CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 1
Matter in our Surroundings

 Anything that occupies space and has mass and is felt by senses is
called matter.
 According to indian ancient philosphor, matter is the form of five
basic elements (the Panchtatva) – air , earth ,fire , sky and water.

Characteristics of particles of matter

 Made of tiny particles.

 Vacant spaces exist between particles.
 Particles are in continuous motion.
 Particles are held together by forces of attraction.

States of Matter
Basis of Classification of Types

 Based upon particle arrangement

 Based upon energy of particles
 Based upon distance between particles

Five states of matter

1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Plasma
5. Bose-Einstein condensate

(I) SOLID

 Fixed mass, volume and shape

 Inter-particle distances are least.
 Incompressible.
 High density and do not diffuse
  Inter particle forces of attraction are strongest.
 Constituent particles are very closely packed.

(II) LIQUID

 Not fixed shape but fixed volume and mass.

 Inter particle distances are larger than solid.
 Almost incompressible.
 Density is lower than solids and can diffuse.
 Inter particle forces of attraction are weaker than solids .
 Constituent particles are less closely packed.

(III) GAS

 Neither fixed shape nor fixed volume.

 Inter particle distances are largest.
 Highly compressible.
 Density is least and diffuse.
 Inter particle forces of attraction are weakest.
 Constituent particles are free to move about.

(IV) PLASMA (NON-EVALUATIVE)

 A plasma is an ionized gas.

 A plasma is a very good conductor of electricity and is affected by
magnetic fields.
 Plasma, like gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite
volume. Ex. Ionized gas

(v) BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE (non –evaluative)

 A BEC is a state of matter that can arise at very low temperatures.

 The scientists who worked with the Bose-Einstein condensate
received a Nobel Prize for their work in 1995.
  The BEC is all about molecules that are really close to each other
(even closer than atoms in a solid).

Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Solids

 Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume because the

particles are locked into place
 Solids do not flow easily because the particles cannot move/slide
past one another
 Solids are not easily compressible because there is little free space
between particles

Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Liquids

 Liquids are not easily compressible and have a definite volume

because there is little free space between particles.
 Liquids flow easily because the particles can move/slide past one
another.
 Liquids flow easily because the particles can move/slide past one
another.

Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Gases

 Gases are easily compressible because there is a great deal of free

space between particles
 Gases flow very easily because the particles randomly move past
one another.
 Gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume because
the particles can move past one another (non –evaluative)

Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Plasmas

 Plasmas have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume because

the particles can move past one another.
 Plasmas are easily compressible because there is a great deal of
free space between particles.
 Plasmas are good conductors of electricity &are affected by magnetic
fields because they are composed of lens.

Microscopic Explanation for Properties of BEC

 Particles are less energetic than solids because Exist at very low
temperature.
 Particles are literally indistinguishable because they are locked into
same space .
  BEC shows super fluidity because Particles can flow without friction.

1. Interchange in states of matter

Water can exist in three states of matter –

 Solid, as ice,
 Liquid, as the familiar water, and
 Gas, as water vapour.

Sublimation : The changing of solid directly into vapours on heating &

vapours into solid on cooling. Ex. Ammonium chloride, camphor & iodine.

(a) Effect of change in temperature

The temperature effect on heating a solid varies depending on the nature of

the solid & the conditions required in bringing the change.

 On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the

particles increases which overcomes the forces of attraction between
the particles thereby solid melts and is converted to a liquid.
 The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the
atmospheric pressure is called its melting point.
 The melting point of ice is 273.16 K.
 The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state
is also known as fusion.

(b) Effect of Change of Pressure

 Increasing or decreasing the pressure can change the state of

matter. Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy
gases.
 Solid carbon dioxide (CO2CO2) is stored under high pressure.
Solid CO2CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous state on decrease
of pressure to 1 atmosphere without coming into liquid state. This is
the reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known as dry ice.

Latent Heat :

The hidden heat which breaks the force of attraction between

the molecules during change of state.

Fusion Heat energy required to change 1kg of solid into liquid.

Vaporisation Heat energy required to change 1kg of liquid to gas at

atmospheric pressure at its boiling point
Thus, we can say that pressure and temperature determine the state of a
substance, whether it will be solid, liquid or gas.

4. Evaporation & Boiling

 Particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest.

 At a given temperature in any gas, liquid or solid, there are particles
with different amounts of kinetic energy.
 In the case of liquids, a small fraction of particles at the surface,
having higher kinetic energy, is able to break away from the forces of
attraction of other particles and gets converted into vapour .
 This phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours at any
temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.

Factors Affecting Evaporation

 The rate of evaporation increases with an increase of surface area.

 With the increase of temperature, more number of particles get
enough kinetic energy to go into the vapour state.
 Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in air. The air around
us cannot hold more than a definite amount of water vapour at a
given temperature. If the amount of water in air is already high, the
rate of evaporation decreases.
 Wind speed : the higher the wind speed , the more evaporation.

Evaporation cause cooling.

 The particles of liquid absorb energy from the surrounding to regain

the energy lost during evaporation,

Evaporation Vs Boiling

 Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk (whole) of the

liquid change into vapour state.
 Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface
gain enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction present in
the liquid and change into the vapour state.

5. Kelvin & Celsius Scale

 Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature, 0∘C0∘C = 273.16 K we

take 0∘C0∘C = 273 K.
 SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. T(K)=T(0C)+273T(K)=T(0C)+273
 Kelvin scale of temperature has always positive sign , hence
regarded as better scale than Celsius.
  Atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measuring pressure exerted by a gas.
The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa):
 1 atmosphere = 1.01 × (10 to the power 5) Pa. The pressure of air in
atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric
pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere, and is taken as the normal
atmospheric pressure.

You are expected to know

 Particle nature of matter.

 All five states of matter & their behaviour
 enter conversion of states of matter
 Latent heat
 Conversion between Kelvin scale & Celsius scale

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 2
“Is Matter Around Us Pure”

1. Pure Substance & mixture

PURE SUBSTANCE MIXTURE

 Pure substance consists of a  Mixture consists of two or
single type of substance. more pure substances.

 Pure substance cannot be  Mixture can be separated into

separated into other substances its components by physical
by physical methods. methods.

 Pure substance has its own  Mixture shows the properties

 definite properties. of its components.

Elements are made up of one kind of atoms only. Compounds are made up
of one kind of molecules.

2. Types of Mixtures

Mixtures can also be grouped on the basis of their physical states:

  SOLID LIQUID GAS

SOLID Salt and sugar Salt and water Dust in air
LIQUIDMercury and copper Alcohol and water Clouds
GAS Hydrogen and palladiumOxygen and waterAir

ii) on the basis of miscibility:

Homogeneous Mixture Heterogeneous Mixture

 It consists of single phase.  It consists of two or more phase.

 Does not have uniform

 Uniform composition
composition

 Example: Sugar dissolved in  Example: Air, sand and common

water salt.

4. Separating the components of a mixture

The components of a heterogeneous mixture can be separated by

 Simple methods like -hand picking , sieving , & Winnowing

 Special techniques like –

1. Evaporation : a mixture of salt and water or sugar and water.

2. Centrifugation : Butter from curd, Fine mud particles suspended in
water.
3. Decantation (Using separating funnel) : Oil from water.
4. Sublimation : Camphor from salt,
5. Chromatography : Different pigments from an extract of flower
petals.
6. Distillation and fractional distillation : Separating components of
Petroleum
7. Magnetic separation: Iron pins from sand.
5. Concentration of Solution

The amount of solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of

solution.
Concentration of a solution
= AmountofsoluteAmountofsolventAmountofsoluteAmountofsolventOR AmountofsoluteAmountof
solutionAmountofsoluteAmountofsolution
The concentration of a solution can be expressed as mass by mass
percentage or as mass by volume percentage.

Mass by mass percentage of a

solution = MassofsoluteMassofsolution×100MassofsoluteMassofsolution×100

Mass by volume percentage of a solution

= MassofsoluteVolumeofsolution×100MassofsoluteVolumeofsolution×100

Types of Solutions

a) on the basis of size of solute particles

True solution Sol[Colloid] Suspension

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
Size of solute particles Size of solute particles is Size of solute particles is
is less than 1 n m between 1 n m more
or 10−9m.10−9m. or 1000nm.1000nm. than 1000nm.1000nm.
Particles cannot pass Particles cannot pass Particles cannot pass
through filter paper. through filter paper. through filter paper.
Stable and settle only on Unstable and settle down
Stable
centrifugation on its own.
Solution of sodium
Muddy water, chalk &
chloride in water, Milk , Fog
Water, Smoke in the air.
suger & water

Colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture. It consists of two phases:-

(i) Dispersed phase : component present in small proportion

(ii) Dispersion medium : component present in large proportion

The particles of colloid are large enough to scatter a beam of light passing
through it and make its path visible. Thus, they show Tyndall effect.

The colloidal particles are moving at random in a zigzag motion in all

directions.
This type of zig-zag motion of colloidal particles is called Brownian
movement.

b) on the basis of amount of solute:

Unsaturated solution -- A solution which has lesser amount of solute that

it can dissolve at a given temperature is known as unsaturated solution.

Saturated Solution A solution which has maximum amount of solute that it

can dissolve at a given temperature is known as saturated solution

Supersaturated solution A solution which can dissolve amount of solute

by increasing temperature saturated solution is known as supersaturated
solution.

c) on the basis of nature of solvent

Aqueous solution The solution in which the solvent is water is known as

aqueous solution

Non-Aqueous solution The solution in which the solvent is other than

water (ether, alcohol or aceton) known as non-aqueous solution.

6. Physical & Chemical Changes

Physical changes - Changes that do not result in the production of a new

substance.

 If you melt a block of ice, you still have H2OH2O at the end of the
change.
 If you break a bottle, you still have glass.

Examples : melting, freezing, condensing, breaking, crushing, cutting, and

bending.

Chemical changes - Changes that result in the production of another

substance.

 As in the case of autumn leaves, a change in color is a clue to

indicate a chemical change.
 a half eaten apple that turns brown.

7. Alloys

A material that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more

chemical elements of which at least one is a metal .
  These cannot be separated into their components by physical
methods.
 However, these are considered as mixture because these show the
properties of its constituents and can have variable composition.

The benefit of alloys is that you can combine metals that have varying
characteristics to create an end product that is stronger, more
flexible, or otherwise desirable to manufacturers.

 Aluminium alloys are extensively used in the production of

automotive engine parts.
 Copper alloys have excellent electrical and thermal performance,
good corrosion resistance, high ductility and relatively low cost.
 Stainless steel alloys are used for many commercial applications
such as watch straps, cutlery etc.
 Titanium alloys have high strength, toughness and stiffness & are
used in aerospace structures .

You are expected to know

 Types of mixtures.
 Method of Separation of mixtures.
 Types of solutions.
 Concentration terms of solution.
 Physical and Chemical Change.
 Significance of alloys.

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 3
Atoms and Molecules
1. Laws of Chemical Combination

Limitation of “Law of definite proportion”

This law does not hold good when the compound is obtained by using
different isotopes of the combining elements.

2. John Daltons Atomic Theory

Using his theory, Dalton rationalized the various laws of chemical
combination which were in existence at that time. However, he assumed
that the simplest compound of two elements must be binary.

3. Atoms, Molecules, Ions & Chemical Formula

Atom
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can take part in a
chemical reaction. It may or may not exist freely.

↓↓

Each atom of an element shows all the properties of the element.

Molecule
The smallest particle of matter (element or compound) which can exist in a
free state.

↓↓

The properties of a substance are the properties of its molecules.

  MOLECULES OF ELEMENT : The molecules of an element are
constituted by the same type of atoms.
 MOLECULES OF COMPOUND: Atoms of different elements join
together in definite proportions to form molecules of compounds.
(hetero atomic molecules)
 ATOMICITY: The number of atoms contained in a molecule of a
substance (element or compound) is called its atomic

Element Formula Atomicity

Ozone O 3 3
Phosphorus P 4 4
Sulphur S 8 8
Oxygen O 2 2

 Based upon atomicity molecules can be classified as follows.

 Monoatomic molecules: Noble gases helium, neon and argon exist
as He Ne and Ar respectively.

Diatomic molecules: H2,O2,N2,Cl2,CO,HCl.H2,O2,N2,Cl2,CO,HCl.
Triatomic molecules: O3,CO2,NO2O3,CO2,NO2

SYMBOLS

 The abbreviation used to represent an element is generally the first

letter in capital of the English name of element.
Oxygen →→ O Nitrogen →→ N
 When the names of two or more elements begin with the same initial
letter, the initial letter followed by the letter appearing later in the
name is used to symbolize the element
Barium →→ Ba Bismuth →→ Bi

Symbols of some elements are derived from their Latin names

LATIN
ELEMENT SYMBOL
NAME
Sodium Natrium Na
Copper Cuprum Cu
Potassium Kalium K
Iron Ferrum Fe
Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Tungsten Wolfram W
Polyatomic Ion : A group of atoms carrying a charge is as polyatomic ion.
Eg. NH4+−Ammoniumlon:CO32−−CarbonateionNH4+−Ammoniumlon:CO32−
−Carbonateion

Valency : The number of electrons which an atom can lose , gain or share
to form a bond.

OR

It is the combining capacity of an atom of the element.

 Chemical Formula : A chemical formula is a short method of

representing chemical elements and compounds.

Writing a Chemical Formula -CRISS-CROSS rule

RULES > All subscripts must be reduced to lowest term (except for
molecular or
Examples
 CATION ANION FORMULA NAME
Al3+Al3+ SO42−SO42− Al2(SO4)3Al2(SO4)3 Aluminium sulphate
Ca HCO3−HCO3 Ca(HCO3)2Ca(HCO3) Calcium bicarbonate
− 2
NH4+NH4 Cl−Cl− NH4ClNH4Cl Ammonium chloride
+
Na+Na+ CO32−CO32− HCO3−HCO3− Sodium carbonate
Mg2+Mg2 OH−OH− Mg(OH)2Mg(OH)2 Magnesium hydroxide
+
Na+Na+ PO43−PO43− Na3PO4Na3PO4 Sodium phosphate

4. Mole Concept

The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many

elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C12C

The Avogadro constant is named after the early nineteenth century

Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro.

GRAM MOLECULAR MASS

Gram molecular mass is the mass in grams of one mole of a molecular
substance.
Ex: The molecular mass of N2N2 is 28, so the gram molecular mass
of N2N2 is 28 g.

ATOMIC MASS UNIT

An atomic mass unit or amu is one twelfth of the mass of an unbound atom
of carbon-12. It is a unit of mass used to express atomic masses and
molecular masses.
Also Known As: Unified Atomic Mass Unit (u).

MOLECULAR MASS : A number equal to the sum of the atomic masses of
the atoms in a molecule. The molecular mass gives the mass of a molecule
relative to that of the 12 C atom, which is taken to have a mass of 12.
Examples: The molecular mass of C2H6C2H6 is approximately 30
or [(2 × 12) + (6 × 1)][(2 × 12) + (6 × 1)]. Therefore the molecule is about
2.5 times as heavy as the 12C atom or about the same mass as the NO
atom with a molecular mass of 30 or (14 +16).
5. Molar Mass & Avogadro Constant
 CBSE Class 9 Science
Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 4
STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Contribution to the Atomic theory Timeline

 More than 2400 years ago, he named the smallest piece of

matter “ATOMOS,” meaning “not to be cut.”
 Atoms were small, hard particles that were all made of the same
material but were different shapes and sizes.
 Atoms were infinite in number, always moving and capable of joining
together

1. Dalton’s Atomic theory:

 First recorded evidence that atoms exists.

 Using his theory, Dalton rationalized the various laws of chemical
combination
Dalton's theory was based on the premise that the atoms of different
elements could be distinguished by differences in their weights.

Limitations

 The indivisibility of an atom was proved wrong , for, an atom can be

further subdivided into protons, neutrons and electrons.
 The atoms of same element are similar in all respects , but isotopes
of same element have different mass.
 Dalton's theory was based on the premise that the atoms of different
elements could be distinguished by differences in their weights.

1. J J Thomson Experiments:

 Discovered electrons in 1897.

 Showed us that the atom can be split into even smaller parts.

His discovery was the first step towards a detailed model of the atom.

 An atom is a uniform sphere of positive charges (due to presence of

protons) as well as negative charges (due to presence of electrons).
 Atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and
positive charges are equal in magnitude.
 An electron is a negatively charged component of an atom which
exists outside the nucleus. Each electron carries one unit of negative
charge and has a very small mass as compared with that of a
 neutron or proton.

JJ Thomson used cathode ray tubes to demonstrate that the cathode

ray responds to both magnetic and electric fields.
Since the ray was attracted to a positive electric plate placed over the
cathode ray tube (beam deflected toward the positive plate) he determined
that the ray must be composed of negatively charged particles.
He called these negative particles "electrons."

Limitation: Model failed to explain how protons and electrons were

arranged in atom so close to each other.

Eugene Goldstein:

 E. Goldstein in 1886 discovered the presence of new radiations in a

gas discharge and called them canal rays. These rays were positively
charged radiations which ultimately led to the discovery of another
sub-atomic particle.
  Used a Cathode Ray Tube to study "canal rays" which had electrical
and magnetic properties opposite of an electron
 Canal Rays: The positively charged radiation produced in the
discharge tube at low pressure and high voltage are called canal
rays.

Protons

The canal rays have positively charged sub-atomic, particles known

as protons (p).

1. Rutherford’s Scattering Experiments:

Experiment: Rutherford took a thin gold foil and made alpha

particles, [He2+][He2+] positively charged Helium fall on it.

S.No. OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Most of the a-particles passed through Most of the space inside the
1
the gold foil without getting deflected. atom is empty.
Positive charge of the atom
2 Very few particles were deflected.
occupies very little space.
A very few alpha particles, 1 in Nucleus of an atom is very
3 100000completely rebound on hitting small ascompared to the total
the goldfoil. size.
  Limitation: In Rutherford’s atomic model , Nucleus & electrons are
held together by electrostatic force of attraction which would lead to
the fusion between them. This does not happen in the atom.
Atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10−10−10 m
Nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10−3−3 pm=5×10−15m5×10−15m

 In 1932, James Chadwick proved that the atomic nucleus contained

a neutral particle which had been proposed more than a decade
earlier by Ernest Rutherford officially discovered the neutron in 1932,
 Chadwick received the Nobel Prize in 1935.

A neutron is a subatomic particle contained in the atomic nucleus. It

has no net electric, unlike the proton's positive electric charge.

4. Sub Atomic Particles:

Location in the Relative

Name Symbol charge Actual Mass (g)
atom Mass
Electron E Around the 1– 1/1840 9.11×10−289.11×10−2
 nucleus 8
1.67×10−241.67×10−2
Proton P In the nucleus 1+ 1
4

Neutron n In the nucleus 0 1

1.67×10−241.67×10−2
4

Protons & Neutrons collectively are known as NUCLEONS.

5. Atomic Number & Mass Number:

“Atomic number of an element is defined as the number of unit

positive charges on the nucleus (nuclear charge) of the atom of that
element or as the number of protons present in the nucleus.”

Atomic number, Z = Number of unit positive charge on the nucleus

= Total number of unit positive charges carried by all protons present in the
nucleus.
= Number of protons in the nucleus (p)
= Number of electrons revolving in the orbits (e)
Eg :- Hydrogen – Atomic number = 1 (1 proton)
Helium - Atomic number = 2 (2 protons)

Mass number[ A] : It is defined as the sum of the number of protons &
neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass Number = Mass of protons + Mass of neutrons
Eg :- Carbon – Mass number = 12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons) Mass = 12u
Aluminium – Mass number = 27 (13 protons + 14 neutrons) Mass =
27u

6. Niel Bohr Atomic Model:

7. Electronic configuration & Valency:

Bohr and Bury Scheme - Important Rules
S.Nowhere n = shell numberMaximum Capacity
1 K Shell 2 x (1) 2 electrons
2 L Shell 2 x (2) 8 electrons
3 M shell 2 x (3) 18 electrons
4 N shell 2 x (4) 32 electrons

The outermost shell of an atom cannot accommodate more than 8

electrons, even if it has a capacity to accommodate more electrons.
This is a very important rule and is also called the OCTET RULE. The
presence of 8 electrons in the outermost shell makes the atom very
stable.

8. Isotopes & Isobars

ISOTOPES

ISOTOPES ISOBARS
Chemically different, physically
Chemically same, physically different
same
Number of electrons is same Number of electrons is different
Cannot be separated by chemical Can be separated by chemical
means means

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 5
The Fundamental Unit of Life

1. All the living organisms are made up of fundamental unit of life called “
cell”.

2. The cell is a Latin word for “a little room”.

3. The scientist Robert Hooke saw a little room in the cork (the bark of a
tree) resembled the structure of a honeycomb. The use of the word “Cell” to
describe these units is used till this day in Biology as” Cell Biology”.

4. The Compound Microscope consist eye piece,objective lens and

condenser to observe a cell after putting a drop of Safranin (for plant cell)
and methylene blue (for animal cell).

5. The scientist Leeuwenhoek saw free living cells in the pond water for
the first time.
(father of microbiology)

6. The scientist Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the cell.

7. The cell theory states that all the plants and animals are composed of
cells, it was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann.

8. The cell theory was further expanded by Virchow by suggesting that “all

cells arise from the pre-existing cells”.

9. The cells differ in size, shape, structure (Please refer to Fig. 5.2/5.3:
Onion peel/Various cells in Human body, NCERT Book Page-
57/58): Types of cells: Onion cells, Smooth muscle cell, Blood cells,
Bone cell, Fat cell, Nerve cell, Ovum, Sperm etc. Each kind of cell
performs specific function.

10. A single cell may constitute a whole organism as in Amoeba,

Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and Bacteria; these are called
as unicellular organisms. Whereas in multi-cellular organisms (Human
beings) division of labor is seen.

11. The feature in almost every cell is same: Plasma membrane,

nucleus and cytoplasm.

12. Plasma membrane: It is the outermost covering of the cell.

 It is called as selective permeable membrane (because it prevents

movement of some materials).
 It helps in diffusion and osmosis
 Diffusion: movement of substance from high concentration to low
concentration.

Eg; exchange of carbon dioxide or oxygen with external environment.

Osmosis: it is the passage of water from the region of high water

concentration to a region of low water concentration through a selective
permeable membrane.

a) The cell gains water, if the medium surrounding the cell has a higher
water concentration (Hypotonic solution) than the cell.

b) The cell maintains the same water concentration as the cell (Isotonic
solution), water crosses the cell membrane in both directions.

c) The cell loses water, if the medium has lower water concentration
(Hypertonic solution) than the cell.

Note - The cell drinking is endosmosis;

omission of water is called ex-osmosis.

13. The cell engulfs food is called endocytosis and ejects solid is called
exocytosis. Amoeba acquires food through endocytosis and excretion of
solid is called exocytosis.

14. The cell wall is a rigid outer covering composed of cellulose. It

provides structural strength to plant cells. When a living cell loses water,
there is shrinkage of contents of a cell away from the cell wall. This
phenomenon is called as plasmolysis. The cell walls permit the cells of
plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute (Hypotonic) external
media without bursting.
15. The Nucleus: It is a dark colored, spherical or oval, dot-like structure
near the center of a cell called Nucleus. The nucleus plays a central role in
cellular activities/reproduction. The chromatin material gets organized into
chromosomes. The chromosomes containinformation for inheritance of
features from parents to next generations in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo
Nucleic Acid ) and protein molecules. The functional segments of DNA are
called genes.

16. In some organisms like Bacteria nucleus is not covered by nuclear

membrane. Hence it is called as prokaryote. (Pro= primitive; karyote =
karyon = nucleus.) The organisms with cells having a nuclear membrane
are called eukaryotes.

17. Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Size: generally small (1-10 µm) Size: generally large. (5-500 µm)
Nuclear region: Not well defined and not
Nuclear region: Well defined and
surrounded by a nuclear membrane & surrounded by a nuclear
known as nucleoids. membrane
Chromosome: More than one
Chromosome: Single
Chromosome
Membrane-bound cell
Membrane-bound cell organellesAbsent
organellespresent
Eg fungi, plant cell and animal
Eg- bacteria, blue green algae
cell.

18. Cell organelles: Every cell has fluid matrix (other than nucleus) is
called cytoplasm. The nucleus and cytoplasm is together called as
protoplasm. The protoplasm term was coined by Purkinje. It has important
cell organelles: Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes,
Mitochondria, Plastids, and vacuoles.

19. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): It is a large network of membrane –

bound tubules and vesicles.

 There are two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) (It looks rough because
Ribosome’s are attached to its surface. They are the sites of protein
synthesis).
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) (It looks smooth because
Ribosome’s are not attached to its surface. They are the sites of fat
molecules synthesis).
1. SER; help in the functioning of enzymes and hormones to carryout
biochemical activities.

2. SER detoxifies many poisons and drugs from the cell.

3. ER serves as channel for the transport of material between various

regions of the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

4. Proteins and fat molecules produced by ER helps in membrane

biogenesis.

21. Lysosomes: They contain membrane-bound sacs with powerful

digestive enzymes (enzymes are made by RER) to digest the worn-out cell
organelles. When the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the
enzymes digest their own cell, hence called as “Suicidal bags of a cell”. It is
a waste disposal system of the cell.

22. Mitochondria: It is covered by a double membrane. Outer membrane

is very porous and the inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds create
a large surface area for ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) molecule synthesis.
ATP is the energy currency of a cell; hence the Mitochondria are called as
Power House of a Cell. Mitochondria have their own DNA and Ribosome’s;
therefore they can make their own proteins.

23. Plastids: They are present only in plant cells. They are of two types.

1. Chromoplasts (Colored Plastids: Chloroplasts – Green pigmented and

useful in Photosynthesis and also contains various other pigments like
yellow or orange)

2. Leucoplasts (White or colorless plastids; stores materials such as oils,

proteins, fats etc. ) Plastids are also covered by a double membrane. The
matrix is called Stroma, seat for enzymatic actions. Plastids have their own
DNA and Ribosome’s; therefore they can make their own proteins.

24. Vacuoles: Storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. They are small in
size in animals while plants have large, may occupy 50-90 % of the cell
volume. Helps to provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell. Many substances
like amino acids, sugars, organi acids and proteins are stored in vacuoles.
In Amoeba food vacuole is specialized to play an important role.

25. Cell: It is the fundamental structural unit of living organisms, helps in

respiration, obtaining nutrition and clearing waste material or forming a new
protein.
Differences between Plant cell and Animal Cell

ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

Cell wall absent Cell wall present
Plasma membrane is the outer layer Cell wall is the outer layer which
which provides turgidity to the cell gives rigidity and turgidity to the cell
Vacuoles are small in size Vacuoles are big in size
Plastids are absent Plastids are present
Nucleus lies in the centre. Nucleus lies on one side

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 6
Tissue

1. Tissue is a group of cells having similar origin, structure & function.

Study of tissues is called Histology

2. In unicellular organism (Amoeba), single cell performs all basic functions,

whereas in multi-cellular organisms (Plants and Animals) shows division of
labour as Plant tissue & Animal tissues.

3. Plant tissues are two types: Meristems & Permanent tissues.

4. Meristems: The Meristems are the tissues having the power of cell

division. It is found on those region of the plant which grows.

Types of Meristems;

1. The Apical meristems – It is present at the growing tip of the stem and
roots and increases the length.

2. The lateral meristems - present at the lateral side of stem anf root
(cambium) and increases the girth.

3. The intercalary meristems - present at internodes or base of the

leaves and increases the length between the nodes.

Permanent tissues: Two types such as Simple permanent tissues &

Complex permanent tissues.

a) Simple permanent tissues: subdivided as

(i): Parenchyma: Tissues provide the support to plants.They are loosly
packed and has large intracellular space.

 Parenchyma with chlorophyll which performs photosynthesis is called

as chlorenchyma.
 The parenchyma with large air spaces to give buoyancy is called as
aerenchyma.

Parenchyma also stores food and water.

(ii) Collenchyma: Tissue provides mechanical support, thickened at the

corners, have very little intercellular space. It allows easy bending of
various parts of a plants without breaking

(iii) Sclerenchyma: Tissue makes the plant hard and stiff, thickened due to

lignin and no intercellular space. Cells of this tissue are dead and
commonly seen in the husk of coconut.

(iv) Guard cells& Epidermal tissue: the tissue aids in protection and

exchange of gases.

Guard cells are kidney shaped in dicots, dumb bell shaped in monocots to
guard the stomata. The epidermal tissues of roots aid in absorption of
water and minerals. The epidermal tissues in desert plants have a thick
waxy coating of Cutin with waterproof quality. The epidermal tissues form
the several layer thick Cork or the Bark of the tree.

b) Complex permanent tissues: The complex tissues are made of more

than one type

of cells. All these cells coordinate to perform a common function. They are
subdivided as;

Xylem: It consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem

fibers. The cells have thick walls,

Function - help in conduction of water and minerals.

Phloem: It consists of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma,

and phloem fibers.

Function:- Phloem transports food material to other parts of the plants.

6. Animal tissues: Sub divided as epithelial tissue, connective tissue,

muscular tissue and nervous tissue.
 1. Epithelial tissue: It is a protective covering forming a continuous
sheet. Simple epithelium is the one which is extremely thin in one
layer, whereas stratified epithelium are arranged in pattern of layers.

Depending on shape and function they are classified as:

a) Squamous epithelium in the lining of mouth and esophagus.

b) Cuboidal epithelium in the lining of kidney tubules and salivary glands.

c) Columnar epithelium in the intestine &Columnar epithelium with cilia in

the lining of respiratory tract.

d) Glandular epithelium in the Glands aids in a special function as gland

cells, which can secrete at the epithelial surface.

ii) Connective Tissue:

a) Blood: The Blood is a fluid connective tissue. Blood plasma has RBCs

(Red Blood Cells) WBCs (White Blood Cells) and platelets. Blood plasma
contains proteins, salts and hormones. Blood flows and transports gases,
digested food, hormones and waste materials.

b) Bone: The bone is a connective tissue with hard matrix, composed of

calcium and phosphorus. A bone is connected by another bone with
another connective tissue called ligaments. A bone is connected by muscle
with another connective tissue called tendon.

c) Cartilage: The cartilage is a connective tissue with solid matrix

composed of proteins and sugars. It is commonly seen in nose, ear,
trachea, and larynx.

d) Areolar Connective Tissue: It is found between the skin and muscles,

around the blood vessels. It supports internal organs and aids in repair of
tissues.

e)Adipose Connective Tissue: It is filled with fat globules for the storage
of fat. It acts as insulator.

Muscular tissues: They have special contractile proteins responsible for

movements. Three types, such as;

Striated muscles/skeletal muscles/voluntary muscles :

They are cylindrical, un-branched and multinucleated. They have dark

bands and light bands.
Unstriated muscles /smooth muscles/involuntary muscles:

They are commonly called as Smooth muscles, having no striations (dark

bands/ light bands are absent). Commonly found alimentary canal, uterus,
Iris of an Eye. They are spindle shaped. Involuntary in nature.

Cardiac Muscles: They are commonly called as Heart muscles, cylindrical,

branched and uni-nucleate. Involuntary in nature .

Nervous Tissue: The tissue responds to stimuli. The brain, spinal cord and
nerves are composed of nervous tissue or neurons. A neuron consists of
Cell Body, cytoplasm, Nucleus, Dendrite, Axon, nerve ending. The neuron
impulse allow us to move our muscles when we want to respond to stimuli.

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 7
DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS

1. Each organism is different from all other organisms.

2. The presence of various forms of plants and animals is known as

diversity.

3. Greek thinker Aristotle classified animals according to whether they lived

on land,in water or in air. This classification is a landmark in ideology, but
has limitations. For example, animals that live in the sea include Corals,
Whales, Octopus, Starfish, and Shark. In fact they are different from each
other.

4. Classification and Evolution: organisms are classified based on body

design, hierarchy in developing, relation to evolution. Charles Darwin first
described the idea of evolution in 1859 in his book “ The Origin of
Species”

5. The Biologists, such as Haeckel, Whittaker & Carl Woese tried to classify
all living organisms into broad Kingdoms. The Whittaker proposed five
kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Carl Woese
introduced by dividing Monera into Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.

6. Hierarchy of Classification :

Linnacus’s System of Classification

Kingdom↓Phylum↓Class↓Order↓family↓Genus↓SpeciesKingdom↓Phylum↓Clas
s↓Order↓family↓Genus↓Species

7. Monera: They have unicellular, Prokaryotic organisms (do not have

defined nucleus or organelles). The cell wall may or may not present. The
mode of nutrition is autotrophic (synthesizing food on their own)
(or)heterotrophic (getting food from environment). Ex. Bacteria, Anabaena.

8. Protista: They have unicellular eukaryotic organisms (do have well

defined nucleus or organelles). The body is covered by cilia, flagella for
locomotion. The mode of nutrition is autotrophicorheterotrophic. Ex.
Diatoms, protozoans.

9. Fungi: These are multi-cellular eukaryotic organisms with cell wall,

made up of

Chitin. They do not perform Photosynthesis

(heterotrophic),Saprophytic (derive nutrition from decaying material). Ex.
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mushroom, Rhizopus. The fungi living with algae
forms Lichen (Symbiotic Association)

10. Plantae: These are multi-cellular eukaryotic organisms with cell wall,

made up of Cellulose. Able to perform photosynthesis (autotrophic). Ex.
Rice, wheat.

11. Animalia:These are multi-cellular eukaryotic organisms without

cell wall. They are not able to perform photosynthesis (heterotrophic). Ex
Human beings, Peacock.

DETAILS OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

1. The kingdom Plantae is further classified as Thallophyta,
Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms .

2. Thallophyta: The plants do not have well defined body design,

commonly called as”

Algae”, mostly aquatic. Ex. Spirogyra, Ulothrix.

3. Bryophyta: These are commonly called as the “Amphibians of

Kingdom”. The plant body is differentiated into roots like, stem like and leaf
like structures. No specialized tissues for the conduction of water and
food.Ex. Marchantia, Funaria.

4. Pteridophyta: These are commonly called as the “First vascular land

plants ”. The plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaf.
Specialized tissues for the conduction of water and food are developed in
these plants. The reproductive organs are inconspicuous. Ex. Marsilea,
Fern.

Special Note: The reproductive organs are inconspicuous in Thallophyta,

Bryophyta,72 Pteridophyta are can’t develop seeds. They are together
called as” Cryptogamae (Non- Flowering Plants)”. The plants with well
differentiated reproductive organs and thatultimately make seeds are
called” Phanerogams (Flowering Plants)”. This group is further classified
Gymnosperms (Bear naked Seeds) &Angiosperms (Bears seeds inside
Fruit).

5. Gymnosperms: These are commonly called as “Naked seed bearing

plants”. They areusually perennial, evergreen and woody. Ex. Pinus, Cycas

6. Angiosperms: These are commonly called as “Enclosed seed bearing

plants”. Plants with seeds having a single cotyledon are called
as” Monocotyledons or Monocots”. Plants with seeds having two
cotyledons are called as “Dicots”. Ex. Ipomoea, Paphiopedium.

DETAILS OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA

These are Eukaryote, multicultural and hetero-tropic.

They are further classified as Non-Chordates( Porifera, Coelenterata,

Platyhelminthes , Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca,
Echinodermata) and Chordates { Protochordata, Vertebrata ( Pisces,
Amphibians, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia)} .

I. Non- Chordates
1. Porifera: The word Porifera” means organisms with holes”. The canal
system helps in circulating water, food, oxygen. They are non-motile with
cellular level of organization and mainly marine organisms with hard outer
coat called as Skeleton. They are commonly called as Sponges. Ex.
Spongilla, Sycon.

2. Coelenterata: The word Coelenterata” means organisms with body

cavity Called Coelenteron”. They are radially
symmetrical, Diploblastic (two layers of cells), commonly called as
Cnidarians (Stinging cells for protection are present in the body). Ex.
Hydra, Sea Anemone.

3. Platyhelminthes: The word Platyhelminthes means organisms with

flatworms (dorsocentrally flattened)”. They are bilaterally symmetrical
Triploblastic (three layers of cell), either free-living or parasitic. No true
Coelom is present - Acoelomates. Ex. Planaria (Free living), Tape
worm( Parasitic)

4. Nematoda: The word Nematoda “means organisms with roundworms”.

They are bilaterally symmetrical Triploblastic (three layers of cells), familiar
with parasitic worms. The false Coelom is called as Pseudocoelome. Ex.
Ascaris, Wuchereria (Filarial worm causes elephantiasis).

5.Annelida: The word Annelida “ means organisms with metameric-

segmented”. They are bilaterally symmetrical Triploblastic (three layers of
cells) with closed circulatory system, familiar with earth worms. The
Coelom is called as true Coelom. Ex. Neris, Earth worm, Leech .

6. Arthropoda: The word Arthropoda “means organisms with jointed

legs” They are bilaterally symmetrical Triploblastic(three layers of cells ),
familiar with cockroaches. The Coelom is blood filled called as Haemo
Coelom. Ex. Prawn, Scorpion, Housefly.

7. Mollusca: The word Mollusca “means organisms with soft body” They

are bilaterally symmetrical, Triploblastic(three layers of cells), familiar with
Octopus, Pila. Foot is for moving, kidney like organ for excretion, with open
circulatory system. Ex. Unio, chiton.

8. Echinodermata: The word Echinodermata “means organisms with spiny

skinned”. Exoskeleton is with calcium carbonate. They are radially
symmetrical Triploblastic (three layers of cells) with coelomic cavity, familiar
with Star fish. They are exclusively free-living marine animals. Ex. Sea
Cucumber, Feather Star .
II.Chordates: They are further classified as two major groups such
as Protochordata &Vertebrata

(A).Protochordata: Notochord present in at least larval forms, but very

rudimentary. It is a rod like supporting structure, runs along with nervous
tissue from the gut of animal. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic
(three layers of cells) with a Coelom, familiar with Amphioxus. Ex.
Balanoglossus.

(B).Vertebrata: Notochord is replaced by vertebral column and internal

skeleton. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic and
segmented having paired gill pouches. Vertebrates are grouped into five
classes.

1. Pisces: These are commonly called as “fishes”, exclusively aquatic.

Body is streamlined and a tail for locomotion. Gills for respiration, heart is
two chambered, cold blooded, skin is covered with scales, plates. They are
cold-blooded animals. Skeleton of bone ( Rohu) / cartilage( Shark). They
lay eggs. Ex. Lion Fish, Dog Fish.

2. Amphibians: These are commonly called as “Amphibians” because they

can live on land and in water”. Body is streamlined and a webbed foot/ foot
for locomotion. Gills or lungs or skin for respiration, heart is three
chambered, cold blooded, skin is lack of scales, plates. They are cold-
blooded animals. They lay eggs. Ex. Rana, Hyla .

3. Reptilia: These are commonly called as “Reptilians”. A lung for

respiration, heart is three chambered (Crocodile heart is four chambered),
skin have scales. They are cold-blooded animals. They lay eggs. Ex.
Snakes, Turtles

4. Aves :These are commonly called as “Birds”. A lung for respiration,

heart is fourchambered, fore limbs are modified for flight, skin has feathers.
They are warm-blooded animals. They lay eggs. Ex. Ostrich (Flightless
Bird), Pigeon, Sparrow .

5. Mammalia: These are commonly called as “animals with mammary

glands for producing

milk to nourish their young ones”. A lung for respiration, heart is four
chambered, skin has

hairs, sweat or oil glands. They are warm-blooded animals. They lay eggs
(Platypus, Echidna), give birth to young ones poorly developed (Kangaroo)
& give birth to developedyoung ones (Human beings). Ex. Lion, Whale, Bat
DETAILS OF NOMENCLATURE

NOMENCLATURE: The system of scientific naming or nomenclature was

introduced by Carolus Linnaeus. It is unique to identify in the world. We
limit ourselves to writing the names of the Genus and Species of that
particular organism. The world over, it has been agreed that both these
names will be used in Latin forms.When printed is given in italics and when
written by hand, the Genus and Species name have to be underlined
separately. Ex. Human (Common name): Home sapiens (scientific name
with two parts namely the Genus and Species).

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 8
Motion

 Motion occurs when an object changes its position with time.

 When a body covers equal distance in equal interval of time, it is
moving with uniform motion.
 When a body covers unequal distance in equal interval of time. it is
moving with non-uniform motion.

Both Distance and Time are important in describing motion.

 Sometimes you know motion has occurred even if you didn’t see it
happen.
 Relative motion: when two objects are moving in a plane (either in
same direction or opposite) each have relative motion with respect to
second. e.g. a person sitting in a train and watching a tree, in this
case tree is stable but is assumed to be moving but with respect to
train.

Distance vs. Displacement

 Distance: How far an object has moved. It has only magnitude

without direction.
 Displacement: How far and in what direction an object has moved
from its start position. i.e. the direct distance between intial and final
points.

Speed

 Speed = the distance an object travels in a given amount of time

  Speed=distancetimeSpeed=distan⁡cetime
 SI unit of speed is m/s

Types of Speed

 Constant speed: speed doesn’t change

 Changing speed: Riding a bike for 5 km. Take off and increase
speed, slow down up hill, speed up down hill, stop for stop sign. The
trip took you 15 min (.25 h)
 Average speed = totaldistancetotaltimetotaldistan⁡cetotaltime

Instantaneous speed: speed at any given time.

Velocity

 Velocity: includes speed and direction.

 Storm is moving at 20km/hr.
 Suppose two trains are going with the same speed in opposite
direction so they are having different velocities.
 Race car going around an oval track might have constant speed, but
different velocities at each point.

Acceleration

 Any change in velocity over a period of time is called acceleration.

 The sign (+ or -) of indicates its direction. + sign shows the
acceleration and – sign shows de-acceleration.
 Uniform (constant) acceleration equation
 a = v/t

 Images of car are equally spaced.

 The car is moving with constant positive velocity (shown by red
arrows maintaining the same size) .
  The acceleration equals to zero

 Images of car become farther apart as time increases

 Velocity and acceleration are in the same direction
 Acceleration is uniform (Arrows below the car maintain the same
length)
 Velocity is increasing (Arrows above the car are getting longer)
 This shows positive acceleration and positive velocity

The instant speed at points of equal elevations is the same.

The velocities are different because they are in opposite free fall & air
resistance.

Galileo Galilei Italian physicist and astronomer Formulated laws of motion

for objects in free fall

 A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the

influence of gravity alone.
 It does not depend upon the initial motion of the object
 Dropped – released from rest
 Thrown downward
 Thrown upward
 The acceleration of an object in free fall is directed downward,
regardless of the initial motion
 The magnitude of free fall acceleration (gravitational acceleration) is
g = 9.80 m/s2m/s2
 g decreases with increasing altitude
  g varies with latitude, height and depth from earth surface.
 9.80 m/s2m/s2is the average at the Earth’s surface
 The italicized g will be used for the acceleration due to gravity
 Not to be confused with g for grams

 With negligible air resistance, falling objects can be considered freely

falling. objects of different shapes accelerate differently (stone vs
feather)
 Speed both upward and downward

 The path is symmetrical.

 Acceleration is constant.
 The magnitude of the velocities is the same at equal heights.
 Images become closer together as time increases
 Acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions when ball goes
upward.
 Acceleration is uniform (violet arrows maintain the same length)
 Velocity is decreasing in upward motion (red arrows are getting
shorter)
 Positive velocity and negative acceleration
 Velocity becomes zero at maximum height.
 Time duration flight in going upward and coming back is always
same.

2 Graphical Representation Of Motion & Graphs

3. Equation of motion
(1) When object is moving in straight line-

v=v0+atv=v0+at
x=x0+v0t+1/2at2x=x0+v0t+1/2at2
v2=v20+2a(Δx)v2=v02+2a(Δx)

 Average acceleration describes how fast the velocity is changing with

respecttime.

aave=ΔvΔt=Δ(ΔxΔt)Δtaave=ΔvΔt=Δ(ΔxΔt)Δt

 where:
 = average acceleration

ΔΔv = change in velocity

ΔΔx = displacement

ΔΔt = elapsed time

(2) when object is coming vertically downward-

v=v0+gtv=v0+gt
h=v0t+1/2gt2h=v0t+1/2gt2
v2=v20+2ahv2=v02+2ah

(3) when object is coming vertically upward-

v=v0+gtv=v0+gt
x=v0t+1/2gt2x=v0t+1/2gt2
v2=v20−2ghv2=v02−2gh

 The SI unit of velocity is the m/s.

Average acceleration is+ or – depending on direction.

 Instantaneous Acceleration

a=t−→−lim0(ΔvΔt)a=t→lim0(ΔvΔt)

 Instantaneous acceleration is the limit

of Δv/ΔtasΔtΔv/ΔtasΔtapproaches zero
 Instantaneous acceleration is zero where slope is constant
  Instantaneous acceleration is positive where curve is concave up
 Instantaneous acceleration is negative where curve is concave down

Uniform Circular Motion

In this kind of motion the object moves on circle with fix speed but the
direction changed by the time so the velocity of the change so its called
acceleration motionacceleration is called centrifugal acceleration.It is
directed toward the centre.

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 9
Force & Laws Of Motion

1 Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

Balanced Forces: The net force is when two or more forces are applied on
the same object and at the same time. The applied forces combined are
called the net force.

Balanced Forces The force I apply in one direction plus the force you apply
in the opposite direction are added together. 2 Because the forces are
equal and balanced

Unbalanced Forces: A force is applied in one direction and either another

smaller or larger force is applied in the opposite direction or no force is
applied at all in the opposite direction.

Unbalanced Forces If I have a chair and I push on one side of it with a

force of 50 N and you push on the other side, with a force of 25 N, will the
chair move? Which way will it move? The direction in which the most force
is applied. What is the net force? 50 N 25 N.

2. Laws of Motion

Newton's First Law

1st Law – An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay
in motion at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion
at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Newton's Second Law

"If the net force on an object is not zero, the object will accelerate. The
direction of the acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force.
The magnitude of the acceleration is directly proportional to the net force
applied, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object."

Mathematical symbols provide a convenient shorthand for all of this:

a=FnetmorFnet=maa=FnetmorFnet=ma

The Effect of Mass

A force applied to an automobile will not have the same effect as the same
force applied to a pencil. An automobile resists accelerating much more
than a pencil does, because it has more inertia, or mass.

The acceleration of an object depends not only on how hard you push on it,
but also on how much the object resists being pushed.

What is the effect of mass on acceleration? This, too, turns out to be quite
simple (I wonder why...). For the same force, an object with twice the mass
will have half the acceleration. If it had three times the mass, the same
force will produce one-third the acceleration. Four times the mass gives
one-fourth of the acceleration, and so on.

This type of relationship between quantities (double one, get half the other)
is called an inverse proportion or inverse variation. In other words, then:

Newton’s Second Law of Motion The acceleration of an object is

dependent upon both force and mass. Thus, if the colliding objects have
unequal mass, they will have unequal accelerations as a result of the
contact force which results during the collision.
Newton's Third Law

Newton's Third Law is stated as: For every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.

"Action...Reaction" means that forces always occur in pairs. (Forces are

interactions between objects, like conversations are interactions between
people.)

Single, isolated forces never happen. The two forces involved are called
the "action force" and the "reaction force."

These names are unfortunate for a couple of reasons :

Either force in an interaction can be the "action" force or the "reaction"

force

The action and reaction forces exist at the same time.

"Equal" Means

Both forces are exactly the same size. They are equal in magnitude. Both
forces exist at exactly the same time. They both start at exactly the same
instant, and they both stop at exactly the same instant. They are equal in
time.

"Opposite" means that the two forces always act in opposite directions -
exactly 18001800 apart.

Newton's third law of motion In every interaction, there is a pair of forces

acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the force on the first object
equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force
on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second
object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction
force pairs.

Newton's third law of motion applied to collisions between two objects. In a

collision between two objects, both objects experience forces which are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Such forces cause one object
to speed up (gain momentum) and the other object to slow down (lose
momentum). According to Newton's third law, the forces on the two objects
are equal in magnitude.

3. Inertia and Mass

Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion. An
object will continue to move at the same speed in the same direction unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force. Inertia & Mass Inertia & Mass of a
bowling ball rolled down the road would eventually come to a stop. Friction
is an unbalanced force that causes the ball to stop or slow down. Without
friction, the ball would keep going.

Mass is the amount of matter in an object. A bowling ball has more mass
than a tennis ball. The greater the mass of an object the greater its inertia.

Mass is the measurement of inertia.

4. Conservation of Momentum

Law of Conservation of Momentum

In a closed system, the vector sum of the momenta before and after an
impact must be equal.

Before After

m1v1 +m2v2m1v1 +m2v2 = m1v′1m1v1′ + m2v′2m2v2′

Internal and External Forces

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 10
GRAVITATION

Gravity is one of the most basic forces in the universe. It plays a

fundamental role not only in the structure of our solar system but also in the
way objects behave on Earth.

Gravitation

Gravitation is the force of attraction between two objects in the universe.

Gravitation may be the attraction of objects by the earth.

This force is proportional to the product of masses of the objects and

inversely proportional

to the square of the distance between them. It is independent of medium.

Gravitational force GMmr2GMmr2

Eg :- If a body is dropped from a certain height, it falls downwards due to

earth’s gravity. If a body is thrown upwards, it reaches a certain height and
then falls downwards due to the earth’s gravity.

 Gravitation may be the attraction between objects in outer space.

Eg :- Attraction between the earth and moon.

Attraction between the sun and planets.

GRAVITY

 A natural force that pulls all objects toward the center of the earth
 keeps the moon orbiting
 It holds stars together . . .
 And binds galaxies together for billions of years ….Prevents Planets
from losing their atmospheres.

2.Universal law of gravitation:

 The universal law of gravitation states that, ‘Every object in the

universe attracts every other object with a force which is directly
proportional to product of the masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.’

 The SI unit of G is N m2 kg−2N m2 kg−2 and its value

is 6.673 ×10−11N m2 kg−26.673 ×10−11N m2 kg−2
 The strength of the gravitational attraction between two objects
depends on two factors:
 How big the objects are (how much mass they have) and
 How far apart they are.

3. Free Fall

 With negligible air resistance, falling objects can be considered freely

falling. objects of different shapes accelerate differently (stone vs
 feather)

4 .To calculate the value of” g“(acceleration due to gravity)

 The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g.

 The unit of g is same as the unit of acceleration ms−2ms−2
 From the second law of motion, force is the product of mass and
acceleration. F = ma
 For free fall, force is the product of mass and acceleration due to
gravity.
F=mgormg==GMmr2F=mgormg==GMmr2

orgGMr2orgGMr2

where M is the mass of the Earth and d is the distance between the object
and the earth.

 For objects near or on the surface of the earth d is equal to the radius
of the earth R
 F=mgormg==GMmr2F=mgormg==GMmr2

orgGMr2orgGMr2

5. Mass and Weight:

 Mass is a fundamental, universal property. You have the same

amount of mass no matter where you are in the Universe.

 Weight is not fundamental its value depends on circumstances in the

Universe. Weight is a force. It is the resultant gravitational force
exerted on a body with mass m by all the other bodies on the
Universe.
Weight = Fg = G m Me/ R2 = mgFg = G m Me/ R2 = mg
whereMeMe is the mass of the Earth and R is the radius of the Earth.

6. Weight Of The Object On Moon

 The mass of the moon is less than the mass of the earth. So the
moon exerts lesser force on the objects than the earth.
  The weight of an object on the moon is one sixth (1/6th )(1/6th ) of its
weight on the earth.
 The weight of an object on the earth is the force with which the earth
attracts the object and the weight of an object on the moon is the
force with which the moon attracts the object.

Celestial body Mass (kg) Radius (m)

Earth 5.98 x 10245.98 x 10245 6.37 x 1066.37 x 106
Moon 7.36 x 10227.36 x 1022 1.74 x 1061.74 x 106

7. Thrust & Pressure

 Thrust is the force acting on an object perpendicular to the surface.

 Pressure is the force acting on unit area of a surface
ThrustPressure =−−−−−−−−−−AreaThrustPressure =−−−−−−−−−
−Area
 The SI unit of thrust is N/m2 orN m−2N/m2 orN m−2. It is called
Pascal (Pa).

8. Pressure In Fluids

 Fluids exert pressure in all directions

 Pressure exerted on fluids is transmitted equally in all directions.

9. Buoyancy

 When an object is immersed in a fluid it experiences an upward force

called buoyant force. This property is called buoyancy or upthrust.

10. Why objects float or sink when placed on the surface of water?

 Take some water in a beaker. Take a piece of cork and an iron nail of
the same mass. Place them on the water. The cork floats and the nail
sinks.
  If the density of an object is less than the density of a liquid, it will
float on the liquid and if the density of an object is more than the
density of a liquid, it will sink in the liquid.

11. Archeimedes Principle

 Archimedes’ principle states that, When a body is partially or fully

immersed in a fluid it experiences an upward force that is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by it.’

12 .Relative density

 The relative density of a substance is the ratio of the density of a

substance to the density of water. It is a ratio of similar quantities and
has no unit.

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 11
Work & Energy

1. Work Done By A Constant Force

 Work is a scalar quantity equal to the product of the displacement x

and the component of the force Fx in the direction of the
displacement..
 Work is defined as a force acting upon an object to cause a
displacement
 Mathematically, work can be expressed by the following equation.
W∙F x d cos q ( cos 00∙1)W∙F x d cos q ( cos 00∙1)
 where F - force, d - displacement, and the angle (theta) is defined as
the angle between the force and the displacement vector
 Three things are necessary for the performance of work:
 There must be an applied force F.
 There must be a displacement x.
 The force must have a component along the displacement

Negative Work

The friction force f opposes the displacement

Positive Work

Force F contributes to displacement x.

2. Energy And Its Forms

The metric system unit of energy is the joule (J), after James Joule.

• Mechanical energy is the energy which is possessed by an object due to

its motion or its stored energy of position

Forms of Energy

• Kinetic energy : is the energy of motion

Energy which a body possesses because of its motion, which occurs

anywhere from an atomic level to that of a whole organism

Examples of Kinetic Energy: This is not an all-inclusive list.

 Electrical – The movement of atoms

 Electromagnetic or Radiant – The movement of waves
 Thermal or Heat – The movement of molecules
 Motion – The movement of objects
 Sound – The movement through waves

Engineers generally refer to thermal/heat energy as “internal energy” and

use “kinetic energy” strictly in reference to motion. Potential Energy (Stored
energy or gravitational energy)

 The capacity to do work by virtue of position or configuration

 an object can store energy as the result of its position or elastic

source
 Potential Energy is maximum at the maximum HEIGHT

Energy transformation involves the conversion of one form of energy into

another form. Examples of energy transformation include:
• Chemical – Food is consumed and converted into motion for playing
sports or taking a test.

• Radiant – Sunlight is consumed by plants and converted into energy for

growth.

• Electrical – Energy transferred to an oven is converted to thermal energy

for heating our food.

Now you know the basic forms of energy. The next question is “What are
the energy sources?”

There are renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy. A renewable

energy source is a form of energy that is constantly and rapidly replenished
by natural processes.

Examples of renewable energy sources include:

• Biomass – The use of a living or once living organism as fuel

• Hydropower – The energy produced from the movement of water

• Geothermal – The use of heat from within the Earth or from the
atmosphere near oceans to warm houses or other buildings

• Wind – The use of wind to generate electricity

Solar – The use of the sun as a source of heat; for instance, to heat a room
within a house, etc.

Energy Conversion

Fossil fuels Chemical → Heat → Mechanical → Electrical

Solar cells Sunlight → Electrical

Wind turbines Kinetic → Mechanical → Electrical

Hydroelectric Gravitational potential → Mechanical → Electrical

Nuclear Nuclear → Heat → Mechanical → Electrical

3. Potential energy of an object at a height

An object increases its energy when raised through a height.

The potential energy of an object at a height depends on the ground level

or the zero level

4. Law Of Conservation Of Energy

The principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The total mechanical energy (E = KE+PE)(E = KE+PE) of an object

remains constant as the object moves, provided that the net work done by
external non-conservative forces is zero, Wnc=0JWnc=0J

Total mechanical energy: the sum of kinetic energy and gravitational

potential energy

E=KE+PE

Wnc=(KEf−KE0)+(PEf−PE0)Wnc=(KEf−KE0)+(PEf−PE0)

Wnc=(KEf+PEf)−(KE0+PE0)Wnc=(KEf+PEf)−(KE0+PE0)

Wnc=Ef−E0Wnc=Ef−E0

Ef=−KEf+PEfEf=−KEf+PEf

E=KE0+PE0E=KE0+PE0

5. Rate of Doing Work & Commercial Unit Of Energy POWER

Rate at which work is performed or energy is expended P=WtP=Wt

Watt is the base unit of Power .One watt is equal to 1 joule of work per
second

Types of Power

 Electrical Power

Uses electrical energy to do work

 Mechanical Power
Uses mechanical energy to do work (linear, rotary)

 Fluid Power

Uses energy transferred by liquids (hydraulic) and gases (pneumatic)

• Power is the rate that we use energy.

• Power = Work or Energy / Time

• P = W/t = F × d/t = F vP = W/t = F × d/t = F v

• The unit joule is too small .The bigger unit of energy called kilowatt hour
(kW h)

1 kW h is the energy used in one hour

at the rate of 1000 J s−−1 (or 1 kW).1000 J s−−1 (or 1 kW).

1 kW h = 1 kW ∗1 h1 kW h = 1 kW ∗1 h

= 1000 W∗3600 s= 3600000 J1 kW h = 3.6 x 106J.

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 12
Sound

1. Production of Sound Sound is produced due to the vibration of objects.

Vibration is the rapid to and fro motion of an object.
Vibrating objects are the source of all sounds Irregular, chaotic vibrations
produce noise Regular, controlled vibration can produce music. All sound is
a combination of pure frequencies. A stretched rubber band when plucked
vibrates and produces sound.

2. Propagation of Sound When an object vibrates, the particles around

the medium vibrate. The particle in contact with the vibrating object is first
displaced from its equilibrium position.
The disturbance produced by the vibrating body travels through the
medium but the particles do not move forward themselves.
A wave is a disturbance which moves through a medium by the vibration of
the particles of the medium. So sound is considered as a wave. Sound
waves Require medium for transmission.
Sound waves are called mechanical waves When a vibrating object
moves forward, it pushes and compresses the air in front of it forming a
region of high pressure called compression (C). When the vibrating object
moves backward, it forms a region of low pressure called rarefaction(R).

A vibrating object producing a series of compressions (C) and rarefaction

(R)

In these waves the particles move back and forth parallel to the direction of
propagation of the disturbance. Such waves are called longitudinal
waves.

There is another kind of waves called transverse waves. In these

waves the particles oscillate up and down perpendicular to the propagation
of the direction of disturbance.

Sound propagates in a medium as a series of compressions (C) and rare

factions (R).

Compressions are the regions of high pressure and density where the
particles are crowded andare represented by the upper portion of the curve
called crest.

Rarefactions are the regions of low pressure and density where the
particles are spread out and are represented by the lower portion of the
curve called trough

Characteristics of a sound wave

Frequency of sound wave

The number of oscillations per unit time is called the frequency of the
sound wave. It is represented by the symbol v  (Greek letter nu). Its SI unit
is hertz (Hz)

Time period of sound wave:

The time taken by wave to complete one oscillation is called time-period.

Frequency and time are represented as follows :-

V for one oscillation

T=1VorV=1TT=1VorV=1T

Amplitude of sound wave

The amplitude of sound wave is the height of the crest or tough.

It is represented by the letter A.

The SI unit is the same as that of density or pressure.

The wavelength is the distance between the "crests" of two waves that are
next to each other.

The amplitude is how high the crests are.

Pitch and loudness of sound

The pitch of sound (shrillness or flatness) depends on the frequency of

vibration.

If the frequency is high, the sound has high pitch and if the frequency is
low, the sound has low pitch

Speed of sound

The speed of sound is more in solids, less in liquids and least in gases.

The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium. If the
temperature of the medium is more, the speed of sound is more

3. Reflection of Sound

Sound gets reflected at the surface of a solid or liquid and follows the laws
of reflection.

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.

4. Echo

If we shout or clap near a reflecting surface like tall building or a mountain,

we hear the same sound again. This sound which we hear is called echo. It
is caused due to the reflection of sound. To hear an echo clearly, the time
interval between the original sound and the echo must be at least 0.1 s.

Since the speed of sound in air is 344 m/s, the distance travelled by sound
in 0.I s = 344

m/s x 0.1 s =34.4 mm/s x 0.1 s =34.4 m. So to hear an echo clearly, the
minimum distance of the reflecting surface should be half this distance that
is 17.2 m.

Reverberation
Echoes may be heard more than once due to repeated or multiple
reflections of sound from several reflecting surfaces. This causes
persistence of sound called reverberation.

In big halls or auditoriums to reduce reverberation, the roofs and walls are
covered by sound absorbing materials like compressed fibre boards, rough
plaster or draperies.

5. Uses of Multiple Reflection Of Sound

i) Megaphones, horns, musical instruments like trumpets, etc. are deigned

to send sound by multiple reflection in a particular direction without
spreading in all directions.

ii) Doctors listen to sounds from the human body through a stethoscope.
The sound of heartbeat reaches the doctor’s ears by multiple reflection.

iii) Generally the ceilings of cinema halls and auditoriums are curved so
that sound after multiple reflection reaches all parts of the hall. Sometimes
a curved sound board is placed behind the stage so that sound after
multiple reflection spreads evenly across the hall.

6. Range of Hearing

Human beings can hear sound frequencies between 20 Hz and 2000 Hz.,
called as audible range of sound.

Sound whose frequency is less than 20 Hz is called infrasonic sound

Sound whose frequency is more than 2000 Hz is called ultrasonic sound

7. Uses of ultrasonic sound

Ultrasonic sound is used to clean objects like electronic Components, used

to detect cracks in metal blocks, used in ultra sound scanners for getting
images of internal organs of the human body used to break small stones
formed in the kidneys into fine grains.

8. Sonar

It is a device which uses ultrasonic waves to measure distance, direction

and speed of underwater objects. The distance of the object can be
calculated by knowing the speed of sound in water and the time taken
between the transmission and reception of ultrasound
9.Structure of the human ear

The sound waves passes through the ear canal to a thin membrane called
eardrum. The eardrum vibrates. The vibrations are amplified by the three
bones of the middle ear calledhammer, anvil and stirrup. Middle ear then
transmits the sound waves to the inner ear. The brain then interprets the
signals as sound.

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 13
Why do we fall ill?

1.”Health” is a state of being well enough to function well physically,

mentally, and socially.

2.”Disease”( disturbed ease) means being uncomfortable. One or more

systems of the body will change, give rise to “Symptoms” ( Cough, loose
motions, pus formation, headache, fever, breathlessness, vomiting, fits,
unconsciousness, inflammation , swelling and general effects - a Doctor
look for the basis of symptoms). Diseases are basically two types- Acute
Disease & Chronic Disease.
3.Acute Disease: The disease which lasts for only a short period of time is
called Acute Disease Ex. Common Cold.

4.Chronic Disease: The disease which lasts for long period of time is
called Chronic Disease Ex. Tuberculosis.

Acute Disease Chronic Disease

They are short duration disease They are long lasting disease
Patient recovers completely after the Patient does not recover
cure completely
There is no loss of weight or feeling of There is often loss of weight of
tiredness afterward feeling of tiredness
There is short duration loss of work and There is a prolonged loss of work
efficiency and efficiency

5. Causes of Diseases : Most of the diseases have many causes, rather

than one single cause, like unclean water, nourishment, genetic
differences, genetic abnormalities e.g. Based on the causes diseases are
of two types: Non-Infectious Diseases and Infectious Diseases.

6. Non-Infectious Diseases: Not caused by infectious agents, mostly

internal and non- infectious cause. Ex. Cancer

7. Infectious Diseases: Caused by infectious agents.

Type Of Disease

 Bacterial diseases - Typhoid, Cholera, Tuberculosis, Acne, Anthrax,

 Viral diseases - Common Cold, Influenza, Dengue fever, AIDS,
Japanese encephalitis or brain fever
 Fungal diseases: Skin diseases
 Protozoan diseases -Malaria ( Plasmodium), Kalaazar
(Leishmania), Sleeping sickness( Trypanosomes)
 . Worm diseases - Ascariosis ( Round worm),
Elephantiasis(Wuchereria )

8. The infectious diseases spread by agents are called as Communicable

Diseases.

Type of
SNo Example
Disease
Air born
1. Pneumonia, common cold, Tuberculosis;
Diseases
2. Water born Cholera, hepatitis
 diseases
Sexual
3. HIV, Syphilis
Diseases
- Rabbis.
Animal born
4. *(Vector- the animal carrying infectious agent from a sick
Disease
personto another potential host without getting affected
Ex. Mosquitocarrying Malaria Parasite)

9. Principles of Treatment

1. Antibiotics- many bacteria make a cell wall to protect themselves,

the antibiotic (Penicillin) blocks the bacterial process that builds cell
wall and blocks the biochemical pathways. Antibiotics do not work
against viral infections. Antiviral medicine is harder than making
Antibacterial medicine because Virus has only few biochemical
mechanisms of their own. Other medicines bring down fever, reduce
pain or loose motions. We can take bed rest to conserve energy.

10 Principles of Prevention :Following three limitation are normally

confronted while treating an infectious disease:

 Once someone has disease, their body functions are damaged and
may never recover completely.
 Treatment will take time, which means that someone suffering from a
disease is likely to be bedridden for some time even if we can give
proper treatment.
 The person suffering from an infectious disease can serve as the
source from where the infection may spread to other people.

General ways of preventing infectious disease

 Air-borne – We can prevent exposure by providing living condition

that are not over crowded.
 Water-borne – prevent by providing safe drinking water. This is done
by treating the water to kill any microbial contamination.
 Vector-borne – We can provide clean environment, which would not
allow mosquito breeding.

Proper nutrition is essential to maintain body immunity. There are vaccines

against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough, measles, polio and many
other diseases.

12. Prevention of disease is better than cure. Hygiene is the basic key to
maintain good health.
Vaccination is another way to prevent the disease in which killed microbes
are introduced into the body to develop antibodies and can preveent
occurence of disease during actual entry of disease causing microbes.

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 14
Natural resources

1. The” Biosphere” is the life supporting zone of the earth with three sub-
zones called as lithosphere (rock part), atmosphere (air part) and
hydrosphere (water part). Breath of air

2. Composition of Air

3. The interactions between different components of the Biosphere to

maintain the balance between the biotic and a biotic component
makes “Biogeochemical cycle”. Ex. Water Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle,
Carbon cycle, Oxygen Cycle,

4. Role of atmosphere in climate control : atmosphere act as protective

blanket for the earth. Since atmosphere is a bad conductor of heat, it keeps
the average temperature of the earth constant. At night, it slows down the
escape of heat into outer space.

5. The movement of air : the atmosphere gets heated from the solar
radiation that is reflected back by the land or water bodies. As a result of
heating, convection currents are set up in the air. Since land gets heated
faster than water, the air over land gets heated faster than air above water
bodies.

6. In coastal regions, during the day, the air above the land gets heated
faster and starts rising. So a region of low pressure is created and air over
sea moves into this area of low pressure. The movement of air from one
region to the other region causes Wind.
7. During the day, the direction of wind would be from the sea to the land
and at night, both land and sea starts to cool. Since water cools down
slower than the land, the air above water would be warmer than air above
land, thus the direction of wind would be from the land to the sea.

8. Air pollution : it is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or

biological characteristics. It is caused due to an increase in the content of
harmful substances (pollutant) such as oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, etc.

9. Harmful effect of air pollution :

 It affects the respiratory system causing breathing difficulties eg;

bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer, tuberculosis, etc.
 Burning of fossil fuels like coal and petroleum releases oxides of
nitrogen and sulphur. Inhalation of these gases is dangerous.
 Combustion of fossil fuel also increases the amount of suspended
particles in air. The presence of high levels of all these pollutants,
reduce visibility in cold weather where water also condenses out of
air forming smog.
 Acid rain formed from the gases like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides present in polluted air. It causes damage to living and non-
living thing.

3. The Water Cycle:

a) The process in which water evaporates and falls on the land as rain and
later flows back into the sea via rivers is known as the “Water
Cycle”. Water flows through rocks containing soluble minerals, some of
them get dissolved in the water. Thus the rivers carry many nutrients from
the land to sea and these are used by the marine organisms.

b) When the water vapors condense as water droplets and grow big and
heavy, they fall down in the form of “rain”. It ranges from 5 cm to 200 cm of
rain fall in a year in ourcountry. In large parts of India, rains are mostly
brought by the south-west or north-east monsoons. Depressions in the Bay
of Bengal may also cause rains in some areas.

c) Water is a wonder liquid because all cellular processes take place in a

water medium; substances are transported in a dissolved form; terrestrial
forms require fresh water to maintain the equilibrium of salts; major
resource to determine the life on the earth.

d) The dissolved fertilizers (NPK fertilizers), pesticides (DDT), sewage

(Disease causing Organisms), waste from factories (Mercury) and water
released from the dams can affect the life forms on the earth. The
dissolved Oxygen is being used by the animals and plants that live in
water, would adversely affect the aquatic organisms. The change in
temperature would be dangerous for the eggs and larvae of the various
animals particularly susceptible to temperature changes. It leads to “water
pollution”.

4. Nitrogen Cycle:

a) The nitrogen gas makes up 78% of our atmosphere. It is essential for the
synthesis of proteins, DNA, RNA, urea, alkaloids and Vitamins.

b) The simple molecular nitrogen from the atmosphere is converted into

more complex molecules in the living beings and back again to atmosphere
is called “Nitrogen Cycle”.
i) Nitrogen fixation by Lightening: During lightning, the molecular
nitrogen is converted into oxides of nitrogen and dissolves in water to give
nitric and nitrous acids and fall on lands along with rains. These are then
utilized by various life forms.
ii) Nitrogen fixation by Bacteria: The molecular nitrogen is converted into
nitrates and nitrites, by free living bacteria or the bacteria present in the
root nodules of legumes.
iii) The conversion of molecular nitrogen into nitrates and nitrites is called
as” Nitrification”. Plants generally covert them into amino acids. The
conversion of nitrates and nitrates into Ammonia is called
as” Ammonification”. The conversion of Ammonia into molecular Nitrogen
is called as” Denitrification”. Thereby nitrates and nitrites are
converted into molecular or elemental nitrogen in the nature.

5. The Carbon cycle:

i) The Carbon dioxide gas makes up 0.039 % of our atmosphere. Carbon

occurs in the elemental form as diamonds and graphite in earth. Carbon is
essential for the synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids
and Vitamins in living organisms.

ii) The Carbon dioxide Fixation: Green plants convert Carbon dioxide into

glucose in the presence of sunlight through Photosynthesis. The glucose
molecules are converted into other biologically important molecules. And
many marine animals use carbonates dissolved in sea water to make
shells, exoskeletons.

iii) The combustion: The Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is added by the
process of combustion, where fuels are burnt to provide energy for various
needs like heating, cooking, transportation, and industrial process.
iv) The Greenhouse Effect: The percentage of Carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is said to have doubled since the industrial revolution when
human beings stated burning fossil fuels on a very large scale. The Carbon
dioxide is a greenhouse gas. The increase in the Carbon dioxide content
would cause more heat to be retained by the atmosphere and lead to
Global Warming. It is called” Greenhouse Effect".

6 .Oxygen Cycle:

i) The Oxygen gas makes up 21 % of our atmosphere. Oxygen is essential

component of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids in living
organisms.

ii) Oxygen from our atmosphere is used up in three processes, namely

combustion, respiration and in the formation of oxides of nitrogen. Oxygen
is returned to the atmosphere in only one major process, that is,
Photosynthesis, it is called as Oxygen Cycle.

iii) The air is heated faster than water; the air over land would also be
heated faster than the air over water bodies. The movement of air from one
region to the other creates winds, during the day the direction of the wind
would be from the sea to land. At night, both land and sea start to cool.

iv) The oxides of nitrogen and sulphur gases dissolve in rain to gives rise to
“Acid rains”. The smog is a visible indication of Air Pollution.
The pollutants bring respiratory, cardiac problems and allergies. The
organisms called Lichens are found on the bark of trees, they are indicators
of pollution free environment. Three atoms of Oxygen ( O3) is called
as Ozone. The Ozone is poisonous but absorbs harmful radiations from the
Sun. The Ozone layer around the earth, if, dwindles further may cause
Health hazards including Cancers . Recently discovered the Ozone hole;
in the region of Antarctica.

CBSE Class 9 Science

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 15
Improvement in food resources

1. Food Resources: Cereals (Wheat, rice, maize, millets and sorghum)

provide us carbohydrates; Pulses (Grams, pea and lentil) provide us
proteins; Oil seeds (Soya bean, ground nut, sesame, and castor) provide
us fats; Vegetables, spices and fruits provide us a range of minerals,
nucleic acids and vitamins.
In addition to these food crops, fodder crops like berseem, oats or sudan
grass are raised as food for the livestock are called as fodder crops.

2. The Kharif crops: The crops grown in rainy season are called as Kharif
crops (Paddy, Soya bean, pigeon pea and maize). They are grown from
June to October.

3. The Rabi crops: The crops grown in winter season are called Rabi
crops (Wheat, gram, peas, and mustard). They are grown November to
April.

Compare Kharif crops and Rabi crops:

SN Crop Season Example

Kharif June to October ( Rainy
1. Paddy, Soya bean, and maize
crops Season)
Wheat, gram, peas, and
2. Rabi crops Nov. to April ( winter season)
mustard

4. The Green Revolution: Food supplies are generally as proteins,

carbohydrates, fats, minerals, nucleic acids and vitamins in all living
organisms. Indian population is growing enormously. Green Revolution is
the need of the hour to increase food-grain production.

5. Sustainable Practices: For sustained livelihood, one should undertake

mixed farming, inter cropping, and integrated farming practices, for
example, combining agriculture with livestock/ poultry/ fisheries/bee-
keeping. The major group of activities for improving crop yield can be
classified as: Crop varietal improvement, Crop production improvement,
Crop protection improvement

6. The Crop varietal improvement:

a) Hybridization: It refers to crossing between genetically dissimilar

plants;It is all to get higher yield, improved quality, biotic and abiotic
resistance, change in maturity duration, wider adaptability and desirable
agronomic characteristics.

SN Type Context
Inter varietal
1 between different varieties
Hybridization
Inter specific
2 between different species
Hybridization
3 Inter generic between different genera
 Hybridization
Another way of improving the crop is by
Genetically Modified
4 introducing a gene that would provide desired
Crops (GMC).
characteristic.

7. The Crop production improvement: They include” no cost

production”,” low cost production” or “high cost production” practices.

1. Nutrients (Sixteen elements are required for growth are called as

essential elements Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen+ Macro nutrients
& Micronutrients. They increase the yield)

SNo. Macro nutrient Micro nutrient

Six elements are required in larger Other seven elements are
1.
quantity required in small quantity
Ex.Nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, Ex. Iron, manganese, boron, zink,
2.
Potassium, magnesium, sulphur copper, molybdinum, chlorine

1. Manure & Fertilizers:

SNo. Manure Fertilizers

Fertilizers are commercially
produced plant
Manure is prepared by the
nutrients. Excess fertilizers
decomposition of animal excreta and
destroy the soil fertility.
plant waste is called as Humus. It
Organic farming: No use of
1 decides the texture of the soil.
chemicals fertilizers, herbicides,
Compost: Farm waste, cow dung etc.
pesticides etc.
Vermi compost: Compost prepared
Culturing blue green algae,
by using earthworms.
neem leaves, healthy cropping
systems.
It is cheap and prepared in rural It is costly and is prepared in
2
homes and fields factories
3 It is voluminous and bulky It is compact and concentrated
 
It is inconvenient to store, transport, It is easy to store, transport,
handle. handle.
4
It is nutrient specific and can
5 It is not nutrient specific. provide specifically nitrogen,
phosphorus etc.
6 Add great humus to the soil Does not add humus to the soil.

3. Irrigation: India has variety of water resources: Wells, canals, river lift

system, tanks, rainwater harvesting, water shedding management to
increase in ground water levels and to check the water flowing away to the
sea. Planning to reduce soil erosion.

4. Cropping patterns:

S
Mixed cropping Inter-cropping Crop rotation
N.
Growing
Two or more crops grown different crops
Two or more crops
simultaneously on the same on a piece of
1 Grown simultaneously on
piece >of land in a definite land in a pre-
the same piece of land
pattern planned
succession
Two or three
Ex. Wheat+ Gram
crops can be
Wheat+ Mustard; Soyabean + maize/bajra +
2 grown in a year
Wheat+ gram; Cowpea
depending upon
Groundnut+sunflower.
the duration.
A few rows of one crop
alternate with a few rows of a
The availability
second crop. Crops are
of moisture and
selected such that their
A type of insurance Irrigation
nutrient requirements are
3 against failure of one of facilities decides
different. This ensures the
the crops. the choice of the
maximum utilization of the
crop to be
nutrients supplied and
cultivated.
prevents pests and diseases
spreading in the crop field

8. Crop protection improvement/ management: Field crops are infested by

large number of weeds, insects pests, diseases & storage of grains

SN. Weeds Insect pests Diseases Storage of grains

Disease is
Weeds are Insect pest is
caused by Different factors
1 unwanted plants in nuisance in the
pathogens in are responsible.
the crop field crop field
the field
Diseases alter
Insect pest
Weeds take up the physiology Different factors
affect the health
2 nutrients and of crops and reduce the quality
of crop and
reduce the growth reduce the of stored grains
reduce the yield.
yield
3 Ex. Xanthium, Ex. Caterpillars, Ex. Bacteria, Botic factors:
Parthenium dragonfly Virus insects, rodents,
 fungi Abiotic
factors: moisture &
temperature
Removal of weeds
at an early stage is Spread of Spread of Systematic
4 recommended. chemicals such chemicals to management of
as pesticides kill pathogens ware house.
Spray weedicides

9. Animal Husbandry: It is a scientific management of animal livestock,

includes feeding, breeding and diseases control. Animal-based farming
includes cattle farming, Poultry farming, fish farming, and bee Keeping.

S Cattle Poultry
Content Fish farming Bee Keeping.
N. farming farming
Milk
(milch Cheep source
animals) of animal Honey, wax,
and Meat, protein. Fish Medicinal
draught chicken, e production is preparations.
1 Purpose labor gg aquaculture.
(draught productio Growing of Additional
animals) n marine fishes income to the
in is Called mari farmer.
agricultur culture.
e.
Exotic- Exotic- high
quality of honey
Cross
lactation Both Exotic & collection
breeding: Exotic &
Indigenou Indigenous capacity &
2 To get Indigenou
s breeds- fishe sare stingless.
desired s breeds
quality of used Indigenous
qualities
disease bees-are
resistance used
3 Desirable Good Good Fish Value or
maintena ventilation ventilation farming/locatin quality
nce in sheds in sheds g large depends
Roughag Roughag schools of upon the
e/ e/ fish/use of pasturage or
concentra concentra satellites and the flowers
tes tes echo-sounds available for
Protection Protection In Composite the taste of
from from fish culture honey.
parasites parasites seed is wild,
 mixed with
other species.
&skin & skin
Hormonal
diseases diseases
stimulation to
Vaccinati Vaccinati
bring desired
on on
quality in fish
production.
Fresh water
Exotic or
(Macrobrachiu
foreign
m)&
breeds
Exotic- Marine(Penea
(Jercy,
Leghorn us) prawns Apisceranain
brown
4 Example Indigenou Fresh water dica Dorsata
Swiss)Loc
s breeds- fishes Marine A. florae
al breeds
Aseel fishes(Bomba
(Red
y duck,
sindhi,
sardines)
Sahiwal)
Common