Chapter-2: Basic Laws

2.1: Introduction

• Knowledge of basic concepts, acquired in last chapter, itself is not

enough to meet the objective of executing circuit analysis,.

• To investigate circuit variables like voltage, current or power requires

deep understanding of fundamental laws that govern electric circuits.

• Basic laws like the Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation

upon which electric circuit analysis is built.

• Additionally the familiarity with techniques commonly applied in

circuit design and analysis is also essential to perform circuit analysis.

• Such techniques include combining resistors in series or parallel,

voltage division, current division, and delta  wye transformations.

• To begin with, these laws and techniques are applied to resistive

circuits only and will be later expanded to other circuit elements.

2.2: Ohm’s Law

• Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the

flow of electric charge.

• This property or ability of materials to resist current, is known as

resistance and is represented by the symbol R.

• Resistance of any material depends directly on its length (l) and

indirectly on its cross-sectional area (A), as shown in Fig. 2.1(a).

• We can represent resistance of any material in mathematical form as,

• (2.1).

• Variable  (Rho) is known as resistivity

of material, measured in ohm-meters.

• Good conductors, e.g. gold & copper

have low  values, while insulators, e.g.

mica & paper, have high  values.

• Table 2.1 provide values of  for some common materials used as

conductors, insulators and semiconductors.

• Circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior of a

material is the resistor.

• Class Work: Distinguish between resistance, resistivity & resistor?

• Resistors used in electrical circuits are usually made

from metallic alloys and carbon compounds.

• Circuit symbol for the resistor is shown in Fig. 2.1(b),

where R stands for the resistance of the resistor.

• The resistor is the passive element i.e. it dissipates energy as heat.

• The relationship between current and voltage for a resistor is best

defined by what is known as Ohm’s law.

• Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly

proportional to the current i flowing through it i.e. v  i (2.2).

• Selecting resistance R of a resistor as constant of proportionality, the

mathematical form of Ohm’s law becomes

• v = iR (2.3).

• Resistance R of any circuit element denotes its ability to resist the

flow of electric current; and it is measured in ohms ( ).

• We may deduce from Eq. (2.3) that R = (2.4).

• Thus 1  = 1 V/A.

• To apply Ohm’s law as stated in Eq. (2.3), pay careful attention to the

current direction and voltage polarity.

• Direction of current i & polarity of voltage v must conform

with passive sign convention, as shown in Fig. 2.1(b).

• Conformation implies that current flows from a higher

potential to a lower potential and Ohm’s Law v = iR applies.

• Non-conformation to passive sign convention means the current flows

from a lower to a higher potential, and Ohm’s law v = – iR applies.

• Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important

that we consider the two extreme possible values of R.

• Element with R = 0 is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(a).

• For a short circuit, v = iR = 0 (2.5).

• Eq. (2.5) shows that the voltage is zero

but the current could be anything.

• In practice, a short circuit is usually a

connecting wire assumed to be a perfect

conductor.

• Thus, a short circuit is a circuit element

with resistance approaching zero.

• Similarly, an element with R =  is an

open circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(b).

• For an open circuit, (2.6).

• Eq. (2.6) shows that current is zero though voltage could be anything.

• Thus, open circuit is circuit element with resistance reaching infinity.

• A resistor is available either as fixed or variable element.

• Most resistors are of fixed type i.e. their resistance remains constant.

• The two common types of fixed resistors (wire wound and

composition) are shown in Fig. 2.3.

• The composition resistors are used when large resistance is needed.

• The circuit symbol that we saw in Fig. 2.1(b) is for a fixed resistor.
• Variable resistors have adjustable resistance.

• The symbol for a variable resistor is shown in

Fig. 2.4(a).

• A common variable resistor is known as a potentiometer or pot for

short, with the symbol shown in Fig. 2.4(b).

• The pot is a three-terminal element with a sliding contact or wiper.

• Sliding the wiper, the resistances between it and fixed terminals vary.

• Like fixed resistors, variable resistors can be of either wire wound or

composition type, as shown in Fig. 2.5.

• Although resistors like those in Figs. 2.3 and 2.5 are used in circuit

designs, today most circuit components including resistors are either

surface mounted or integrated, as typically shown in Fig. 2.6.

• Not all resistors obey Ohm’s law, resistor that

obeys Ohm’s law is known as a linear resistor.

• It has a constant resistance and its i-v

characteristic is illustrated in Fig. 2.7(a):

• A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohm’s law.

• Its resistance varies with current and its i-v

characteristic is typically shown in Fig. 2.7(b).

• Examples of devices with nonlinear resistance are light bulb & diode.

• Please note that all practical resistors often exhibit nonlinear behavior

under certain conditions.

• Nevertheless, we will assume in this course that all elements actually

designated as resistors are linear.

• Another useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of

resistance R, known as conductance and denoted by G:

• G= (2.7).

• Conductance is measure of how well an element will conduct current.

• SI unit of conductance is Siemens (S) and 1 S = 1 A/V (2.8).

• Same resistance can be expressed in Ohms or Siemens.

• For example, 10  is the same as 0.1 S.

• From Eq. (2.7), i = Gv (2.9).

• Power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R & G i.e.

• p = vi = i2R = v2/R (2.10).

• p = vi = v2G = i2/G (2.11).

• We should note two things from Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11):

1. Power in resistor is nonlinear function of either current or voltage.

2. Since R & G are positive, power in resistor is always positive.

• Thus, a resistor always absorbs power from the circuit.

• This confirms the idea that a resistor is a passive element, incapable

of generating energy.

• Example 2.1: An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance?

• Applying ohm’s law R = v/i = 120/2 = 60 .

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.1.

• Example 2.2: In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, calculate the current i,

the conductance G, and the power p.

• The voltage across the resistor is the same as

the source voltage (30 V). How?

• Because the resistor and the voltage source are both connected to the

same pair of terminals.

• Hence, the current i = v/R=30/5000 = 6 mA.

• Thus conductance G = 1/R = 1/5000 = 0.2 mS.

• Class Work: Compute power using p = i2R and p = v2/R?

• In either case answer remains p = iv = 0.006 x 30 = 180 mW

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.2

• Example 2.3: Consider a voltage source of 20 sin t V connected

across a 5 k resistor. Find the current through the resistor and the

power dissipated.

• , therefore;

• p = vi = (20 sin t)(4 sin t) = 80 sin2 t mW. Check by p = i2R = v2/R

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.3.

2.3: Nodes, Branches and Loops

• Elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in several ways.

• To do so we must understand basic concepts of network topology.

• What is the difference between a network and a circuit?

• Principally the term network & circuit mean the same thing.

• Though Network is interconnection of elements & devices but circuit

is a network providing one or more closed paths for current flow.

• The convention, when addressing network topology, is to use the

word network rather than circuit.

• In network topology, we study properties relating to the placement of

elements in the network and geometric configuration of the network.

• A network topology is stated in terms of branches, nodes and loops.

• Branch represents any two-terminal active or passive circuit element.

• The circuit in Fig. 2.10 has five branches, namely, the 10 V voltage

source, the 2 A current source, and the three resistors.

• A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

• A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit.

• If a short circuit (a connecting wire) connects two nodes, the two

nodes constitute a single node.

• The circuit in Fig. 2.10 has three nodes

a, b and c.
• Notice that the three points that form node b are connected by

perfectly conducting wires and therefore constitute a single point.

• The same is true of the four points forming node c.

• To demonstrate that the circuit in Fig. 2.10 has only three nodes, the

circuit is redrawn in Fig. 2.11.

• The two circuits in Figs. 2.10 and

2.11 are identical, however, for the

sake of clarity, nodes b and c are

spread out with perfect conductors.

• A loop is any closed path in a circuit where no node appears twice.

• A loop is formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes,

and returning to the starting node without passing through any node

more than once. (except the start and finish nodes that are same)

• A loop is said to be independent if it contains at least one branch,

which is not a part of any other independent loop.

• Independent loops produce independent sets of equations.

• It is possible to form an independent set of loops where one of the

loops does not contain any such a branch i.e. non-shared branch.
• In Fig. 2.11, loop abca with the 2  resistor is first independent loop.

• Second independent loop comprises of 3  resistor & current source.

• To complete the set of three independent loops, 2  parallel with 3 

resistor, which has no unshared branch, could be taken as third loop.

• A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will

satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology i.e.

• OR 5 =2+4–1 (2.12).

• Not in book, but formula b – n + 1 can also be

used to determine needed simultaneous equations

to solve a circuit by loop or mesh analysis.

• What is a mesh? Mesh is a loop where NO closed path exists inside it.

• Circuit in Fig 2.11 has three meshes. Can you identify them?

• Remember; every mesh is a loop, but every loop may not be mesh.

• We need not remember formulae to acquire required set of equations.

• While drawing the mesh or loop, just ensure that each circuit element

is counted at least once in one of the selected loop or mesh.

• Two circuit elements are said to be in series if they exclusively share

a single node and consequently carry the same current.

• Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the

same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.

• Elements may be connected in a way that they are neither in series

nor in parallel e.g. 5 & 2  resistors in circuit shown in Fig. 2.10

• Class Work: Identify the elements connected in series & parallel?

• Note that the voltage source and the 5  resistor are in series while 2

& 3  resistors and source are in parallel.

• Self Study: Example 2.4 and P_Problem 2.4.

2.4: Kirchhoff’s Laws

• Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze every circuit.

• However, coupled with Kirchhoff’s laws, it does provide a amply

powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of electric circuits.

• Kirchhoff’s laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law

(KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

• Kirchhoff’s first law (KCL) is based on the law of conservation of

charge, which requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a

system cannot change.

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of all

currents entering a node (or a closed boundary/surface) is zero.

• Mathematically, KCL is expressed (2.13).

• Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the

nth current entering (or leaving) the node.

• By this KCL definition, currents entering a node are deemed positive,

while currents leaving may be taken as negative or vice versa.

• Self Study; Students should go through the proof of KCL, given on

page 38 of the book, in their own time

• Applying KCL on node of Fig. 2.16 give,

• By rearranging the terms, yield,

• This provide yet another way of describing the KCL and what is that?

• The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the

currents leaving the node. What are the other two KCL definitions?

• KCL also applies to a closed boundary (or surface). What is closed surface?

• In two dimensions, a closed boundary is the same as a closed path.

• A closed surface can also be defined as a set of circuit elements under

a closed path drawn on circuit that are interconnected electrically.

• Apply KCL to closed surface, illustrated in the circuit of Fig. 2.17?

• Answer: Currents entering/leaving a closed surface equal currents

leaving/entering it OR sum of currents entering/leaving it is zero.

• Application of KCL allow to combine

multiple current sources in parallel circuit.

• By KCL; total current in parallel circuit

must equal sum of currents by all sources.

• For example; consider parallel current

sources of circuit in Fig. 2.18(a).

• Equivalent (combined) current source can

be found by applying KCL to node a i.e.

• IT = I1 – I2 + I3 (2.18).

• Equivalent circuit is as in Fig. 2.18(b).

• Sources are equivalent if they have same terminal iv-characteristics.

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) is the second Kirchhoff’s law that is

based on the principle of conservation of energy.

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all

voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.

• Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

• (2,19).

• Where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of

branches in the loop) and is the mth voltage.

• Consider the circuit shown in Fig. (2.19).

• To list loop voltages, start at any branch

and traversed the loop in either clock wise

or anticlockwise direction.
• KVL applies to each loop independently.

• While writing the KVL equation, every voltage in loop is assigned

polarity of the element’s terminal polarity encountered first in a loop.

• Going clockwise around the loop; the resulting KVL equation would

be – v1 + v2 + v3 – v4 + v5 = 0 (2.20).

• Rearranged: v2 + v3 + vs = v1 + v4 (2.21).

• Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises (2.22).

• This represents an alternative form of defining the KVL.

• Note; going counterclockwise will yield same result as in Eq. (2.21).

• Except for the reversed signs, result also remain same as in Eq. (2.20).

• When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied to

obtain the equivalent voltage source.

• The combined or equivalent voltage is the algebraic sum of the

voltages of the individual sources as shown in Fig. (2.20).

• A circuit cannot contain two different voltages V1 and V2 in parallel or

KVL is violated unless V1 = V2.

• Can two different currents flow

simultaneously in a series circuit?

• That is not possible, unless I1 = I2; otherwise KCL will be violated.

• When ever current flows through resistor, a voltage develops across it,

which is referred to as voltage drop or load voltage.

• Voltage drop is part of the source voltage but both are not same.

• Source voltage provides the electrical energy to move electrons while

voltage drop converts the electrical energy into another energy form.

• Voltage drop across a load has a polarity, just like the voltage source.

• But polarity of voltage drop indicates only direction of current flow.

• Load voltages always equal source voltages in electrical circuit.

• Example 2.5: For the circuit in

Fig. 2.21(a), find voltages v1

and v2?

• Applying the Ohm’s law: v1 = 2i and v2 = – 3i (2.5.1).

• Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 2.21(b) yield KVL equation.

• – 20 + v1 – v2 = 0 (2.5.2).

• Substituting values from Eq. (2.5.1) yield – 20 + 2i – (– 3i) = 0.

• Simplifying reveal i = 4 A.

• Replacing i = 4 A in Eq. (2.5.1) give back v1 = 8 V and v2 = 12 V

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.5.

• Example 2.6: Determine vo and i in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.23(a)?

• Applying KVL around the loop as shown in Fig. 2.23(b)..

• – 12 + 4i + 2vo – 4 – (– 6i) = 0 (2.6.1).

• Since vo = – 6i (Ohm’s law), replacing its value in Eq. 2.6.1 reveal,

• – 16 + 4i – 12i + 6i = 0, solving it reveal i = – 8 A and vo = 48 V.

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.6.

• Example 2.7: Find io and vo in the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 2.25?

• Applying KCL to node a, yield;

• For the 4 resistor, Ohm’s law gives

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.7.

• Example 2.8: Find currents & voltages in circuit of Fig. 2.27(a)?

• By Ohm’s law, v1 = 8i1 , v2 = 3i2 and v3 = 6i3 (2.8.1).

• Application of KCL at node a, yield; i1 – i2 – i3 = 0 (2.8.2).

• KVL applied to loop -1 reveal;

• But v1 = 8i1 and v2 = 3i2, therefore – 30 + 8i1 + 3i2

• Hence (2.8.3).
• Applying KVL to loop 2; v2 = v3 (2.8.4).

• Replacing value of v2 and v3 from Eq. (2.8.1) leads to,

• 6i3 = 3i2 that leads to i3 = (2.8.5).

• Substituting i1 & i2 (Eqs. 2.8.3 & 2.8.5) into KCL Eq. (2.8.2) reveal,

• and once solved i2 = 2 A.

• Using the value of i2, in Eqs. (2.8.1) to (2.8.5) reveal;

• i1 = 3 A, i3 = 1 A, v1 = 24 V, v2 = 6 V and v3 = 6 V.

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.8.

2.5: Series Resistors and Voltage Division

• Single-loop circuit of Fig. 2.29, contains only two resistors in series.

• Equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is

sum of individual resistances i.e. Req = = R1 + R2 +…+Rn.

• Thus circuit of Fig 2.29 can be redrawn as shown in Fig 2.30

• Since the same current i flows in both of them, applying Ohm’s law to

each of the resistors, we obtain v1 = iR1 & v2 = iR2 (2.24).

• Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in

direct proportion to their resistances; i.e. larger the resistance, the

larger the voltage drop.

• Thus voltage drop across each resistor in single loop can also be

computed without knowing the series current by voltage division i.e.

• (2.30).

• This is called the principle of voltage division, and the circuit in Fig.

2.29 is called a voltage divider.

• In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors in series with the source

voltage v, then voltage drop across the nth resistor ( Rn) will be;

• (2.32).

2.6: Parallel Resistors and Current Division

• Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.31,

where two resistors are connected

in parallel and therefore have the

same voltage “v” across them.

• By Ohm’s law,
• Thus; and applying KVL

• We can also find the circuit’s equivalent resistance and apply Ohm’s

law to directly find the total current in the circuit i.e. i = v  Req.

• Equivalent resistance (Req) of the resistors in parallel is given by

reciprocal formula, described in three ways i.e.

• (2.37).

• (2.38).

• (2.39).

• Proof of same is given on page-45 for those who are interested.

• Equivalent conductance of parallel resistors is obtained the same way

as the equivalent resistance of series resistors and vice versa i.e.

• In parallel circuit; Geq = G1 + G2 + G3 + … + GN (2.40).

• Thus circuit in Fig. 2.31 can be replaced with the

simple circuit shown in Fig. 2.32.

• Bur if the circuit of Fig. 2.31 has current instead of a voltage source

then currents i1 & i2 cant be determined using Ohm’s law.

• Current i is shared by parallel resistors in inverse proportion to their

resistances, thus, in two branch circuit, such as the one in Fig. 2.31;
• (2.43).

• This is known as the principle of current division (or rule), and the

circuit in Fig. 2.31 is known as a current divider.

• For a current divider circuit with N-resistors in parallel with the

source current i, then current in nth Resistor ( Rn) is given by,

• in = Req  Rn, where Req is given by Eq. (2.38).

• Similarly, if a current divider has N conductors in parallel with the

source current i, then current in nth conductor ( Gn) is given by,

• (2.45).
• A practical circuit is usually a combination of series as well as parallel

connections as shown in Fig. 2.34. How to find Req in such circuits?

• Such circuits can always be solved, reducing two resistors at a time,

into their equivalent resistor as per their series/parallel connectivity.

• Example 2.9: Find Req in circuit shown in Fig 2.34?

• Req = (5 + 1) || {2 + (6 || 3)} + 4 + 8 = 14.4 .

• Home Work: P-Problem 2.9.

• Example 2.10: Find Rab in circuit in Fig. 2.37?

• Rab = (((5 + 1) || (4 || 12)) +1) || ((6 || 3) + 10) = 11.2 .

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.10.

• Example 2.11; Find Geq for the circuit

in Fig. 2.40(a)?

• Geq = ((12 + 8) || 5) + 6 = 10 S.

• We can also do it the hard way.

• First convert all conductances into

resistances as shown in Fig, 2.40(c).

• Next compute

• Solving it, Req =

• Hence,

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.11.

• Example 2.12: Find iO and vO in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.42(a).

Also calculate the power dissipated in the 3 resistor.

• Adding 6 || 3 = 2  reduces the circuit to simple circuit of Fig

2.42(b) allowing application of Ohm’s law; i = 12 ÷ (4 + 2) = 2 A.

• Hence, vo = 2i = 2 x 2 = 4 V.

• Applying voltage division also yield same

answer. How?

• Applying Ohm’s law; io = 4 ÷ 3 = A.

• Applying current division verifies this answer. How?

• Power dissipated in 3  resistor =

• What are the other options to find this power?

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.12.

• Example 2.13: For the circuit shown in Fig.

2.44(a), determine: (a) the voltage vO (b) the

power supplied by the current source, (c) the

power absorbed by each resistor.

• Combining resistors 6 + 12 = 18  reduces the circuit to Fig 2.44 (a).

• Applying the current division rule;

• Notice that voltage across the 9 k & 18 k resistors is same. Why?

• Therefore;

• Power supplied by source = voio = (180)(30 x 10–3) = 5.4 W.

• p12k =

• p6k
• p9k

• Also p9k = voio = (180)(20 x 10–3) = 3.6 W.

• Notice that the power supplied (5.4 W) equals the power absorbed

(1.2 + 0.6 + 3.6 = 5.4 W). This is one way of checking results.

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.13.

2.7: Wye Delta Transformations

• Many practical circuit, such as

the bridge circuit of Fig. 2.46,

have resistors that are neither in

parallel nor in series.

• Such circuits can be simplified by using three-terminal equivalent

networks, called the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in Fig. 2.47 and

the delta () or pi () network shown in Fig. 2.48.

• These networks occur by themselves or as part

of a larger network & are used in 3 networks,

electrical filters, and matching networks.

• For wye  delta transformation,

superimpose a target network on the

existing donor network as shown in Fig

2.49 and find its equivalent resistances.

• In   Y conversion, each equivalent resistance in target Y network is

obtained from donor  network by dividing product of the resistors in

the two adjacent  branches by the sum of the three  resistors.

• For example; applying this rule to Y target on donor  in Fig. 2.49,

• , &
• In Y   conversion, equivalent resistance in the target  network is

obtained from donor Y network by dividing the sum of all possible

products of Y resistors taken two at a time, by the opposite Y resistor.

• For example; from Fig. 2.49,

• Similarly;

• Class Work: Find 3rd  resistor?

• The Y and  networks are said to be balanced when,

• (2.56).

• Under these conditions, conversion formulas become,

• (2.57).

• Example 2.14: Convert the  network in Fig. 2.50(a) to Y network?

• Superimpose a Y over  and compute equivalent Y resistances i.e.

• R1 = (RbRc)  (Ra + Rb + Rc) = (15 + 10 + 25)  50 = (250  50) = 5 .

• R2 = (RcRa)  (Ra + Rb + Rc) = (375  50) = 5 .

• R3 = (RaRb)  (Ra + Rb + Rc) = (150  50) = 3 .

• Resulting equivalent Y network

is shown in Fig. 2.50(b).

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.14.

• Class Work: Alter shown  into Y network?

• Shown  network was solved in Example

2.14 and has only changed variables.

• Place target Y on donor  network, assign

variables randomly and compute Req,

• Rbn = (R1R2)  (R1 + R2 + R3) = 250  50 = 5 .

• Rcn = (R1R3)  (R1 + R2 + R3) = 375  50 = 5 .

• Ran = (R2R3)  (R1 + R2 + R3) = 150  50 = 3 .

• Note that resulting equivalent Y-network remains unchanged.

• Example 2.15: Obtain equivalent resistance Rab

in circuit of Fig. 2.52 and use it to find current i.

• Circuit contains multiple Y and  networks.

• Transforming just one of these will simplify the circuit.

• Taking donor Y network comprising R1 = 10  , R2 = 20  , R3 = ,

• = 35 .

• .

• .
• Replacing Y with equivalent  network the circuit is transformed into

series-parallel circuit as shown in Fig. 2.53(a).

• Combining the three pairs of resistors in parallel, we obtain

• 70 || 30 = 21, 12.5 || 17.5 = 7.292  and15|| 35 = 10.5 .

• Hence,

• Resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.53(b).

• Therefore,

• To check the answer, transform a donor  into target Y network

• Select “can” delta in Fig 2.52 comprising of Rc = 10  , Ra = 5  and

Rn = 12.5  resistors as donor and transform it into target Y network.

• Substituting target Y network in circuit

changes it into one shown in Fig 2.53(c).

• We can now solve it as normal series-parallel circuit.

• Class Work: Find Rab in circuit of Fig 2.53(c)? (Rab = 9.631 )

• This now leads to

• Note that using two variations of transformation leads to the same

results, which represents a very good check on the answer.

• Home Work: P_Problem 2.15.

• Self Study: Sec 2.8 Applications, Sec 2.9 Summary and solve all

chapter end review questions.

• Home Work: All chapter end problems that are similar to the problems

we solved in this chapter.