Ver.

2018

Animal Nutrition

Ch11:
NCHU AS
HI Chiang
Macromineral
Elements
Part I
5th Edition
江信毅
中興大學動物科學系

Office: Room 5E
Email: [email protected]
1
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Different Types of Metabolisms

• All the chemical and physical processes that
take place in the body.
– Anabolism (合成代謝) - metabolism that builds
tissue. NCHU AS
HI Chiang

– Catabolism (分解代謝) - metabolism that breaks

down materials.

Both metabolism involved with energy metabolism

and enzymatic reactions.

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Enzyme Structure

NCHU AS Enzyme complex

HI Chiang

Holoenzyme = Apoenzyme + Cofactor or Coenzyme

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Inorganic Mineral Elements

• Minerals must be inorganic.
• Organic mineral: Inorganic mineral + organic
molecule (e.g. Zinc chelated
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with amino acid).
HI Chiang

• Minerals could be mental or non-mental.

• At least 22 inorganic elements have been shown to

be required. An additional 5 or more maybe essential
metabolically based on indirect or limited data.
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Macro- and Micro-(trace) Minerals

• The required minerals elements can be
divided into two groups based on the relative
amounts needed in diets.
• Macro-minerals: Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Cl, S
NCHU AS
HI Chiang

– Mostly are associated with structure components, balance

of body fluids.
– Unit: %
• Micro-minerals:
– Mostly are associated with enzyme reactions.
– Unit: ppm(1/106) ,ppb(1/109)

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Macrominerals (7)
簡稱 英文 中文
Ca Calcium 鈣
P Phosphorus 磷
Mg Magnesium 鎂
Na Sodium NCHU AS 鈉
HI Chiang
Cl Chlorine 氯
K Potassium 鉀
S Sulfur 硫

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Micro(trace)minerals
- required (11)
簡稱 英文 中文
B Boron 硼
Co Cobalt 鈷
Cu Copper 銅
F Fluoride NCHU AS 氟
HI Chiang
I Iodine 碘
Fe Iron 鐵
Mn Manganese 錳
Mo Molybdenum 鉬
Se Selenium 硒
Si Silicon 矽
Zn Zinc 鋅

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Micro(trace)minerals
- possibly required (9)
簡稱 英文 中文
Al Aluminum 鋁
As Arsenic 砷
Cd Cadmium 鎘
Ni Nickel NCHU AS 鎳
HI Chiang
V Vanadium 釩
Sn Tin 錫
Br Bromine 溴
Pb Lead 鉛
Li Lithium 鋰

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Toxicity and Tolerance

• National Research Council subcommittee on
Mineral Toxicity in Animals (1980) suggested:
『All mineral elements, where essential or non-
essential, can affect an animal adversely if included
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HI Chiang
in the diet at excessively high levels』

Animals have
• Higher tolerance to macrominerals.
• Lower tolerance to microminerals.

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NCHU AS
HI Chiang

CALCIUM, PHOSPHORUS, MAGNESIUM

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Proportions of Macrominerals in
Animal Tissues
• Unit: amount (g or meq) / kg of fat free body
tissue
– meq (milliequivalents)
NCHU AS
HI Chiang
• The Ca:P:Mg ratios are remarkably similar among
species, especially in adult animals

• Human and pigs newborns are more mature

physiologically at birth than rabbits and mice,
and have higher concentrations of bone minerals.

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NCHU AS
HI Chiang

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NCHU AS
HI Chiang

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Tissue Distribution of Ca
• About 99% of the Ca stored in the animal body is the
skeleton as a constituent of bones and teeth.
– With 2:1 ratio with P in bone
– Hydroxyapatite crystals NCHU
(氫氧磷灰石結晶)
AS
HI Chiang
• X = 0, octacalcium phosphate (磷酸八鈣)
• X = 2, hydroxyapatite (羥基磷灰石)

Ca10++ x(PO4)6(OH-)2(H3O+)2x
Hydroxyapatite crystals

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Tissue Distribution of Ca
• Abou2:1 ratio with P in bone
– 2)
• Ca is also present in plasma (1% of total Ca), the
extracellular fluid of body. Concentration of Ca in
plasma: 10 mg/dL. NCHU AS
HI Chiang

• Plasma Ca is in the formats of (1) free ion, (2)

bound to protein, (3) complexed with organic
acids (e.g. citrate) or inorganic acid (e.g.
phosphate).

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Functions of Ca
• Structural component of the skeleton
– Regulate the bone metabolism

• Cellular metabolism: Ca ions (Ca2+)controls the

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HI Chiang
excitability of nerve impulse transmission and
muscle contraction.
– Ca2+ regulates the level of phosphorylation of
endogenous proteins in the nervous system.

• Ca is required for normal blood coagulation.

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Metabolism of Bone
• Bone is a metabolically active tissue with
continuous turnover and remodeling to maintain
constant Ca concentration in the plasma:
NCHU AS
HI Chiang

– Ca apposition（鈣沉積）: Blood to Bone

• Occurs through the activity of osteoblasts (bone-forming
cells; 成骨細胞) at growth plates.
– Ca resorption（鈣釋出）: Bone to Blood
• Occurs through the activity of osteoclasts (bone-resorbing
cells; 破骨細胞) at bone surface or deep within formed
bones.

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Overall metabolism of Ca

NCHU AS
HI Chiang

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Ca absorption (from GI tract):

Ca resorption (from bone):
Up-regulation of plasma Ca
Parathyroid Kidney (1) Increase Ca
gland synthesize absorption
Low plasma Ca releases the from GI tract.
concentration parathyroid metabolically (2) resorption
hormone active form of Ca from
(PTH) NCHU AS VIT D bone
HI Chiang

Ca apposition :
Down-regulation of plasma Ca
Trigger “C cells” in
High plasma Ca Inhibit bone
thyroid gland to
concentration resorption
release calcitonin
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Vitamin D regulates
Blood Ca

NCHU AS
HI Chiang

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Formation of active Vit D

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Book Page 237
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Absorption of Ca
• Ca absorption is an active process under the
control of Ca-binding protein (CaBP), which is
vitamin-D dependent in most species.
– In Vit-D deficiency, Ca absorption
NCHU AS
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is reduced, even
in the presence of adequate dietary Ca.

• Dietary Ca is absorbed largely in the

duodenum and jejunum of most animals. By
both active transport and passive diffusion.

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Bone Formation
• Ossification* of the skeleton requires that Ca ions (Ca2+) and P
ions (PO43-) in the fluid surrounding the bone matrix exceed a
critical minimum level.
• The deficiency of Ca or P orNCHU
both AS will fail the ossification and
HI Chiang
cause rickets (佝僂症) or osteomalacia (軟骨症; 成人佝僂病).
• Calcification* is an active process requiring ATP.

*Ossification: Bone tissue formation.

*Calcification: Formation of calcium-based salts and crystals within cells
and tissue. A process making bone harder and during ossification.

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Excretion of Ca
• Three major routes of Ca excretion
– Feces – Major
– Urine – Minor
– Sweat – Very minor (except heavy physical work at high
environmental temperature)
NCHU AS
HI Chiang

• Fecal Ca include unabsorbed Ca and endogenous Ca (20% -

30% of total fecal Ca)
– Endogenous Ca came from the secretion of the intestinal
mucosa.

• Increased dietary protein intake (above metabolic

requirement) will increase urinary Ca excretion.

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NCHU AS
HI Chiang

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Common sources of
Ca and P supplement

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HI Chiang

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Signs of Ca Deficiency
- Ricket and Osteomalacia
• The main effect of Ca deficiency is on skeleton.
• Ricket (佝僂病) – in young, growing animals.
= Osteomalacia (軟骨病) – in adults.
– Both are caused by the deficiency
NCHU AS of vitamin D or Ca,
HI Chiang
leading to reduced calcification of cartilage matrix.

• Sign of reduced calcification is related to the growth

rate and skeletal mineral turnover rate.
– Chicken, pig, dog: The syndrome shown few days after Ca
deficiency.
– Sheep and cattle: A longer period for showing syndromes.

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Signs of Ca Deficiency
- NSHP
– Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism 營養性副甲狀
腺機能亢進
– Dietary Ca-P imbalance (Low Ca or excess P)
– High-P diet depress intestinal absorption of Ca.
– The parathyroid gland is hyperactive in an attempt to
NCHU AS
maintain normal blood CaHI Chiang
– Excess bone resorption in deep within bones, continuously
replace osseous tissue with fibrous connective tissue,
resulting in fibrous osteodystrophy (纖維化骨形成不良).

• “Big head”(in horses), ”simian bone disease”(in

monkeys), ”twisted snouts”(in pigs).
• Fig. 11.3, Fig. 11.4

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Serum Ca
• Serum Ca declines slightly during the early
weeks of dietary Ca deficiency.
• However, it will be adjusted by PTH and
NCHU AS

calcitonin, which make serum Ca a relatively

HI Chiang

useless index of Ca nutrition. Only by frequent

monitoring is meaningful.
• A reduction in the content of bone ash occurs
in dietary Ca deficiency or Ca-P imbalance.

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Signs of Ca Deficiency
- Osteoporosis
• Osteoporosis (骨質疏鬆)
• Characterized by reduction in bone mass.
– 10% of women over 50 years of age in U.S. may have
osteoporosis. Postmenopausal osteoporosis (停經後骨質
NCHU AS
疏鬆症) caused by failure in production of estrogen.
HI Chiang

– Associated with suboptimum intake of dietary Ca during

prepubertal adolescence and extending into adulthood.
excess intakes of protein.
– Intake of dietary P, Vit D, Vit K, Cu, F, B is associated with
Osteoporosis.
– Intake of excess Protein and Na (increase Ca excretion).
– Physical inactivity increase Ca excretion.

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Signs of Ca Deficiency
- Ca tetany
• Ca tetany (milk fever, Parturient paresis) (乳熱症，產
後麻痺)
– Ca deficiency occurs usually early in lactation with large
drains on body Ca reserves for milk production.
NCHU AS
– This secretion of calciumHI causes
Chiang serum calcium levels to
decline from a normal of 8.5–10 mg/dL to <7.5 mg/dL. The
sudden decrease in serum calcium levels causes
hyperexcitability of the nervous system and reduced
strength of muscle contractions, resulting in both tetany
and paresis.
– Treatment: injection of CaCl2, Ca lactate or other Ca salts.
– The principle of feeding rations low in calcium is highly
efficient in milk fever prevention (Thilsing-Hansen et al., 2002)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1764183/
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• Protein Intake and Bone Health

– There is no evidence that high protein intake per se
would be detrimental for bone mass and strength
(Bonjour, Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2011).

• Excess Dietary Protein Can Adversely Affect

Bone NCHU AS
HI Chiang

– We conclude that excessive dietary protein from foods

with high potential renal acid load adversely affects
bone, unless buffered by the consumption of alkali-
rich foods or supplements (Barzel and Massey, J Nutr,
1998).

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Toxicity of Ca
• No report for acute Ca toxicity.
• Chronic ingestion of Ca in excess of metabolic
requirement results in abnormalities in bone formation.
• Thicken bone mass.
• Calcification of soft tissue.
NCHU AS
HI Chiang

• Urinary calculi (kidney stones).

– Is not formed by high Ca alone.
– Associated with imbalance of other minerals, forming
complexes with cholesterol or steroids.
• Excess Ca inhibits absorption and utilization of other
minerals.
– Zn, Mg, Fe, I, Mn, Cu

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