UNIT 1

Fluency and accuracy

They are good example of something which hasn’t changed very much. They are those
which are used by the majority of fluent, educated species of the language in international
communication. They haven’t changed very much.

Different styles of Englishes

Formal, informal, speech, written, writing emails, chatting online, academic essay. There is
also a large number of different varieties of english. They may be local community, social
groups in any native speaking or profession.

Vocabulary

A major finding has been the overall importance of vocabulary knoewledge, particularly for
reading comprehension. In advance , methodologies which recommended spending most
time teaching grammar, assuming that the vocabulary would take care of itself.

Writing

Writing has ben for less useful for communicative purposes than the other three skills. So
communicative writing activities are less cmmon in in teaching materials. However, the
importance of informal writing for communication has increasde immensely in the last
generation due to the widespread use of email, online chat, blogging etc.

English as an International language

Perhaps the most important change in the field of English language teaching in the last 50?
years has been its primary function from being mainly the native language of nations such as
the UK or USA, to being mainly a global means of communication. So english is no longer a
foreign language. But it is first an international language. This development has brought
with it a number of changes in the principles and practice of English language teaching.

Language standards

In the last years varieties of english like british or american weren’t important to teach. The
important thing is that which lexical, grammatical, phonological or orthographical forms are
most likely to be understood and used worldwide. These are the ones we should usually be
teaching. So being understandable and acceptable is enough for learners.

The Native and non-NATIVE English teacher

In the world, non-native teachers are more than native teachers. Because english is
international language, non-native teachers are good for learners. They have been through
the same learning process as their students. They had same problems that are likely to
come up and how to deal with them.

The Place of English Literature and the Culture of the English speaking peoples

Before the last years, books contained culture of English-speaking peoples as the ‘target
culture’ and reading texts in course materials should be copied or adopted from original
texts fromm English-speaking countries. This also has changed. Today courses include both
texts from English-speaking countries, and those written in english or translated into it from
anywhere in the world. Most learners need to become aware of a diverse, international,
cosmopolitan set of cultural customs, literature, art forms and so on, rather than those of a
single community.

The place of the L1

In the past, the aim of an English course was to make the learners communicative like
native. But today, for students , English is a tool like computer skills, an ability they need to
master in order to function effectively in today’s world. So, there is no particular reason to
ban the use of the L1 in the classroom.

Language Teaching Approaches and Methodologies

Approach: a principle model of language teaching/ learning.

Grammar translation: It is based on explanations of grammar rules and translation of texts

from and to the target language. It doesn’t contain oral or communicative skills very much.

The direct method: It emphasize oral communication more and it bans the use of the L1 in
the class.

Audio-lingualism: For it, laguage can be learnt by repeating and memorizing. Learning
language is a process of habit. Most clasroom procedures are speech-based.

PPP: It is based on a skill-learning theory of language acquisition. It emphasizes grammatical

accuracy and is very teacher-dominated.

The communicative approach: It is based on the asumptions that language is

communication and that we learn it best through naturalistic acquisition processes. The
conveying of meanings is seen as more than accuracy.

The past-communicative approach: Kitapta sayfa 9

MOTIVATION: It is a crucial factor in successful language learning, and what teachers can
do to enhance such motivation.
Integrative and istrumental motivation: Integrative motivation is that learners desire to
learn the language for integrating into the community of speakers of that language.
Instrumental motivation is that learners want to learn the language for material or
educational benefit for example to get a better job.

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation: Extrinsic motivation is based on the perceived benefits of
success in learning and penalties of failure. Intrinsic motivation is that associated
with the activity of language learning itself whether it is seen as interesting or boring.

Self and personal motivation

Teachers can influence learners’ motivation in 3 main ways:

1- By teaching every opportunity to show them how important it is for them to know
English. It is important for finding a job or having a good education.
2- By fostering their self-image as successful language learners. We can give them tests
only when we are sure they will be able to perform well. We need to be careful to
provide negative or corrective fededback supportively.
3- By ensuring that classroom activities are intreresting. Use of game-like activities

Unit 2 THE LESSON

There are aspects of a lesson which may be less obvious. These can be represential by
metaphors such as the following.

Metaphors are reflecting reality

Cooperative Interaction like the wedding, the football game. In this image of lesson the
most important thing is the dynamic relationship among students, or between students and
teacher. It promotes the participation of all members of the class.

Goal oriented effort involving hardwork: like climbing on a mountain. This image indicated
that there is a clear and valuable goal, the necessity of effort to attain it and if it is achieved,
it makes feel satisfied and successful, or if it is not, it makes feel failure and disappointment.

An interesting or enjoyable experience: like tv show, football game. The main point is that
participants should enjoy it, so be motivated to attend while it is going on, as distinct from
feeling pleased with the results.

A role-based culture: In a role-based culture, roles of participants are predetermined. The

role of teacher typically involves responsibility and activity, and that of students
responsiveness and receptivity.
A social event with elements of ceremony: wedding or television show. All roles are certain.
Certain set behaviors occur everytime for example, intro, ending.

A series of free choices: Participants are free o do their own thing within a set of choices or
relatively loose structure. They make their own decisions.

FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER IN THE LESSON

Instructor: The teacher should explain information about the language like, sounds, letters,
words etc. correctly.

Activator: The teacher should activate the students maybe with tasks and get them to do
something that involves engaging with the forms, meanings and uses of the language.

Model: The teacher should be a model for students with the ability to use language like
accent, writing.

Provider of feedback: The teacher provides feedback on students oral or written production.
In order to progress, students need to know what they are doing right or well, or wrong and
not so well. So they can improve.

Supporter: The teacher encourages students, help them undrestand and produce
appropriate language. This helps the students to become independent learners even outside
the lesson.

Assessor: Teachers have to spend some lesson time assessing students. It shows how the
process is going.

Manager: The management of the classroom process includes activities such as bringing the
class together in lesson like groupwork. You need to make sure that individual members of
the class are attending and responding appropriately.

Motivator: The level of initation student motivation may vary but whether the language-
learning process of the lesson is isteresting and motivating or boring and demotivating is
largely up to the teacher. Unwilling students can be motivated by teacher to attend.

Interaction Patterns in the lesson

The most common type of classroom interaction is ‘Initation- Response- Feedback’.

The teacher initates an exchange, usually in the form of a question, students respond, the
teacher gives feedback. Pattern types are;

1- Teacher talk: This is silent response, like writing something down.

2- Choral Responses : Repetition or the teacher gives a cue which is responded to in
chores.
 3- Closed-ended questions: The teacher asks a question that has just one right
response.
4- Open- ended questions: The teacher asks a question that has a number of right
answer so more students response.
5- Full class interaction: There is a topic that is debated by students or a language task.
The teacher acts as discussion leader.
6- Students initiates, teacher answers: Students asks a question and the teacher
responds as the interviewee.
7- Individual work: Students work independently on an activity or task.
8- Collaboration: Students work in pair or small groups on an activity assigned by the
teacher to try to achieve the best results they can by collaborating.
9- Group work: Students work in pair or small groups on interaction based tasks:
conveying information to each other. This is different from collaboration because
here the task itself requires interaction.
10- Self- access: Students choose themselves what they want to do and work
autonomously on paper based or computer based tasks.

Appropriate use of different interaction patterns

1- Comprehension check: Being sure the class has unerstood the reading passage, using
the comprehension questions in the book.
2- Familiarization with text: To get them familiar with the text through reading, as they
are going to have to pss on exam on it.
3- Oral Fluency: There are little students who need more practice in talking. The
teacher gives them a discussion topic.
4- Grammar check: Using an exercise in the book to make sure whether students
understand the grammar structer or not.
5- Writing: Students need to improve their writing so give them a writing topic.
6- Grammar practice:
7- New vocabulary: Drawing their attention to some new vocabulary in a new text.

Comment

1- Comprehension check: Closed or open-ended questions, individual work.

2- Familiarization with text: Individual work in the form of silent reading.
3- Oral fluency: Group work.
4- Grammar check: Individual work to ensure that each student has the chance to
answer the questions.
5- Writing: Individual work.
6- Grammar Practice: Individually, in collaborative pairs, or through full- class
interaction.
 7- New vocabulary: Present and explain new vocabs.

LESSON PREPARATION

Work on listening or reading text, with associated comprehension tasks.

An oral communicative task, such as discussion of a controversial topic.

Presentation and explanation of a grammatical part.

Presentation and explanation of a vocabulary.

Exercises on linguistic usages, such as grammar, vocab, pronounciation, spelling or

punctuation.

A writing task.

Silent reading of simplified readers chosen by the students.

Review of homeworks.

Preparation for a test.

LESSON VARIATION

Lesson may vary in a number of ways;

Tempo: Activities may be fast-moving such as guessing games or slow such as reading.

Organization: The students may work indiviudally, in pairs, in groups, or as a full class
interacting within the teacher.

Material: Lessons may be based on the coursebook but it is good to at least some of the
time working on teacher or student- initiates tasks or computer-based materials.

Mode and skill: Activites may be based on written or the spoken language.

Difficulty: Activities may be easy or difficult, requiring concentration and effort.

Topic: The language teaching part and topic may change from an activity to another.

Mood: Activities vary also in mood; light and fun-based versus serious and profound, tense
versus relaxed and so on.

Stir-settle: Somme activities excite students, others like dictations, Have the effect of
calming them down.

Active- passive: Students can be active or passive.

PRACTICAL TIPS

Put the harder task earlier.

Do quiter activities before lively ones.

Keep an eye on your watch.

Pull the class together at the beginning and end of the lesson.

End on a positive note.

Do not leave a homework giving to the end.

Prepare a reserve.

USING THE LESSON PLAN

Share with class.

Adapt.

Add later comment.

Unit TEACHING VOCABULARY

In the literature of English language teaching and learning, there is a neglect of vocabulary.
This neglect sits uncomfortably with thw significance placed on vocabulary learning by
learners themselves. The neglect of vocabulary is also surprising in view of the fact that
errors of vocabulary are potentially more misleading than those of grammar. Both linguistic
studies which focus on what relationships exist among words in the lexical system of the
english language on acquisition studies which focus on how vocabulary is learnt.

What do we know about the lexical system of English?

The first concerns the link between meaning and the world which words refer.The second
involves the sense relations that exist among words.

Denotative and connotative meaning

Denotative is the literal meaning of a word, the first meaning. Connotative is an indirect or
implied meaning or feeling. Connotative meaning derives from a mix of cultural , political,
social, and historical sources and learners will be aware of this phenomenon in their own
language.

Meaning relations among words

The horizontal axis represents syntagmatic relations, these between items in sentences. The
vertical axis represents paradigmatic relations, the complex relationships that xist between
items in the whole lexical system.

Syntagmatic relations

Syntagmatic relations are relations between words as they occur in sequence. There are
words which co-occur with high frequency. They are collocations.

Noun+ verb : the dog barked.

Verb+ noun : he is picking strawberries.

Noun+ present participle: train- spotting.

There are other words which do not co-occur naturally like a tall road. With other
collocations it is not possible to predict from knowing the meaning of each word in the
collocation what is and what is not acceptable. They more idiomatic expressions are normal
in the speech and writing.

Binominal idioms+ cloak and dagger

Phrasel verb idioms+ stand down

Catch phrases+ keep smiling

Metaphors+ donkey’s years

Similes+ as pleased as Punch.

Such expressions should be seen as categories of lexical phrase. Collocations are a

problematic aerea for learners. A wide variety of activities for tecahing them can now be
found in textbooks, but these need to be carefully assessed by teachers.

Paradigmatic relations

Linguistics debate the precise categorization and naming of these relationships.

-Synonymy: are linguistic item can be exchanged for another without changing the meaning
of the sentence or utterance.

-Antonymy: The semantic relation that holds between two words that can express opposite
meanings.

-Hyponymy: The semantic relation of being subordinate or belonging to a lower rank or

class.
How do second language learners acquire vocabulary?

Passive vocabulary: refers to words that learners understand but are not yet able to use.

Active vocabulary: is the words that learners understand and use in speaking or writing.

Strategies for vocabulary learning

Cognitive: They are direct mental operations which are concerned with working on new
words in order to understand, categorize, and store them in the mental lexicon strategies:

-Making associations, learning words in group, exploring range of meaning.

-Using keywords. Perma- permanent.

-Learners first encounter an unfamiliar wrod and engage in lexical inferencing in order to try
to establish its meaning.

-Any interlingual cues from similarity to words in the learner’s first language can be used to
assist the inferencing strategy.

Metacognitive: Metacognitive strategies include the following: consciously collecting words

into lists; and reactivating vocabulary in internal dialogue.

Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition

Some factors are to do with input, in other words they way in which vocabular presents
itself to learners, for example through teacher presentation, reading words in texts, learning
words during peer exchange, or through self-access work of some kind.

Features of input

-Frequency: It relates to how much a word is used in a language.

-Pronounciation: Learners use stress to select what is important as they listen to a stream of
English and that they therefore neet to know for each word both the stress pattern that
would be found in a dictionary and patterns that might be heard in continuous speech. If a
learner went to learn english for listening and understanding, learning word stress is
important.

-Contextualization: If the word is presented as isolated element, there is no point of

support, no cognitive hold for it in the learner’s memory, they are quickly forgotten again.

If the words are presented in thematically or especially in alphabetically ordered word lists,
learners will ofteen suffer from interference.

Isolated words do not present a linguistic reality.

Isolated words do not present a psychological reality, because they do not carry a message.
So we teachers should teach vocabulary in a text.

Building word networks

It is at present unclear exactly how learners store and organize words in the mental lexicon
and whta kinds of relationships or built among words as they are stood. A good deal of
language tecahing material is based on the assumptions that learners categorize words
systematically, building careful networks of meaning, which include the various kinds of
relationships and that teachers can facilitate this process through direct teaching. Emantic
links play an important role in production. Teachers will need to use techniques cautiously
and judge for themselves whether a particular use of semantic links works for their
students.

Cultural factors in the building of meaning

As learners develop their vocabulary knowledge, they acquire not only new words but also
new meaning associated with words they have already learned. These are acquired
gradually as words are met in different contexts. Teachers need to be aware that there will
be gaps in learners understandings of nuance and find ways of helping them to fill the gaps
with further meaning associations. Another culturally affected factor influencing acquisition
is the phenomenon of prototype. It is the foremost example of a particular conceptual
category. The first guessing of a category. Some knowledge is basic and universal, other
knowledge is more abstarct and relates to personal or cultural experience.

Developing a variety of techniques for the tteaching of meaning

Learners will encounter new words in a variety of ways in the classroom. There are a
number of techniques for teaching meaning of a new word.

1- A physical demonstration, using mime and gesture visual aids.

2- A verbal explanation.
3- A synonym.

And others are translation, pointing to objects, using antonyms.

Encouraging the development of effective strategies

Teachers can teach vocabulary to students. But the learners need to develop learning and
memorizing new words strategies by themselves. For that teachers can encourage them and
suggest some strategies. They are:

1- Writing down new words during a lesson with their meanings.

2- Making a word-network of vocabulary associated with a particular item.
3- Making wordcards.
Evaluating the vocabulary components of coursebooks

The first step is to evaluate the book in the way of its aims in relation to vocabulary if it
states any, or to check that the claims made in the teacher’s book hold good. After that,
teachers will need to evaluate the particular lexicon and methodology. An evaluation
checklist could include these questions:

1- Does the book explain its selection of vocabulary?

2- How is vocabulary presented?
3- Is there a focus on how words are related??

Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types

One criterion might be that vocabulary is well- contextualized, like with listening or reading
material. The vocabulary work is part of follow-up activity.

Second principle could be to use the opprtunities created by the students’ own attempts to
use vocabulary. This can be particularly effective.

Third one might be to allow time in every lesson to some vocabulary words and to built a
checklist of the areas to be covered during a year’s programme.

Developing resources for vocabulary teaching

One is a set of good monolingual dictionaries, sufficient at least for pair work in class.
Another is a bank of word puzzles. Topic- based cross words are popular.

UNIT 4 TEACHING GRAMMAR

The role of grammar in English language teaching: In 1980’s some linguistics thought that

grammar can be learned naturally.

Some methods that contain explicitly grammar are silent way, grammar translation,

communicaitve.

What do we know about the learning of grammar: Processes:

1) Noticing; first of all, learners have to notice grammar structures. Learners can work on the

relationship between meaning and form. The language has to be noticable.

2) Reasoning and hypothesizing; after learners notice the structures, they can create

hypothesizing about the rules. There are 4 sorts of hypothesizing.

a) Reasoning deductively; learners use structures that they know to practice the meaning of

what they hear or to the formulation of what they want to say. To adult learners, they need the
language system laid out explicitly with rules from which they can work deductively.

b) Analysing constrastively; a learner may compare her first and second language and work

out their similarities and differences.

c) Translating;

d) Transferring; it is what learners do when they apply knowledge of one language to the

understanding or production of another.

3) Structuring and restructuring; after learners learn new structures, they use them in

sentences in different forms. This is restructuring. In this stage errors are normal and

systematic.

4) Automatizing; a learner learn structures and she use the structures many times after that
she

can be automatized in these structures.

Explicitly and implicitly

Grammar as meaning= you know it

Grammar in discourse; it is another perpective which can be taken towards grammar; how

sentences can be combined in written texts and how utterances link in speech.

1) Linking signals; they are about which signal what comes next.

2) Linking constructions; these include conjunctions like and, or and if that co-ordinate and

subordinate clauses.

3) General purpose links; these include participle and verbles clauses.

4) Substitution and omission; this includes the use of pronouns to refer back to noun phrases,

and the auxiliary do to refer back to verb phrases, also includes omission of infinitive clauses

or omission through co-ordination.

5) Presenting and focusing information; this includes the way in which we create contrastive

focus in spoken language by using stress, also includes the way in which we can focus on

important information in writing through placing it last in a sentence.

6) Order and emphasis; this includes variations in presenting information to craete emphasis,

using such devices as “it-clauses”, and fronting.

Grammar and style; there are a lot of types and styles in grammar and some of them are like

those; written and spoken language; formal and informal style; impersonal, polite, and

familiar language; tactful and tentative language, and literary or rhetorical style. For learners,

knowing different types of grammar in communicative abilities is important because it supply

to learners an efficintly speaking skills.

What principles can guide us in the teaching of grammar

Firstly, readiness to learn is important in the teaching of grammar, because if a learner is

ready for learning grammar structures, he or she can learn easily. So teachers can’t expect

learners to acquire that grammatical structures until they are ready to do. Secondly, the time

required to learn a new structure varies among students, beacuse every students have different

mental abilities. Thirdly, the process is not a changeable stage, with progressive and complete

mastery of structures in sequence. Fourth, learners are able to learn inductively.

Presenting grammar

1) Contextualizing; the context will clarify who is speaking to whom, in what kind of setting,

with what kind of purpose, in what style, with literal meaning, and within what kind of

discourse. The context which includes grammar structures need to be useful and appropriate

to the needs of the learners. If it can be like that, grammar becomes generative and learners

can transfer it to relevant situations. For creating contexts, visuals, the teacher miming or

demonstrating in the classroom, a dialogue, a text, a song, or a video can be useable.

2) Order of presentation; it is which forms of the item to teach and in what order, and which

forms to leave fort he recycling. Briefly, it is about how much and which forms of the

grammar structure the teacher should give to students.

3) Use of terminology; it is about which grammatical terminology is useful in the presenting

grammar. If your students are advanced in English, you don’t need to give grammar
structures

one by one but if they are elementary in English, giving structurs one by one is better.

4) Degree of explicitness; it is about while the teacher teaches a grammar rule, she or he use

how much explicitly explains about the rule. I mean giving the explains of the rule clearly. It

is also deductively teaching.

5) Linking grammar and vocabulary; there are patterns in the english language within which

words typically 3 cur. Thats why we need to consider presenting such patterns to our
students.

Practising Grammar

PPP

Dictogloss; Firstly teacher start with warm up to the topic and to prepare relevant vocabs.

There is a text and teacher reads the text twice. On the second reading learners should listen

carefully and note down some words that they catch. After that they can look at each others’

notes. Finally they should reconstruct the text by using grammar rules they have already

known.

Grammaticize; ; Some words and phrases are given to students by teacher or textbook and

students can do this activity as being partner. They must write a text with these words and

then they read it to the class.

How Can We Design The Grammar Component of a Course

Two types of linguistic comparison have been useful in suggesting appropriate grammatical

items to be selected and sequenced in a course.

The first one is between the learner’s native language and the target language. It is known as

contrastive analysis. For it, difference between two language systems could be sources of

difficulty and a number of difficult grammatical features could be arranged to form the basis

of a syllabus.

The second one is between the learner’s interlanguage and the target langauge. It is known as
error analysis. It has provided that teachers with insights into the main problems students
have

with English.

However, the grammar component of a syllabus is generally selected and sequenced on the

basis of received wisdom about what is simple to learn and what is complex.

( sayfa 171 ve 172’yi sınavdan önce oku)

How can we suit approach to learner needs?

For choosing the appropriate approach in teaching grammar, teachers can take into

consideration student’s individual cognitive style. Also they should use various types of

activity for every students and different exercises. Celce-Murcia provides a useful set of six

variables to guide a teacher in appropriate focus on form. These variables are ;

Age-proficiency level-educational background-skill-register-need.

Celce-Murcia’s rule would be the more factors the teacher identifies on the left side of the

grid, the less important it is to focus on form; the more factors the teacher identifies on the

rigt; the more important the grammatical focus.

QUESTIONS GRAMMAR

Four major points to consider in teaching grammar are contextualization, order of

presentation, use of terminology, and degree of explicitness. Explain /give examples on how

to apply theses aspects in the teaching of grammar. Cevap yukarda

Mention different ways to contextualization new grammar items.

A dialogue, a visual, a song, a time line..

Explain the main purposes involved in the presentation, practice and production stages of

grammar teaching? What could be the main problem of the production stage?

Presentation; warm up, contextual presentation, linking the new form to what students
already

know, involving students, presentation both forms and function.

Practice; help students work on the new knowledge, provide corrective feedback, help
learners build confidence.

Production; encourage students to use the new form to express their own contect and ideas,

provide further feedback on the problem areas, help learners develop implicit knowledge of

the grammatical structure.

Understanding implicit knowledge would be difficult for students and some students might

have some problems about using new grammar form.

Explain dictoglass and grammarcizing. How could they help language learners with

developing their knowledge of grammar?

Dictoglass can help them with listening and catching grammar rules and make more

understandable vocabulary-grammar associations.

Grammarcizing can help students with writing grammar skills and using the grammar rules in

a paragraph.

Give examples to show how we can start with vocabulary and move to grammar (to

grammaticize).

What criterion is used to decide the content of a text books prepared according to a

grammatical syllabus?

Contrastive analysis and the experiences of teachers. Also it based on what is easy, what is

difficult for students.

What are two main problems with grammatical syllabus?

Why should teacher teach grammar firstly? In communicative language, grammar comes

secondly.

Every person has internal grammar. We have two types of grammar explicitly and implicitly.

Simple structures may be difficult also for learners.

Why is it difficult for a syllabus to follow the natural order of acquisition?

It is difficult to know who is in which learning stages. Every learners are different cognitive

stages.
How can teachers take care of learners’ cognitive style in teaching grammar?

Teacher should use different approaches in the class and do various exercises for different

students. Her or she should use both deductive and inductive.

What are six major variables according to Celce-Murcias to determine the explicitness

attention given to grammar in language classes?

What are some of strategies for learning grammar?

A time line, realia, personalizing, explaning directly, discovering.