomed. And, this was the time when poets like Meerabai from Mewar,
Rajasthan, and Akkamahadevi from Karnataka had shown their
exceptional literary power to be seen through bhajan, bhakti geet, and
vachanas.
During, the Post-Independence era, Toru Dutt popularized the

poetry form; she also became the first woman writer in English. Her
poetry largely covered the traditional themes like nature, myths and
legends, love, family structures etc. Later came an Independence activist,
Sarojini Naidu, who truthfully showed the plights of the modern women.
We all know about Sarojini Naidu‟s contribution during the period when
India was struggling for its Independence. In the modern times, the
themes and subject-matters of these Feminist poems too, have evolved
and changed. The modern poetry of the poets like Kamala Das, Kamala
Markandeya, Gita Hariharan not only show a different struggle for
equality, and dignity, but these women are also trying their hands on
issues that have been silenced for ages like women‟s sexuality, and desire.
In the contemporary literary scenario, the Indo-Canadian poet Rupi Kaur
has bravely challenged not only the realms of themes, symbols, and
subject-matters, but, at the same time she has attempted to mould and re-
shape the entire structure of poetry.
The word “Nativism” can be new for many of you, but if only you
could focus on the word without the suffix, you might understand it in a
better way. Nativism emphasizes on native subject, native culture, and
other native establishments. The ideology of “Nativism” has gained
popularity in the contemporary arena of literary cultures of India. A
recent study shows that this concept was prevalent in Indian literature
even before the Colonial invasion of foreigners, and Colonizers. It is
indicated in that study that, “Bhakti saints like Dhyaneshwar, Tukaram,
Namdeva, Meerabai, Tulsidas, Gurunanak and Kabir actually laid the
modern vernacular languages and their literatures.” You all must have
studied the great creations of these saints in your literature textbooks in
school or at home. Keep those ideas in your mind to have a better
understanding of this concept. One might find the essence of this
“Nativism” in the critical works and essays of Markand Pranjape. The
poetry of Nissim Ezekiel embodies the spirit of Nativism, as it greatly
shows the presence of the use of standard “Indian” English. His poems
29
are also called “very Indian” poems by some of the scholars and critics. In
the poetry of Kamala Das, the readers might find her poetic inspiration
being derived from her memory of childhood and adolescent days.
Jayanta Mahapatra‟s utmost urge to be reconciled with his heroic and
prosperous tradition is not hidden from many of his readers. A.K.
Ramanujan also calls for a revival of the past and “collective memory” in
majority of his poetry collection. Broadly, we need to understand here
that, all these poets longed for the joys of the past, the glory of the
history, the reclaiming of lost identities. You can also read the poems by
the poets that have been mentioned here to understand the concept of
“Nativism” in a better way.

I-Fill in the blanks
1. According to Rajashekhara, the rasa was first explained by
___________.
2. ______________ is known to be the pioneer of alamkara School.
3. Vakrokti literally means _______________.
4. The scholars of ancient Tamil literature and Poetics have defined

________ and _________ as the most important elements of
Tolkappiyam.
5. ____________ the author of the existing parts of Tolkappiyam.
6. Rasa has been called ______________ in Tolkappiyam.
7. According to the Scholars “Dalit literary movement” started in

______________ state.
8. _______________ became the first woman writer in English in

India.
9. One might find the essence of this “Nativism” in the critical works
and essays of ________________.
10. Nissim Ezekiel‟s poems are called ______________ by some

critics.
II-Create 3 Infographics indicating the significant dates, works, and
contributors of Indian Poetics (Sanskrit, Tamil, and Modern). These
should also be elaborated in bullet points.
30
For instance,
Sankrit Poetics Modern Indian

Tolkappiyam
Poetics
• Significant dates
• Contributors • Significant dates • Significant dates
• Works • Contributors • Contributors
• Works • Works
School of Sanskrit The Contributor/ Texts/ Doctrines/

Poetics Thinker Treatise
Rasa Bharata The Natyashastra
Alamkara Bhamaha The Kavyalamkara
Dandin The Kavyadarsha
Udbhota The Kavyalankarasara
Rudrata Sangraha;
The Kavyalamkara
Riti Vamana The Kavyalamkarasutra

Dhvani Anandvardhana The Dhvanyaloka
You can create it based on your imagination and understanding. More

information is supposed to be gathered through research and reading.
2.4 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit you have learnt about:
 The Origin of Indian Poetics and its variants

 The significant works of ancient as well as modern Indian Poetics
 The major schools and concepts of Sanskrit, Tamil Poetics
 The evolution of Modern Indian Poetics in the form of Dalit,
Feminist, and Nativist Poetics
2.5 KEY WORDS
Kavyalankara An ancient treatise on Sanskrit Poetics
Rasa (roughly explained as Poetic sentiments); the soul of

poetry
31
Alamkara Poetic ornamentation
Dhvani The Sound/ Tone of Poetry
Riti- The style of Poetry
Vakrokti Mode of expression in Poetry
Aucitya Harmony and proportion in poetry
Cankam Sangama
Meyppatu rasa/ Poetic sentiments
2.6 SUGGESTED BOOKS
 Balasubrahmanya, N. Translator. Indian Poetics. Sahitya Akademi,

2001.
 Bhattacharya, Sivaprasad. Studies in Indian Poetics. Firma KLM,
1981.
 Chaudhari, Satya Dev. Glimpses of Indian Poetics. Sahitya
Akadami, 2002.
 Indian Poetics and Modern Texts :Essays in Criticism. S .Chand,
1998.
 Upadhyay, Dr. Ami. A Handbook of the Indian Poetics and
Aesthetics. Prakash Book Depot, 2020.
Answers
Check your Progress-I
Choose the correct option
1. a. Vedas
2. b. Kavyashastra
3. b. Kavyalankara
4. b. Cankam
5. d. Dravidian
6. c. 4400
7. b. Madurai
8. d. Translation
9. c. “Life-writing”
10. a. After Amnesia: Tradition and Change in Indian Literary
Criticism
Check your Progress-II
1. Nadikesvara 9. Markand Pranjape

2. Bhamaha 10. “Very Indian”
3. “crooked speech”
4. Akam and Puram
5. Tolkappiyar
6. meyppatu
7. Maharashtra
8. Toru Dutt
32
UNIT : 3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
OF INDIAN POETICS
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sanskrit Poetics: Historical Perspectives
3.2.1 Tamil Poetics: Historical Perspectives
3.2.2 Indian Poetics in other languages
3.3 Journey through the History of Indian Poetics
3.3.1 Sanskrit Poetics: A Journey through History,
facts, and perspectives
3.3.2 Tamil Poetics: A Journey through History,
3.3.3 Indian Poetics in other languages:
A Journey through History, facts, and perspectives
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Key Words
3.6 Books Suggested
Answers
3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we shall:

● Discuss the historical facts and perspectives of Indian Poetics
● Show the journey of evolution of the different types of Indian Poetics that
have evolved to constitute an inimitable literary tradition
On completing this Unit, you should be able to:
● Understand the social, cultural, intellectual, and emotional aspects of
Indian Poetics in making
● Attain a critical perspective to evaluate the Indian Poetics in its entirety
33
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The present unit offers a brief Introduction to the historical

perspectives of the various Indian Poetic Traditions that have been
discussed in the earlier unit. Now, we know it well that the realm of
Indian Poetics is not restricted to the Sanskrit Poetics, but the trajectory of
Sanskrit poetics, Tamil Poetics, and Contemporary-Modern Poetics bring
different ideologies and angles into its being. The given module has been
designed into sub-topics that will give you a peek into the history of the
various parts of Indian Poetics in making. The first part talks in detail
about the Sanskrit Poetics followed by the journey through the historical
perspectives of Tamil Poetics; leading towards the development of
Modern Indian Poetics. As we are now aware of the fact that Sanskrit
Poetics has been developed by a group of scholars who mainly
emphasized on the Kavya and Natya; whereas, Tolkappiyam unfurled the
dimensions of diction and syntax. The Modern Indian Poetics has re-
interpreted and re-contextualized these ancient texts to create a new
lineage of Indian Poetics. Now, let us look at some of the lesser known
facts related to these three streams of Indian Poetics.
3.2 SANSKRIT POETICS: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
The Sanskrit poetics or the Science of poetry has its roots in the
Alankara-sastra. The Alankara literally means ornaments or
embellishment. If one is to analyze all the canonical poetic works of
Sanskrit literature, like Mahabharata or Ramayana, the traces of
Alamkara-sastra will become more and more visible, not only in the
poetical treatment, but also in the choice of words, figures of speech, and
wide range of characters and subject-matters. In the works of later poets
such as Magha, Harsha, and others the similarities are in abundance.
The scholars of Vedic literature have repeatedly pointed out that

the Vedas contain as much poetic qualities in the form of simile,
metaphors, and hyperbole, as any other form of literature. The Poetics in
Sanskrit gives preference to the attainment of pleasure- ananda, and the
essence- rasa. It is important for you to remember that even among the
ancient Puranas- the Agnipurana contains some chapters on Poetics. It
visibly mentions the figures of speech like “yamaka, citra, upama, rupaka,
vibhavana, hetu, etc.”, and the merits as well as demerits of poetic form.
It is evident that the earliest mention of poetics was found in the works of
Rajashekhara, most notably in his Kavya-mimansa.
The earliest discussions were on the secret of the poets (kavi

rahasya), poetic expression, style, alliteration, hyperbole, the art of
enjoyment, etc. It is interesting to know that The Lalitavistara, an
Avadana treatise, which is of Buddhist legends also, can be called an
34
earlier work of Alankara-sastra. In the later years, during the times of
Gupta dynasty, the Poetics flourished in the hands of poets like Kalidasa.
But, the concreate evidences only point out that it was Bharata who gave
a holistic account of the origin of Sanskrit Poetics in his Natyasastra.
3.2.1 Tamil Poetics: Historical Perspectives
In the earlier unit, you observed that Tolkappiyam was the earliest
identified treatise on grammar in the history of Tamil poetics. It deals in
great detail with the crucial aspects of linguistics including the
“morphology, phonology, orthography, semantics, and the composition”
of Tamil literature. It was one of the earliest texts that pointed out that the
Tamil language consists of the two halves, sentamil- classical Tamil; and
koduntamil- the Tamil dialects popular during that time. The Historical
period when Tolkappiyam came into existence is popularly known as-
“Cankam/Sangam”.
Tolkappiyam throws light on the cultural contexts of Tamilnadu

right from the earliest times, and at the same time it also abundantly
contributes to the discourses of Indian Poetics as well as linguistics.
Tolkappiyam has shaped the history of poetic traditions in India for
centuries, giving way to resolve many cultural and linguistic conflicts of
the time.
You will find it interesting that texts like “Tolkappiyam,

Pattupattu (of 10 songs), and Ettukai (anthology of 8 kinds) also
highlighted the earliest forms of religious beliefs amongst the people
during that time. A reader of Tamil literature may find the recurring
references to Murugan as the central deity, Kurinchi- Nilgiris, and Mullai-
the forests, etc.
3.2.2 Indian Poetics in other languages
Besides Sanskrit and Tamil poetics, the other major fields of

Indian Poetics can be found in other different languages, too. One of the
most important amongst these is Persian Poetics, which bears a rich
history, and was very influential during the medieval times.
The story of Mughal invasion is not new for you. As we know,

Persian and Arabic languages flourished during the rule of nawabs in
India. The historical knowledge of India was documented by Albadaoni,
who was amongst those few historiographers of India. He is also known
for his phenomenal work, called Twarikh. Besides him, India found the
gem of wisdom in Amir Khusro, who illuminated the fields of music,
poetry, composition, and chronicles writing. His genuine talent for
theorization can be found in Nuh Siphir.
35
The Modern Indian Poetics and its development through Bhakti
movement in the hands of Srila Rup Swami have to be considered
important as it talks in length about the bhakti-rasa. The exponents of
Dalit, Nativist, and Feminist Indian Poetics have been discussed at greater
length in the earlier unit. The contribution of Tagore, Coomaraswami,
Aurobindo is remarkable in the field of Indian Poetics.

Choose the correct option :
1 _____________ Purana contains some chapters on Poetics.

e. Vishnupurana
f. Agnipurana
g. Garudpurana
h. Devipurana
2 ________________an Avadana treatise, which is of Buddhist

legends also, can be called an earlier work of Alankara-sastra.
e. Gitavistara
f. Sugunavistara
g. Mangavistara
h. Lalitavistara
3 _____________ gave a holistic account of the origin of Sanskrit

Poetics.
e. Muneer
f. Bharata
g. Bhamaha
h. Rajshekhara
4 As per the critique of Tolkappiyam, the Tamil language consists of

the two halves, ______________ and __________________.
e. Sentamil and konduntamil
f. Kotamil and ragatamil
g. Aksharatamil and sentamil
h. Kondutamil and ragatamil
5 Pattupattu consists of ____________ songs.
e. 11
f. 10
g. 12
h. 16
6 ______________ is worshipped as the central deity in Tamil
Poetics.
e. Ganesha
f. Mohini
g. Murugan
h. Shiva
36
7 ______________ was amongst the few historiographers of India.
e. Albadaoni
f. Khushro
g. Gulabdas
h. Amiri
8 Albadaoni, composed a phenomenal work named,

_____________.
e. Rubbaiyat
f. Twarikh
g. Shabdik
h. Khayyam
9 Amir Khusro‟s genuine talent for theorization can be found in his

_____________.
e. Nur Twarikh
f. Nur Shabd
g. Nur Sahibi
h. Nuh Siphir
10 The Modern Indian Poetics and its development through Bhakti

movement in the hands of ____________.
e. Rasika Shri
f. Shri Anandmayi
g. Srila Rup Swami
h. Bhamaha
3.3 JOURNEY THROUGH THE HISTORY OF INDIAN

POETICS
The major sections of the history of Indian Poetics are as given in

the following sections.
3.3.1 Sanskrit Poetics: A Journey through History, Facts, and

Perspectives
As we have already seen in the earlier module, that Bhamaha‟s

Kavyalankara was one of the foundational texts that dealt with poetics as
a separate entity from the dramatic theory. There are six chapters
(paricchedas) in Bhamaha’s work. The impressive theorization dealing
with Kavya- Sharira (the forms of poetry), figures of speech, dosha
(poetic blemishes), Nyaya (epistemology), and shabdsuddhi (accuracy in
grammar). In Bhamaha’s opinion, Vakrokti is the most essential element
of poetry. Later, Udbhata wrote a text- Bhamahavivarana, to provide a
commentary on the works of Bhamaha.
37
In the later ages, Dandin developed a vision on poetic traditions, through
his more systematic approach towards the alankara theory. The form and
language are mainly discussed in the works of Dandin. Vamana, a high
esteemed scholar in the history of Sanskrit poetics marked his way
through his theory of poetry, which was largely centered on the concept
of Guna-riti. His originality in the development of ideas and concepts can
be seen in his Kavyalankara-sutra-vritti.
Vamana mainly approached the techniques of Dandin to introduce

new concepts and ideas into Sanskrit poetics. Other important works were
produced in the Nineth century, with the evolution of the concept of
Dhvanyaloka- the “aesthetic suggestion” developed by Anandavardhana.
The Modern scholars find this concept “epoch-making” and “most
scientific” as it deals with the principles of rasa- dhvani as the “ideal
concept in the appreciation of poetry.” Later on, Abhinavgupta accepted
his arguments and expounded his concepts on the theory of Dhvani. The
monumental work “Abhinavabharati” is attributed to Abhinavgupta.
During this time, another important work, The Dasrupaka was

composed by Dhananjaya, which dealt with the dramaturgy, theory of
rasa, ten kinds of rupakas, etc. The 11th century classic- Vakrokti-Jivita
postulated the Vakrokti school of Sanskrit poetics. It attempted to break
the notion given by the dhvani scholars and had presented a fresh view on
poetic creation and beauty.
The works like Candraloka of Jaydeva and Sahityadarpana of

Visvanatha were designed to present an overview of Sanskrit poetics in its
entirety. The last of the “luminaries” of Sanskrit Poetics was
Rasagangadhara, written by Panditaraja Jagannatha who attempted to give
an account of critical theories related to Sanskrit poetics, followed by a
work on logic.
3.3.2 Tamil Poetics: A Journey through History, facts, and

perspectives
The authorship of Tolkappiyam- the earliest treatise on Tamil

Poetics has ever been a controversial and debatable matter. But, in most
of the cases it has been attributed to Tholkappiyar- a Tamil Sangam poet.
Some scholars firmly believe that Tholkappiyar was a disciple of
Agathiyar. He was born in Adankodu village. It is believed that some
scholars requested him to prepare a treatise on Tamil grammar as the one
which Agathiar, his guru had produced was lost by that time. The modern
scholars claim that another text on Tamil grammar- Nannul was
composed by Pavananthi Munivar in the 13th century that presents a
commentary on Tolkappiyam and its subject matter. You can read more
about Nannul to draw parallel between both the available texts. It has
been said that even after all thee years, one may find it very difficult to
get a properly translated texts on Tamil poetics and grammar.
38
You can also find the books, Interior Landscape, and Poems of Love
and War, authored by the poetic gem of our country, A.K. Ramanujan.
Both the texts mentioned here sing the saga of the beautiful poetry
produced during the Cankam. It will definitely give you an insight into
the spirit and feel of the era. We have already talked about the two major
division of Cankam poetry, namely akam, and puram. Similarly, you need
to remember that there were four goals of Cankam poetry as defined by
the scholars: aram (righteousness), porul (success), ridu (release), and
imbam (pleasure).
We have already read about the major ideas like secularism,

heroism, imagery, karma, dharma, and social reality, etc. that have been
transpired from Cankam poetry. The first book of Tolkappiyam-
Ezhuttadikaram deals with the “formation and combination of words in
Tamil.” Solladikaram- the second book of Tolkappiyam is known for its
information on parts of speech and words. The most significant
information on descriptive use of natural landscape and human emotions
can be found in the third book, Poruladikaram.
3.3.3 Indian Poetics in other languages: A Journey through History,

The Mughal history of India sings the saga of the greatest

literature produced during the rule of Akbar, namely Akbarnama-
attributed to Abul Fazal, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikhand- composed by
Abdul Qadir Badauni, etc. As we have already seen in the earlier part of
the present module, Al Badaoni‟s Tawarikh changed the dimension of
literary historiography during that time. It is important to note here that,
G.N. Devy has given a systematic analysis of Tawarikh, which can be
read to have a better understanding of the critical aspects of this
phenomenal work. The meaning and method of writing history are the
highlighted features of Al Badaoni‟s work.
The Indian Poetics found the freedom of expression in the works

of Mirza Ghalib, who not only composed phenomenal Ghazals pertaining
to romanticism, but also the pious and religious poetry, as well as letters,
which show his extraordinary prosaic talent.
Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay‟s contribution in the development

of Bengali poetics and literature is noteworthy. His poetic ideas are filled
with the spirit of nationalism. He had also elaborated on the concept of
beauty in many of his earlier works. We remember him for his zealous
composition of our national song- “Vande Mataram”.
Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore illuminated the concepts of

aesthetics, art, and beauty in most his notable literary works, theories,
poetry, paintings, and music (Rabindra Sangeet). Gurudev‟s name will
39
forever be taken in the entire world with utmost respect for his
extraordinary compositions like our national anthem “Jana-Gana-Mana”;
and “Amar Sonar Bangala”.
The Modern Indian Poetics, Feminist, Nativist, and Dalit Poetics

have been discussed in detail in the earlier module. You are expected to
revise it for the better understanding of Indian Poetics in other languages.

Fill in the blanks:
1. Bhamaha’s ______________was one of the foundational texts
that dealt with poetics as a separate entity from the dramatic
theory.
2. There are ______________ chapters (paricchedas) in Bhamaha’s
work.
3. Vamana mainly approached the techniques of
________________to introduce new concepts and ideas into
Sanskrit poetics.
4. The works like _______________of Jaydeva and Sahityadarpana

of Visvanatha were designed to present an overview of Sanskrit
poetics in its entirety.
5. Tholkappiyar was a disciple of______________.
6. A text on Tamil grammar- Nannul was composed by

________________.
7. ________________- the second book of Tolkappiyam is known

for its information on parts of speech and words.
8. Akbarnama is attributed to _______________.
9. ________________has given a systematic analysis of Tawarikh.
10. We remember Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay‟s for his zealous

composition of ________________.
II- Read more about the interesting stories/ folklores/ oral narratives
dealing with the development and evolution of Indian Poetics.
Write in detail about the story/ folklore/ oral narrative that you find
most intriguing. Don’t forget to paste appropriate pictures or
graphically represent these narratives, and or the timelines on a
plain A-4 size white sheet.
40
3.4 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit you have learnt about:

 The interesting historical facts related to the evolution of Indian
Poetics
 The various important aspects of Indian Poetics that have been
developed so far
 The important contribution of Scholars to the discourse of Indian
Poetics
3.5 KEY WORDS
Alankara Ornaments, Poetic language

Dosha poetic blemishes
Kavi rahasya the secret of the poets
Paricchedas The six chapters in Bhamaha’s work
Aram righteousness
Porul Success
Ridu release
3.6 BOOKS SUGGESTED
 Balasubrahmanya, N. Translator. Indian Poetics. Sahitya Akademi,

2001.
 Bhattacharya, Sivaprasad. Studies in Indian Poetics. Firma KLM,
1981.
 Chaudhari, Satya Dev. Glimpses of Indian Poetics. Sahitya
Akadami, 2002.
 Indian Poetics and Modern Texts :Essays in Criticism. S .Chand,
1998.
 Lal, Vinay;. (n.d.). Indian Poetics and Western Literary Criticism.
Retrieved from
https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Literature/poetics.pdf
Indian
 Upadhyay, Dr. Ami. A Handbook of the Indian Poetics and
Aesthetics. Prakash Book Depot, 2020.
Answers
Choose the correct option:
1. Agnipurana
2. Lalitavistara
3. Bharata
4. Sentamil and konduntamil
41
5. 10
6. Murugan
7. Albadaoni
8. Twarikh
9. Nuh Siphir
10. Srila Rup Swami

Fill in the blanks:
1. Kavyalankara
2. Six
3. Dandin
4. Candraloka
5. Agathiyar
6. Pavananthi Munivar
7. Solladikaram
8. Abul Fazal
9. G.N. Devy
10. Vande Mataram
42
UNIT : 4 RELEVANCE OF INDIAN POETICS
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Understanding ‘Indian’ in Indian Poetics in the 21st Century
4.2 Colonization of Indian Psyche
4.3 Indian Poetics as a Means of Decolonization
4.4 Is Indian Poetics a Frozen Tradition?
Check Your Progress-III
4.5 Rethinking Poetics in India in the Present Context
4.6 Let Us Sum up
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Books Suggested
Answers
4.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we shall understand:

 Implications of the term „Indian Poetics‟ in the 21st century
 How the Indian Poetics as a discipline of knowledge is instrumental for
the decolonization of Indian mind
 Whether Indian poetical tradition is static or dynamic
 How Indian Poetics has to be re-configured to make it more relevant in
the present context
By the end of this unit, you will be able to understand:
 Difference between „Indian Poetics‟ and „Poetics in India‟
 The process of decanonization and decolonization of Indian psyche
through Indian poetics
 Dynamism of the Indian poetical tradition
 The comparative critical approach to studying Indian poetics to make it
more relevant
43
4.1 UNDERSTANDING ‘INDIAN’ IN INDIAN POETICS IN
THE 21ST CENTURY
Aesthetics is a branch of Western philosophy that deals with the

perception of beauty. Poetics is the theory of poetry. The corresponding
Indian term for Poetics is Kāvyashāstra i.e. śāstra (theory) of Kāvya
(poetry). However, it is to be remembered that the ancient theorists used
the word „poetry‟ and „kāvya’ for literature in general. Both „Poetics‟ and
„Kāvyashāstra‟, therefore, would mean theory of literature in general.
The term „Poetics‟ is often confused with „Aesthetics‟ as „Indian Poetics‟
is often used synonymously with „Indian Aesthetics‟, which is erroneous.
But „Poetics‟ and „Aesthetics‟ do converge at a point i.e. the point of
aesthetic experience which is a category of Poetics. This aesthetic
experience has been called Rasa in Indian Poetics and catharsis in
Aristotelean Poetics.
In India, the tradition of Poetics is rooted in the Vedas – the oldest

surviving body of literature. Rigveda (10.71) talks about the creation of
Vāk (speech), the basis of all literature. When men of wisdom create
verses after winnowing words, men of equal sensibility recognize the
meaning.” (10.71.2) Vedic literature views Kavi (poet) as a drashtā (seer),
“who discovered in his heart, through contemplation, the bond between
Eternal and transitory.” (10.129.4) The Upanishads regard „Brahman‟
(the Supreme Reality) as “Raso vai Sah”. Bhagvad Gita talks about the
phenomenal beauty as the manifestation of the beauty of the Supreme
Lord. The different systems of Indian philosophy viz. Chārvāka,
Buddhist, Jain, Nyāya, Yoga, Sānkhya, Vaisheshika, Purvamimāmsā and
Vedānta – all attempt at elucidating the Supreme Reality in their own
manner, as do the further āchāryas like Shankarāchārya,
Ramanujāchārya, Madhavāchārya, Nimbārkāchārya and
Vallabhāchārya. Bharata‟s Natyaśāstra talks about Rasa as the essence of
aesthetic experience. Later theorists like Bhāmaha, Dandi, Vāmana,
Kuntaka, Ānandvardhana, Abhinavgupta, Kshemendra, Rājśekhara,
Mammata, Jagannātha etc. talked about meaning and essence of literature
through different theories like Dhvani, Vakrokti, Alamkāra, Riti, Guna
and Auchitya schools and built the whole well-framed corpus of Indian
Poetics in Sanskrit.
But the last millennium saw the rise of Bhāshā literatures

(literatures in modern Indian languages). Tamil was branched into
Telugu, Kannada etc while the Apabhramśas became independent
languages like Bangla, Oriya, Sindhi, Punjabi, Gujarati, etc. in the north.
“In any case, all Bhāshās had become literary languages by the end of the
15th century,” states Prof Devy. The emergence of Bhāshā literatures
coincided with invasion of Islamic rulers who brought with them Arabic
and Persian. Literary and critical endeavours in all these languages
44
became a part of India. The 19th century saw the rise of English education
followed by Indian English literature and criticism. The second half of the
20th century saw newer discourses like Dalit discourse, feminist discourse,
nativist discourse, tribal literature, oral and folk tradition etc.
Thus, in the 21st century, use of the term „Indian Poetics‟ is

ambiguous, misleading and irrelevant, if it only refers to Sanskrit theories
like Rasa, Dhvani etc. and ignores these critical traditions in the different
parts of the country. In the opinion of Prof. A K Singh, the problem lies in
the very nomenclature of the term Indian Poetics, “... for there is nothing
called Indian poetics, as there is no language called „Indian‟. Sanskrit and
Tamil may lay claim to it, but „Indian‟ is a denominative term having
regional, cultural and political/constitutional connotations.” (Revisiting
Literature, Criticism and Aesthetics in India 228)
The Indian critical tradition or „Indian Poetics‟ by the end of the

20th century was nothing but a generic term for the conglomerate of
poetics/aesthetics of so many modern Indian languages, Indian dialects,
oral narrative traditions and subaltern discourses. This clarification is very
significant for any student of Indian Poetics.

Read the above section and answer the following questions in about
100 words:-
1) How are the terms „Aesthetics‟ and „Poetics‟ different? Where do they
converge?
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2) How would you define the term „Indian Poetics‟ in the present
context?
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3) Do you think the origin of Indian Poetics can be traced back to the
Vedic period? Justify.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
45
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4.2 Colonization of Indian Psyche
Prof. G. N. Devy in his work After Amnesia: Tradition and

Change in Indian Literary Criticism written during the end of the 20th
century, where he writes of “the violent intrusion of alien literary
pressure”:
The most damaging effect of this phenomenon has been a

cultural amnesia, which makes the average Indian intellectual
incapable of tracing his tradition backward and beyond the mid
19th century... In the Indian context it assumes a special
seriousness because here this situation cripples sensibility
cultivated through long-standing and rich literary traditions.
(10-11)
Colonial encounter with India and the resultant ill-effects of introduction
of English education are well-known now. It was not just a clash between
two civilizations and cultures, But an attempt by the colonizer
to legitimize the conversion of the natives, in every sense for controlling
them. William Wilberforce, a member of the House of Commons, is said
to have told in his speech in 1813 in the British Parliament that:
“We are to enlighten and inform the minds of the subject of our
East Indian Empire... by enlightening the minds of the natives, we
should root out their errors, without provoking their
prejudices…. the principles of the Hindus are so good, their morals
are so pure and better than our own, as we are told by more than one
gentleman, that to attempt to communicate to them our religion and
our modality is, to say the least, a superfluous, perhaps a mysterious
attempt.” (quoted in Avadhesh Kumar Singh Discourse of
Resistance in the Colonial Period 19-20)
Colonialism was thus a cultural project of control that included

certain investigative modalities - the procedures by which appropriate
knowledge is gathered, its ordering and classification is done and then it
is transformed into workable forms (like reports, statistics, histories,
gazetteers etc.) for the English convenience. Thus, the English education
produced such knowledge and knowledgeable minds which were best
suited for administrative purposes. This produced several generations of
intellectual brains who were totally disjuncted from Indian knowledge
systems, Indian Poetics being one of them.
The intellectual consequences of such cultural imperialism are still

reflected in Indian academia decades after the Independence. Prof. Kapil
46
Kapoor, in his Literary Theory: Indian Conceptual Framework, makes
the following observations:
 The relationship between Indian and Western scholars has been

restricted to a one-way receiver-donor relationship generating a
certain subordination of mind which is evident in almost
mechanical adoption and application of critical theoretical models
of the West.
 The Indian scholar has become an uncritical receiver because he
has not been provided access to the alternative indigenous system
of thinking from where he can personally and actively evaluate
both Indian and western systems and models of thought and
knowledge.
 The research taking place in our universities has also been limited
to applying Western models for frameworks and western literary
theory in particular to Indian regional data without thinking about
their applicability and relevance.
 Indian systems of ideas are selected for research for their
pertinence to some Western system.
4.3 INDIAN POETICS AS A MEANS OF DECOLONIZATION
The introduction of English literature in India, as K R S Iyengar

observed, has less to do with the glories of the English canon and rather
more with definite course of hegemonic incorporation. Prof. Singh, in his
article titled “Decolonization in India”, considers decanonization as a
means to initiate decolonization. The colonization of Indian psyche had
become possible by ruling out the Indian knowledge tradition and
replacing it by Western writers and theorists - a sort of canonization. In
Indian syllabi, the canonization still remains because our syllabi are still
Anglo-centric, not allowing even 15 to 20% space in the English literary
departments for the study of Indian authors or critics or theorists.
Today when India as a nation is taking huge strides in the global

scenario, the course content of literary theory in English would find place
for Greek critics like Plato, Aristotle and Longinus, Roman critics likes
Cicero and Horace, English critics like Sidney, Johnson and
Dryden, Germans like Goethe, Schiller, Althusser, Hegel, Marx,
Nietzsche, Russians like Schlovsky, French critics like Saussure, Derrida,
Barthes, Levi-Strauss, Foucault and American New Critics and Raymond
Williams, Terry Eagleton, etc. Contemporary Indian critical academia
appears to be highly influenced by the Western models of criticism,
failing to consider the fact that the emergence of these theories was a
result of the socio-political and cultural tumults/turmoil faced by the
West. Saussure, who can be considered the „Father of Critical Theory‟ as
it exists today in the West, was a Professor of Sanskrit in Vienna. As a
result, it is fashionable among students/teachers/researchers of literature
in India to thoughtlessly cite Foucault, Lacan or Derrida while they find it
47
difficult even to pronounce names like Abhinavgupta, Kuntaka,
Ramchandra Shukla (Hindi), Anandshankar Dhruv (Gujarati), Mohitlal
Majumdar (Bengali), T N Sreekantaiyah (Kannada) or Joseph
Mundeswari (Malayalam). In the departments of other Indian languages
like Gujarati, Hindi and Sanskrit, the Western theorists have occupied a
place of eminence but we have failed to recognise our own tradition and
take it at a global level. When critics in the West, especially in
America, are quickly recognizing and reviving the classical Sanskrit
traditions, Indian academia is largely seen to be dumping our rich critical
traditions out of our ignorance and cultural inferiority complex created by
colonial forces.
Thus, it is the need of the hour that the theorists and poeticians in
Indian English and other regional languages should be prescribed, taught
and read, because these critics have been exposed to their own traditions
and at the same time responded to developments in the field of critical
and literary theory. For example, Namvar Singh in Hindi, Suresh Joshi in
Gujarati or Bhalchandra Nemade in Marathi have all responded to
Postmodernism in English but keeping in mind the Indian context. The
exclusion of native Indian critical traditions would mean their deliberate
rejection without examining them. It would also mean deeming Indian
critical tradition as static and frozen. The suitable path is to allow a
mutual interaction and illumination between the contemporary Western
and Indian critical traditions so that a contemporary young Indian
mind can judge both by their merits and demerits.
To suggest a few, Ramchandra Shukla, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi,

Ramvilas Sharma etc in Hindi, Umashankar Joshi, Suresh Joshi,
Anandshankar Dhruv and R V Pathak in Gujarati, B S Mardhekar and
Nemade in Marathi, Tagore and Shankho Ghosh in Bengali - any of these
would have matched the contemporary English critics well if they had
been translated into English and read.

I. Match the items in column A with those in column B:
A B
(1) Ramchandra Shukla, Namwar Singh (a) Ganesh Devy
(2) Anandshankar Dhruv, Suresh Joshi (b) a cultural project of control
(3) Decanonization (c) Marathi critics
(4) Colonization (d) House of Commons
(5) William Wilburforce (e) leads to decolonization
(6) Cultural Amnesia (f) Hindi critics
(7) B S Mardhekar, Bhalchandra Nemade (g) Gujarati critics
48
II. Does intellectual imperialism still prevail in the Indian academic
world, especially in higher education? How can Indian Poetics be a
means of decolonizing the Indian mind? Think upon the issue and
write a critical response in about 200 words:
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4.4 IS INDIAN POETICS A FROZEN TRADITION?
Indian critical tradition is a continuous and cumulative tradition of

thinkers, texts and conceptual structures in different areas of human
thought. Pandit Bhagavat Shastri uses the metaphor of Gangā for it:
The Indian critical tradition flows like the sacred river Gangā
after its origin (āvirbhāva) and many tributaries join on its way
and get merged into it (antarbhāva). The antarbhāva leads to
disappearance (lopa). The river, if there comes a mountain or
any other intervention in its way, goes ahead after deflection.
Some distributaries go out of it as branches and that may appear
as the re-emergence (pradurbhāva) of what was submerged. This
process of submergence of some and re-emergence of some
other goes on continuously... (Revisiting 419)
Although it is believed that nothing significant happened in Indian

poetics and that there has been a complete void in the field after the 17th
century i.e. post-Jagannath period, this is not completely true. Dynamic
communities like India would not allow their thought systems to die
easily. Especially an oral tradition-based culture like India has certain
inbuilt mechanisms for the recovery of knowledge. Kapil Kapoor in his
article “Indian Knowledge Systems: Nature, Philosophy and Character”,
counts seven renewal mechanisms that keep the Indian poetical tradition
alive even today. Some of them are: Commentary, Adaptations, Popular
Exposition, Recreation, etc. Bhāshya / tikā (commentary) on original
knowledge texts (e.g. Patanjali‟s Mahābhāshya, Shankaracharya‟s
bhāshyas on Upanishads, etc.) ensures the availability of the text, the
ability to understand it and the contemporary relevance of the text. In the
twentieth century, Sri Aurobindo has written commentaries on Vedas and
Upanishads. The second renewal mechanism is Translation - all major
classical poetical texts were translated in the 20th century into English
and many Indian languages. Popular exposition is reaching the texts
49
through kathā, pravachanas etc. to the masses. Adaptation would mean
changing the mode of presentation of a text, for instance, a series based
on Mahābhārata or Rāmāyana. Recreation would mean taking the text as
a source and creating a new work out of it. For example, many of Bhāsa‟s
plays were based on Mahābhārata. In each case, there is a source text;
there are primary texts, samgraha texts, recensions and a long line of
commentators through which the tradition lives on. This is how, for
instance, the Upanishads and Darshana texts are still alive.
Again, the poetical tradition in India has seen several critical turns
or deflections in the last five centuries, especially after Pandit Jagannath.
The first deflection is the Bhakti period (15th century) which saw the
lokbhāshākarana of Indian poetics i.e. the critical ideas from Sanskrit
branching out into the regional languages and dialects, reaching common
people even through creative works by Mira, Kabir, Nanak, Eknath,
Namdev, Narsinh Mehta etc. The second deflection (1650-1850) was
marked by the prosodic rendition of the tradition in the Indian languages.
An example of this in Gujarati is Dalpat‟s Pingalśāstra. The third
deflection (1850-1900) in the 19th century saw the rise of prose and
consequently, critical discourse now began to be written in regional
languages in prose. Critics like Anandshankar Dhruv and R V Pathak in
Gujarati may be cited as examples here. The fourth deflection happened
in the 20th century, Indian poetics saw English translation of many
classical texts (viz. Manmohan Ghosh‟s translation of Natyaśāstra) and
histories and critical works on Indian Poetics being written in English by
scholars like S K De, P V Kane, V Raghavan, Krishna Chaitanya, K
Krishnamoorthy, Kunjunni Raja, V K Chari, Kapil Kapoor, etc.
Check Your Progress-III

I. Do you think the metaphor of a flowing river is correct for Indian
poetical tradition? Or is it a static, frozen tradition? Explain in your
own words.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
II. Read the above section and fill in the gaps:

a) The word bhshya / tikā means ______.
b) Texts like Rāmāyana and Mahābhārata have still been preserved with
common people through ________ renewal mechanism.
50
c) The lokbhāshākarana of Indian poetics happened in the ______
century.
d) Critical discourse began to be written in regional languages in prose in
the ______ century.
e) The river metaphor for Indian Poetics has been given by _______.
4. 5 RETHINKING POETICS IN INDIA IN THE PRESENT

CONTEXT
While thinking of poetics in India in the present context, two

points are significant. First, to understand the holistic picture of poetics in
India today, i.e. it is not just a body of ancient theories of the past, but a
dynamic tradition that has branched into the tributaries of modern Indian
languages including English. Thus, a true student of Indian Poetics has a
multi-fold responsibility of becoming aware of the diverse fertile minds in
various Indian critical traditions like Ramchandra Shukla, Hazari Prasad
Dwivedi, Ramvilas Sharma etc. in Hindi, Umashankar Joshi, Suresh
Joshi, Anandshankar Dhruv, R V Pathak, Sitanshu Yashashchandra in
Gujarati, B S Mardhekar and Nemade in Marathi, Tagore, Shankho
Ghosh etc. in Bengali, Hiriyanna, Ananda Coomaraswamy, K.
Krishnamoorthy, Sri Aurobindo, Tagore, Krishna Rayan, etc. and
similarly in other Indian languages too.
Second, there is a considerable absence of dialogue found in

Indian academia between the Western poetics, classical Sanskrit poetics
and the poetical traditions of modern Indian languages like Gujarati,
Hindi, Bengali, Marathi. This is why Indian students are uncritical
consumers of theory from the West. While the poetical framework in
most of the north Indian languages is derived directly or indirectly from
Sanskrit, that in South Indian languages from Tamil poetics, and that
English poetics is now so much a part of India, the absence of a bilateral
give and take between these critical traditions would certainly result into
their perception as mutually exclusive and therefore static. The scholars
mentioned above have deeply studied European-American poetics along
with native poetical tradition and tried to locate their relevance in the
Indian context. Thus, a comparative critical-theoretical approach to
studying poetics in India is the need of the day.
A mature attempt to compare poetical theories in India with those

in European, American, Arabic, Persian, Chinese or Japanese traditions
can certainly open up new avenues. These traditions can be placed side-
by-side, their thematic concerns, genealogy, historiography, influence
upon each other and mutual reception can be considered. A few examples
of this can be: comparing the Alamkāra tradition in Sanskrit and Tamil
poetics, comparative study of the theory of Vakrokti and Russian
Formalism, comparative study of Riti and Stylistics, comparing Horace‟s
principle of decorum with Kshemendra‟s Auchitya, and many more.
Besides this, the subaltern discourses in different Indian languages can
51
also be studied comparatively under the ambit of Indian poetics. For
example, how is feminism in Gujarati different from that in Tamil or
Malayalam? Or how is the Dalit discourse in Marathi different from
Telugu in terms of the issues it addresses?
If these issues of the day are addressed by the study of Indian poetics, its
relevance will certainly multiply in the twenty-first century.
4. 6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have discussed:

 Difference between „Indian Poetics‟ and „Poetics in India‟
 The process of decanonization and decolonization of Indian
psyche through Indian poetics
 Dynamism of the Indian poetical tradition through various
mechanisms
 How a comparative critical approach to Indian poetics can make it
more relevant in the present time
4.7 KEY WORDS
Aesthetics a branch of Western philosophy that deals with the

perception of beauty.
Poetics Poetics is the theory of poetry. The corresponding
Indian term for Poetics is Kāvyashāstra
Decolonization a reverse process of colonization
Decanonization Revising the canon in a way that reverses the
established authors and works
Bhāshā literature literature and criticism in modern Indian languages
and criticism
4.8 BOOKS SUGGESTED
 Chaitanya, Krishna. Sanskrit Poetics: A Critical and Comparative

Study. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1965.
 De, S.K. History of Sanskrit Poetics. Calcutta; Pirma K .1, 1961.
 Devy, G N. After Amnesia. Bombay: Orient Longman, 1992.
 ________. Indian Literary Criticism: Theory and Interpretation.
Hyderabad, Orient Longman, 2003.
 Kane, P.V. History of Sanskrit Poetics. Delhi: Motilal
Banarasidas, 1961.
 _______. Essays in Sanskrit Criticism. Dharwar: Karnataka
University. 1974.
 _______. Indian literary Theeories: A Reappraisal. New Delhi,
Motilal Banarasidas, 1985.
52
 Kapoor, Kapil. Literary Theory: Indian Conceptual Framework.
New Delhi: EWP, 2013.
 ______, Singh, Avadhesh Kumar (ed.) Indian Knowledge
Systems. New Delhi: D K Printworld, 2005.
 Nandi, S.K. Studies in Modern Indian Aesthetics. Simla: Indian
Institute of Advanced Study, 1 975.
 Sethuraman. VS, ed. Indian Aesthetics: An Introduction. Chennai:
Macmillan, 2005.
 Singer, Milton. When a Great Tradition Modernises: An
Anthropological Approach to Indian Civilization. London;
University of Chicago press, 1980.
 Singh, Avadhesh Kumar. Discourse of Resistance in the Colonial
Period. New Delhi: Creative Books, 2005.
 ________. In(ter)ventions: Literary and Critical Discourses. New
Delhi: Creative Books, 2007.
 ________. Revisiting Literature, Criticism and Aesthetics in India.
New Delhi: D K Printworld, 2012.
 ________. Samkaleen Alochana Vimarsha. New Delhi: Vani
Prakashan, 2016.
 ________. “Towards a Compoetics in India”. Quest of a
Discipline (ed. Rizio Yohannan Raj). New Delhi: Cambridge
University Press, 2012. pp 225-246.
 Sreekantaiyya, T N. Indian Poetics (trans. N Balasubramanya).
New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2001.
Answers
1) Aesthetics is a branch of Western philosophy that deals with the
perception of beauty. Poetics is the theory of poetry.„Poetics‟ and
„Aesthetics‟ do converge at a point i.e. the point of aesthetic
experience which is a category of Poetics. This aesthetic experience
has been called Rasa in Indian Poetics and catharsis in Aristotelian
Poetics.
2) „Indian Poetics‟, presently, is a generic term for the conglomerate of
poetics/aesthetics of Sanskrit, many modern Indian languages, Indian
dialects, oral narrative traditions and subaltern discourses.
3) In India, the tradition of Poetics is rooted in the Vedas – the oldest
surviving body of literature. Rigveda (10.71) talks about the creation
of Vāk (speech), the basis of all literature. When men of wisdom
create verses after winnowing words, men of equal sensibility
recognize the meaning.” (10.71.2) Vedic literature views Kavi (poet)
as a drashtā (seer).

I. (1) –f (2) – g (3) – e (4) – b (5) – d (6) – a (7) – c
II. The relationship between Indian and Western scholars has been
restricted to a one-way receiver-donor relationship generating a certain
53
subordination of mind which is evident in almost mechanical adoption
and application of critical theoretical models of the West. The Indian
scholar has become an uncritical receiver of these theories. Thus, it is the
need of the hour that the theorists and poeticians in Indian English and
other regional languages should be prescribed, taught and read, because
these critics have been exposed to their own traditions and at the same
time responded to developments in the field of critical and literary
theory.
Check your progress-III

I. The Indian critical tradition flows like the sacred river Gangā after its
origin (āvirbhāva) and many tributaries join on its way and get merged
into it (antarbhāva). The antarbhāva leads to disappearance (lopa). The
river, if there comes a mountain or any other intervention in its way, goes
ahead after deflection. Some distributaries go out of it as branches and
that may appear as the re-emergence (pradurbhāva) of what was
submerged.
II. (a) commentary (b) Adaptation (c) 15th (d) 19th (e) Pandit Bhagvat
Shastri
*****
54

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___________ Dr.

Certificate in Indian Poetics

On the occasion of the birth anniversary of Babasaheb Ambedkar, the Gujarat

Prof. (Dr.) Ami Upadhyay

Programme Advisory Committee

Dr. Ketan Pandya

© June 2021 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University – Ahmedabad

Certificate in Indian Poetics

Historical Perspectives of Indian Poetics

Relevance of Indian Poetics

In this unit, we shall discuss:

Oxford English dictionary defines poetics as „art of writing poetry‟ or

Literature differs from other writing in its use of language. Indian

Poetics is both science as well as philosophy. It is science because of

 Objectivity: It looks at work of art objectively. It sets objective

It is a philosophy, especially in Indian context, because Indian poetics

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO KAVYASHASTRA

Sanskrit word for poetics is „kāvyaśāstra’. Another word used for

The central concern of various scholars of Kāvyaśāstra who are

Before we proceed further, it is important to understand that in

Check Your Progress-I

4. How did the different schools of Indian poetics emerged?

1.2.1 Rasa Siddhāṅta

The earliest exponent of Rasa siddhāṅta (theory of aesthetic

The origins of Rasa theory is in the sixth chapter of Nātyaśāstra,

Let‟s understand the three terms in detail. Vibhāva means

The primary purpose of Vibhāva is to create the awareness of the

Anubhāva means the expressions. In the above example, the

Vyābhicāribhāvās are transient emotions which are not primary

The interplay of vibhāva, anubhāva and vyābhicāribhāvā leads to

No. Sthāyibhāva Rasa

1.2.2 Alaṃkāra Siddhāṅta

The Alaṃkāra (figures of speech) school believed alaṃkāra as the

Bharata did not attempt a detailed study of poetics. Bhāmāhā and

Alaṃkāra is divided into two main types: śabdālaṃkāra and

Bhāmāhā said that poetic composition is not possible without alaṃkāras

Other scholars also have enumerated alaṃkāras and suggested

1.2.3 Rīti Siddhāṅta

Vāmana is considered to be the founder of rīti saṃpradāya.

Rīti means style or characteristic way of presentation adopted by

For Vāmana, rīti means a particular arrangement of words and

Vāmana puts emphasis on guṇas. Guṇas determine the particular

Thus, Vāmana has explained guṇas in terms of śabda (word) and

Mammata names the three rīti as upanāgarikā, pauruṣa and

1.2.4 Dhvani Siddhāṅta

Vāmana‟s contribution is that he gave currency to a thought which

Sanskrit poetics is a continuum. When a scholar propounds a new

1.2.5 Vakrokti Siddhāṅta

The Indian poetics has always deliberated on the meaning of

However, vakrokti was not unknown to Indian ācāryas. Ācāryas

Vakrokti in poetics means that unique way of expression, vaicitrya

According to Kuṅtaka, vakrokti operates at six levels:

1.2.6 Auchitya Siddhāṅta

Kśemeṅdra, the Kashmiri scholar, is the pioneer of auchitya

So auchitya is a force that synthesizes all the parts into an

यस्य जीपितमौचित्यं पिचिन्त्यापप न द्रष्यते

Check Your Progress-II

3. Explain Vibhāva and discuss its types.

6. Write the eight Sthāyibhāva and rasas corresponding to them.

7. What is the difference between alaṃkāra and lakśaṇa, according to

8. What are the types of alaṃkāra?

12. Explain asamās, madhyama samāsa and dīrgha samāsa.

13. Why does Vāmana give more importance to rīti compared to