Santos 2017 Ijkdfl

Resources, Conservation and Recycling 116 (2017) 15–31
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Resources, Conservation and Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec
Full length article
Environmental and economic assessment of pavement construction

and management practices for enhancing pavement sustainability
João Santos a , Gerardo Flintsch (Ph.D. P.E.) b , Adelino Ferreira (Ph.D.) c,∗
a
IFSTTAR, AME-EASE, Route de Bouaye, CS4, F-44341 Bouguenais, France
b
Center for Sustainable Transportation Infrastructure, Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, The Charles Via, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 3500 Transportation Research Plaza, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
c
Road Pavements Laboratory, Research Center for Territory, Transports and Environment, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Luís
Reis Santos, 3030-788, Coimbra, Portugal
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Stakeholders in the pavement sector have been seeking new engineering solutions to move towards
Received 17 November 2015 more sustainable pavement management practices. The general approaches for improving pavement
Received in revised form 8 July 2016 sustainability include, among others, reducing virgin binder and virgin aggregate content in HMA and
Accepted 20 August 2016
WMA mixtures, reducing energy consumed and emissions generated in mixtures production, applying
in-place recycling techniques, and implementing preventive treatments. In this study, a comprehensive
Keywords:
and integrated pavement life cycle costing- life cycle assessment model was developed to investigate,
Life cycle costing
from a full life cycle perspective, the extent to which several pavement engineering solutions, namely hot
Life cycle assessment
In-place recycling techniques
in-plant recycling mixtures, WMA, cold central plant recycling and preventive treatments, are efficient in
Sustainable pavement construction and improving the environmental and economic dimensions of pavement infrastructure sustainability, when
management applied either separately or in combination, in the construction and management of a road pavement
Multi-criteria decision analysis section located in Virginia, USA. Furthermore, in order to determine the preference order of alternative
scenarios, a multicriteria decision analysis method was applied. The results showed that the implemen-
tation of a recycling-based maintenance and rehabilitation strategy where the asphalt mixtures are of
type hot-mix asphalt containing 30% RAP, best suits the multidimensional and conflicting interests of
decision-makers. This outcome was found to be robust even when different design and performance
scenarios of the mixtures and type of treatments are considered.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction evidence of the environmental effects of these activities, along

with stringent environmental regulations, has strengthened the
With the recent launch of the Build America Investment Ini- commitment of DOTs in delivering infrastructures in a more envi-
tiative (White House, 2014), a US government-wide initiative that ronmentally preferable way, while also using funds in the most
aims to tackle the pressing infrastructure investment needs of the economically responsible manner possible. This fact has motivated
United States as well as to promote economic growth, many Depart- DOTs, and the pavement community in general, to investigate
ments of Transportation (DOTs) will likely renew their efforts both strategies that improve the environmental performance and reduce
in the construction of new highway infrastructures and in the main- the costs of road pavement construction and maintenance prac-
tenance of those already built. tices by using sustainable engineering solutions. Some examples
The activities underlying to the construction, operation and of solutions commonly mentioned in the literature that possess
maintenance of highway infrastructures are notorious for the large the potential to improve pavement sustainability include (but are
amounts of natural materials and energy resources they consume, not limited to): (1) asphalt mixes requiring lower manufacturing
as well as for the considerable environmental impacts they gen- temperatures, such as warm mix asphalt [WMA] (Kristjánsdóttir
erate (BCRB and HCA, 2011). In addition, the strong and growing et al., 2007; Hamzah et al., 2010; Tatari et al., 2012; Vidal et al.,
2013; Mohammad et al., 2015; Rodríguez-Alloza et al., 2015) and
half-warm mix asphalt [HWMA] technologies (Rubio et al., 2013),
∗ Corresponding author. (2) in-place pavement recycling (Thenoux et al., 2007; Robinette
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Santos), fl[email protected] and Epps, 2010; Santos et al., 2015c), (3) pavement preserva-
(G. Flintsch), [email protected] (A. Ferreira).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.08.025
0921-3449/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
16 J. Santos et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 116 (2017) 15–31
tion strategies and preventive treatments (Giustozzi et al., 2012), 3. Background to the life cycle modelling approaches
(4) long-lasting pavements (Lee et al., 2011; Sakhaeifar et al., adopted in the proposed framework
2013), (5) reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) materials (Lee et al.,
2010; Aurangzeb et al., 2014), (6) reclaimed asphalt shingles 3.1. Life cycle assessment
(RAS) materials (Illinois Interchange, 2012), (7) industrial wastes
and byproducts (Birgisdóttir et al., 2006; Carpenter et al., 2007; LCA is a widespread, though still evolving, systematic envi-
Carpenter and Gardner, 2009; Huang et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2010; ronmental management tool used for assessing the potential
Sayagh et al., 2010; Mladenovič et al., 2015), etc. environmental impacts and resources consumed throughout a
Despite the fact that the majority of the results of those studies product’s lifecycle from a cradle-to-grave perspective, i.e., from
have to some extent corroborated the environmental benefits with raw material acquisition, via production and use phases, to the
which they are a-priori associated, it is not uncommon that they end-of-life phase.
have been obtained by applying methodologies that disregarded The LCA approach formalized by the ISO 14040 series divides
the environmental burdens of some processes and pavement life the LCA framework into four iteractive stages (ISO, 2006a,b): (i)
cycle phases. Added to this, as the primary goal of a transportation goal and scope definition; (ii) life cycle inventory analysis (LCI);
agency still remains to provide maximum pavement performance (iii) life cycle impact assessment (LCIA); and (iv) interpretation.
within budgetary constraints, a solution which is found environ- The goal and scope definition introduces the purpose for carrying
mentally advantageous might not be preferred to another one out the study, the intended application, and the intended audi-
technically equivalent if it is not economically competitive. Fur- ence. It is also in this stage that the system boundaries of the study
thermore, there are still some questions about (1) the extent to are described and the functional unit is defined. The LCI compiles
which such solutions are cost effective throughout their life cycle, the inputs (resources) and the outputs (emissions) from the prod-
(2) which factors are the key drivers of their economic perfor- uct over its life-cycle in relation to the functional unit. The LCIA
mance, and (3) who are the stakeholders that benefit most from seeks to establish a linkage between the system and the potential
the application of those solutions. to cause human and environmental damage. In the interpretation,
Facing this bicephalous challenge and providing answers to the results from the previous phases are evaluated in relation to
the aforementioned questions requires multidimensional life-cycle the goal and scope in order to identify analysis refinements and
modelling approaches, such as life-cycle assessment (LCA) and life improvements, reach conclusions and recommendations, and, in
cycle costing (LCC), which enable long-term economic and envi- general, aid in the decision-making process (Finnveden et al., 2009).
ronmental factors to be included in the decision- making process On the basis of the approaches for compiling the LCI, an LCA
by providing a comprehensive and cumulative view of both the methodology can be classified into three main categories: (i)
environmental and economic dimensions of a given technical solu- process-based LCA (P-LCA); (ii) input-output LCA (I-O LCA); and
tion. However, it is important to underline that life-cycle modelling (iii) hybrid LCA.
approaches by themselves will not necessarily determine which In the P-LCA, process-specific data for each process of the prod-
solution is most suitable for a given purpose. Rather, the informa- uct life cycle is compiled to form a tailored process diagram that
tion that they make available should be used as one component covers the whole life cycle. Each of the diverse processes within
of a more comprehensive decision making process, which among the system boundaries is then thoroughly analyzed, which leads
other merits, will allow the tradeoffs between the interests of the to very accurate LCI results. However, due to the commonly high
multiple stakeholders to be assessed. number of single processes existing in a product life cycle, account-
ing for all of them can be a time consuming and detail-intensive
procedure. A P-LCA practitioner has to define which processes are
2. Objectives included within the chosen system boundaries. Ideally, those that
are left out should have an insignificant contribution to the results.
The main objectives of this paper are (1) to investigate from a life However, due to the fact that decisions on the inclusion or exclusion
cycle perspective the extent to which several pavement engineer- of processes are commonly taken on the basis of subjective choices
ing solutions, namely hot in-plant recycling mixtures, WMA, cold rather than on a scientific basis, it might happen that significant
central plant recycling (CCPR) and preventive treatments, are effi- processes are also left out of the analysis along with the insignifi-
cient in improving the environmental and economic dimensions of cant ones. This problematic feature of P-LCA method is known as
pavement infrastructure sustainability, when applied either sep- truncation error.
arately or in combination, in the construction and management The I-O LCA is a top-down approach that relies on the theory
of a road pavement structure and (2) to raise awareness of the introduced and developed by Nobel Prize winner Wassily Leontief
importance of extending the system boundaries of environmental (Leontief, 1970). It uses available sectorial monetary transaction
and economic life cycle assessments, in order to include materials matrixes describing complex interdependencies of industries in an
and processes which, when taken into consideration, may eventu- economy to estimate the sector level environmental burdens and
ally reverse the sustainability of a solution, in comparison to the the resources consumed throughout the upstream supply-chain to
situations where they are not accounted for. deliver a certain amount of different goods and services (Suh et al.,
For this purpose, a comprehensive and integrated pavement 2004).
life cycle costing-life cycle assessment (LCC-LCA) model has been Although the I-O LCA method eliminates the truncation error by
developed, which encompasses all six pavement life cycle phases tracking all upstream processes, there are several drawbacks: (i) it
into the system boundaries, including the usage phase, and uses aggregate data representing the averages of several sectors of
accounts for the upstream impacts in the production of elements an economy, and aggregate industry sectors may make the method
commonly disregarded by the majority of the existing pavement unable to provide information on the particular product or activ-
LCA models. ity under investigation, such as specific raw materials and energy
Finally, to account for the often conflicting interests of the mul- sources, and to compare similar products within an industry sec-
tiple stakeholders involved in the decision making process within tor, especially if the product falls into a sector which is broadly
pavement management, the pavement construction and mainte- characterized; (ii) from the I-O LCA practitioner’s perspective it
nance scenarios considered in this paper were further analyzed by may look like a “black box”, because comprehensively analyzing
employing a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) method. a specific process is always impossible; (iii) monetary value, the
J. Santos et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 116 (2017) 15–31 17
most commonly used representation of inter-industry transactions, actors involved in the life cycle of the product, and also includes the
can distort physical flow relations between industries due to price externalities that might be internalized and reflected in real mon-
inhomogeneity; (iv) the proportionality assumption, according to etary flows within a foreseeable time frame. Another point that
which the inputs to a sector are assumed to be linearly propor- distinguishes this approach from the previous one lies with the
tional to its output, represent another source of errors given that fact that it also requires a complementary LCA with equivalent sys-
in practice it is not always true; (v) available I-O tables are gen- tem boundaries and functional units. However, in this LCA-type LCC
erally several years old. Thus, assessing rapidly developing sectors based on physical LCA, there is no conversion from environmental
and new technologies may introduce errors because of base-year measures to monetary measures in order to avoid double count-
differences between the product system under study and I-O data; ing of externalities in LCC and the complementary LCA. Finally, in
and (vi) data used in the I-O model are incomplete, with inher- the Societal LCC the scope is extended to the macro-economic sys-
ent uncertainties, thus, potentially, underestimating results such as tem level, including costs for society overall. Environmental costs
environmental impacts (Suh et al., 2004). Quantitative evaluations are defined as either environmental damage expressed in monetary
of the limitations of both P-LCA and I-O LCA models are presented terms (costs of external effects), or as the market-based cost of mea-
by Junnila (2006), Ferrão and Nhambiu (2009), Mattila et al. (2010), sures to prevent environmental damage. However, to avoid double
Majeau-Bettez et al. (2011). counting, the monetized environmental effects of the investigated
To combine the advantage of both P-LCA and I-O LCA models product should not be complemented by an LCA.
while mitigating their respective limitations, four main hybrid LCA
models have been developed, namely tiered, input-output-based,
integrated hybrid (Suh et al., 2004) and augmented process-based 4. Methodology
approach (Bilec et al., 2006, 2010). Although significant differences
distinguish the inventory stage of those models (Suh and Huppes, 4.1. Principle of the integrated pavement life cycle costing and life
2005), all are based on the principle of a disaggregated and detailed cycle assessment model
process-based description of the most important activities linked
to an aggregated but complete model of the rest of the economy The research work presented in this paper builds on the P-
(Majeau-Bettez et al., 2011). In doing so, it allows for flows which LCA and LCC models introduced by Santos et al. (2015a,c) and
were not included in the P-LCA to be estimated with an environ- Santos et al. (2015b), respectively, to develop a comprehensive
mentally extended I-O model. A review of LCI approaches including and integrated pavement LCC-LCA model. The proposed pave-
hybrid approaches and their advantages and disadvantages is pro- ment LCC-LCA model relies on a hybrid inventory approach that
vided by Suh and Huppes (2005) and Bilec et al. (2006). allows the sub-models to connect with one another by data flows;
specifically, the monetary flows associated with exchanges of the
3.2. Life cycle costing pavement life cycle system that are directly covered by the LCC
model but for which specific process data are either completely
Life cycle costing (LCC) is defined by the building and construc- or partially unavailable. In other cases it is available, but collec-
tion asset standard ISO15686-5 as a technique used for predicting tion of the data and subsequent analysis is highly demanding,
and assessing the cost performance of constructed assets over a either in time or resource consumption (e.g. construction equip-
specific period of time while meeting all the functional and oper- ment manufacturing and maintenance, on- and off-road vehicles
ational maintenance and other performance requirements, taking tires manufacturing, lubricant oil production, etc.) and, thus, was
into account all relevant economic factors, both in terms of initial disregarded in the previous P-LCA models (Santos et al., 2015a,c).
and future operational costs (ISO, 2008). These are combined with the I-O methodology for deriving the
Despite the (often) hypothetical ambiguities generated by the underpinning environmental burdens. Thus, by interactively inte-
term “life cycle”, shared by LCC and LCA, this methodology was ini- grating the strengths of process-based LCI (P-LCI) and I-O LCI, the
tially developed by the US Department of Defense in the mid-sixties resources which are readily available can be used in a more effi-
(Sheriff and Kolarik, 1981), and to a large extent, its maturation cient, consistent and rational way and with less effort, helping to
process occurred outside the environmental context (Gluch and reduce the “cutoff” errors and improving the consistency between
Baumann, 2004). The abovementioned standards already allude the system boundaries of the pavement life cycle when analyzed
the possibility of including inputs from other evaluation tech- concomitantly from the economic and environmental viewpoint.
niques (e.g. environmental assessment). Similar intents were also For this purpose, the pavement LCC-LCA model uses Carnegie Mel-
expressed in the revised framework ISO 14040 by claiming that lon University’s Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment tool
“. . .LCA typically does not address the economic or social aspects of (EIO-LCA) (CMUGDI, 2010). This tool utilizes the Leontief’s method-
a product, but the life-cycle approach and methodologies described ology to relate the inter-sector monetary transactions sectors in the
in this International Standard may be applied to these other aspects.” US economy, compiled in a set of matrices by the Bureau of Eco-
(ISO, 2006a). However, the most expressive step towards its inte- nomic Analysis (BEA) of the US Department of Commerce, with a
gration into the environmental decision making process was taken set of environmental indicators (e.g. consumption of fossil energy,
first by Hunkeler et al. (2008), and, later, by Swarr et al. (2011), airborne emissions, etc.) per monetary output of each industry sec-
through the disclosure of a code of practice that builds on the four- tor of the economy. The environmental burdens at sector level
phase structure of the ISO 14040 standards (ISO, 2006a). This code associated with a particular commodity under analysis is therefore
of practice aims to provide guidance on how to define consistent calculated by multiplying its monetary value, previously adjusted
system boundaries for complementary and parallel LCC and LCA to US dollars of the EIO-LCA model’s year according to sector-
studies of a given product system. specific economic indices from the US Department of Labor, by the
On the basis of the approach adopted to account for the respective sectorial environmental multipliers obtained from the
externalities, Hunkeler et al. (2008) divide LCC into conventional, EIO-LCA model.
environmental or societal. Conventional LCC is a collection of all The US 2002 EIO-LCA benchmark consumer price model for the
costs associated with the life cycle of a product that are directly US economy was preferred to the producer model because the mon-
covered by the main producer or user in the product life cycle. etary quantities of the commodities whose environmental burdens
Environmental LCC, on the other hand, assesses the costs associ- the study aims to quantify are better represented by retail price
ated with the life cycle of a product, covered by one or more of the (e.g. construction equipment acquisition, tires acquisition, lubri-
cating oil acquisition, etc.), which allows for further accounting Table 1
Identification of the alternative M&R scenarios.
of the environmental impacts associated with their distribution to
wholesalers. Type of scenario Scenario ID Scenario name
VDOT 1 HMA – 0% RAP

4.2. Goal of the study 2 HMA – 15% RAP
3 HMA – 30% RAP
4 Sasobit® WMA – 0% RAP
The main goal of this study is to quantify and compare the
life cycle environmental and economic performances of multiple 6 Sasobit® WMA – 30% RAP
pavement construction and maintenance practices that hold the
Recycling-based VDOT 7 HMA – 0% RAP
potential for improving the environmental and economic dimen- 8 HMA – 15% RAP
sions of pavement sustainability. To this end, several scenarios 9 HMA – 30% RAP
involving the construction, maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R) 10 Sasobit® WMA – 0% RAP
of a flexible road pavement section in Virginia, USA, were analyzed. 11 Sasobit® WMA – 15% RAP
The scenarios include the use of hot in-plant recycling mixtures,
Sasobit® WMA, CCPR and preventive treatments. Preventive maintenance 13 Microsurfacing – 0% RAP
The application of the pavement LCC-LCA model to the case 14 THMACO-0% RAPa
study presented in this paper will advance the state-of-the-art by: Note: THMACO, thin hot mix asphalt concrete overlay. The types of bound mixes
used in the construction of the initial pavement structure are coherent with the
scenario name.
• Comprehensively estimating the potential environmental and a
According to VDOT (2012a), RAP cannot be incorporated into the THMACO for-
economic advantages resulting from applying, individually or mulation.
combined, new pavement engineering solutions instead of con-
ventional materials and construction and M&R methods;
• Demonstrating an integrated methodology that enables the 4.3.2.1. Initial pavement structure design. The initial pavement
inclusion of environmental loads and costs originated by pro- structure was designed using the pavement structural design
cesses and pavement LCA phases typically excluded from the method AASHTO’93 (AASHTO, 1993) for flexible pavements, as
system boundaries of pavement life cycle modelling approaches; defined by the Chapter V- Pavement Evaluation and Design of the
• Identifying the compromise solutions that best suit the often Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT)’s Manual of Instruc-
conflicting interests of the multiple stakeholders involved in the tions for the Materials Division (VDOT, 2014). The assumptions
decision making process in the pavement management; considered during the design process are presented in Table 1.1
• Concluding how robust the suitability of the obtained compro- of the electronic Supplementary materials. Based on the assump-
mise solutions are, when all ranges of combination of weights tions listed in that Table a pavement structure was designed with a
assigned to the criteria representing the stakeholder’s perspec- structural number (SN) of 7.38. The details of the interstate flexible
tives are taken into account, as opposed to considering only a few pavement structure and hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures prop-
sets of weights. erties are described in Table 1.2 of the electronic Supplementary
materials.
The results will provide an audience consisting of design-
ers, contractors, local and state agencies and road users with
an improved understanding of how materials considerations, 4.3.2.2. Maintenance and rehabilitation scenarios. This study ana-
treatment typology, design, construction, and application timing lyzed and compared the environmental and economic performance
promise to enhance pavement sustainability while considering the of three main groups of alternative M&R strategies (scenarios)
tradeoffs between the requirements imposed by these players. applied over the PAP of the pavement structure presented in the
previous section. The first two groups were based on the M&R plan
outlined by VDOT (2014), in which functional and structural treat-
4.3. Scope of the study
ments and a major rehabilitation are applied in pre-established
years. Nevertheless, they were considered to differ from each other
The integrated pavement LCC-LCA model developed to carry out
to the extent that in the first group only conventional asphalt mate-
this study follows a cradle-to-grave approach, and consists in a
rials and treatments were implemented, while in the second group
parallel application of the LCA methodology taking into account,
the major rehabilitation was carried out through the combination
as far as possible and suitable, the guidelines provided by the ISO
of an in-place recycling technique, namely CCPR, and conventional
(2006a,b) and the University of California Pavement Research Cen-
asphalt layers. The recycling-based M&R activity was designed in
ter’s (UCPRC’s) Pavement LCA Guideline (Harvey et al., 2010) and
such a way that it provides equivalent structural capacity to non-
the LCC methodology based on the Swarr et al. (2011).
recycling-based one and takes into account the VDOT’s surface
layers requirements for layers placed over recycling-based layers
4.3.1. Functional unit (VDOT, 2013). In turn, the third group consisted of preventive main-
The functional unit considered in this case study for achieving tenance strategies.
these goals was defined as a 1 km long one-way road pavement The first two groups of alternative M&R strategies, hereafter
section of an Interstate highway in Virginia, USA, with 2 lanes, each named VDOT strategy and Recycling-based VDOT strategy, respec-
of which is 3.66 m wide. The project analysis period (PAP) was 50 tively, were further divided into HMA and Sasobit® WMA scenarios
years, beginning in 2011 with the construction of the pavement with three distinct RAP contents (0%, 15% and 30%). As for the
structure. The annual average daily traffic (AADT) for the first year preventive alternative maintenance strategies, two additional sce-
was 20,000 vehicles of which 25% were trucks (5% of the truck traf- narios were considered depending on the type of preventive
fic consisted of single-unit trucks and the remaining percentage of treatments adopted: microsurfacing and thin hot mix asphalt over-
combination trucks). The traffic growth rate was set equal to 3% per lay concrete (THMACO). A summary of the names of all considered
year. scenarios is given in Table 1. Details on the M&R activities and
M&R actions considered in the several M&R scenarios are presented
4.3.2. Product system- the initial pavement structure in Table 2.1 of the electronic Supplementary materials. Table 2
Table 2
M&R activities considered in each M&R scenario, and respective application years.
M&R scenario ID M&R activity ID
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 to 6 12, 44 22 32 – – –
7 to 12 12, 44 22 – 32 – –
13 9, 17, 25, 41, 49 – 32 – 7, 15, 23, 39, 47
14 10, 18, 27, 41, 50 – 32 – – 7, 16, 24, 39, 47
Table 3 other than PM restore the IRI to the value of a brand new pavement
Coefficients of VDOT’s load-related PPPM expressed by Eq. (1) for asphalt pavements
(IRI equal to 0.87 m/km). The IRI reduction due to the application of
of interstate highways.
a PM treatment was determined based on the expected treatment
M&R activity category CCI0 a b c life and assuming that there is no change in the IRIgrw value after
CM 100 9.176 9.18 1.27295 the PM application (the same assumption was also made in the case
RM 100 9.176 9.18 1.25062 of the remaining M&R activities). Thus, by assuming treatment life
RC 100 9.176 9.18 1.22777 periods of 3 and 5 years (Chowdhury, 2011), respectively for micro-
surfacing and THMACO preventive treatments, reductions in the IRI
value of 0.24 and 0.40 m/km were obtained.
presents the M&R activities considered in each M&R scenario, and
Fig. 1 shows the variation of the IRI over the PAP resulting from
respective application years.
the implementation of the alternative M&R scenarios. One can see
In order to determine the pavement performance over time,
that the pavement deterioration pattern corresponding to M&R sce-
the VDOT’s pavement performance prediction models (PPPM) were
narios 1–12 is the same. Such an outcome is the consequence of
used. VDOT developed a set of PPPM in units of CCI as a function of
taking as premise the fact that all mixtures perform in the same
time and category of the last M&R activity applied. CCI stands for
way throughout the PAP.
Critical Condition Index and is an aggregated indicator ranging from
0 (complete failure) to 100 (perfect pavement) that represents the
worst of either load-related or non-load-related distresses. Regard- 4.3.3. System boundaries, system processes, life cycle inventory
ing the typologies of M&R activities, VDOT classifies them into data and main assumptions
five categories: (0) Do Nothing (DN), (1) Preventative Maintenance Fig. 2 presents the phases and components included within the
(PM), (2) Corrective Maintenance (CM), (3) Restorative Mainte- system boundaries of the proposed pavement LCC-LCA model as
nance (RM), and (4) Reconstruction/Rehabilitation (RC). Using the well as the relationships between the economic and environmental
base form corresponding to Eq. (1), VDOT defines PPPM for the last LCI. The model entails six pavement life cycle phases: (1) materials
three categories (Stantec Consulting Services and Lochner, 2007). extraction and production, (2) construction and M&R, (3) trans-
The coefficients of VDOT’s load-related PPPM expressed through portation of materials, (4) WZ traffic management, (5) usage, and
Eq. (1) for asphalt pavements of Interstate highways are presented (6) EOL. These phases were broken down into multiple components
in Table 3 (Stantec Consulting Services and Lochner, 2007). for each life cycle phase.
The environmental burdens and costs of planning, research,
ln ( 1 )
CCI(t) = CCI0 − ea + b × c
t
, (1) design activities, purchase of necessary rights-of-way, relocating
utilities, constructing the roadway cuts and fills, and placing major
where CCI(t) is the critical condition index in year t since the last drainage features for the mainline were not included into the sys-
M&R activity, i.e. CM, RM or RC; CCI0 is the critical condition index tem boundaries since the majority of those items regards to the
immediately after treatment; and a, b, and c are the load-related whole road infrastructure and are either not exclusive to the pave-
PPPM coefficients (Table 3). ment structure or entail a high level of subjectivity. Also excluded
Contrary to the remaining categories, VDOT did not develop from the system boundaries were the environmental burdens due
individual PPPM for PM treatments. Thus, in this case study the to labor. Furthermore, with regard to economic modelling perfor-
considered PM treatments, i.e. microsurfacing and THMACO, were mance, only real monetary flows were accounted for in order to
respectively modelled as a 8-point and 15-point improvement in avoid double counting the environmental impacts (Swarr et al.,
the CCI of a road segment which take place whenever the CCI 2011).
falls below the trigger value of 85 (Chowdhury, 2011). Once the The various models evoked while modelling each component of
treatment is applied, it is assumed that the pavement deteriorates the pavement life cycle phases, as well as the main data required
according to the PPPM of a CM, without reduction of the effective to run those models, are introduced and discussed in the follow-
age. On the other hand, in the case of the application of CM, RM and ing sections. Further details on the P-LCA modelling considerations
RC treatments, the CCI is brought to the condition of a brand new can be found in Santos et al. (2015c). Detailed inventory data
pavement (CCI equal to 100) and the age is restored to 0 regardless and complementary assumptions performed throughout the model
of the CCI value prior to the M&R activity application. application are shown in the electronic Supplementary materials.
For the purpose of estimating the environmental impacts and
costs incurred by road users during the pavement usage phase due 4.3.3.1. Environmental dimension.
to the vehicles travelling over a rough pavement surface, a linear 4.3.3.1.1. Materials extraction and production phase. This pave-
roughness prediction model, expressed in terms of International ment LCA phase addresses the environmental burdens arising from
Roughness Index (IRI), was considered (Eq. (2)). the acquisition and processing of the materials applied during the
initial construction and future M&R of a road pavement segment.
IRI(t) = IRI0 + IRIgrw × t, (2)
This includes all materials manufacturing processes, from extrac-
where IRI(t) is the IRI value (m/km) in year t, IRI0 is the IRI immedi- tion of raw materials to their transformation into a pavement input
ately after the application of a given M&R activity and IRIgrw is the material (material extraction sub-phase), ending with the mixture
IRI growth rate throughout time, which was set at 0.08 m/km (Bryce production at a mixing plant (materials production sub-phase). The
et al., 2014). It was assumed that the application of a M&R activity latter sub-phase accounts for the environmental burdens associ-
Scenarios 1 to 12 Scenario 13 Scenario 14

2.00
1.80
1.60
IRI [m/km] 1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Years
Fig. 1. IRI over the PAP resulting from the implementation of the alternatives M&R scenarios.
T
T
T
T
Materials Extraction and

Construction and M&R WZ Traffic Management Usage End-of-Life
Production
Constr. Equipment:
Mixtures Production Time Delay Vehicles Operation Salvage Value
Owning
Fixed Depreciation/
Leasing Fuel Consumption
Components
Interest Maintenance and

Vehicles Operation Repair
Mixtures Production
Insurance Tires Consumption
Variable Fuel Consumption
Components Property Taxes Mileage-related Vehicle
and Licenses Depreciation
Oil Consumption
Raw Materials
Extraction Maintenance and
Constr. Equipment: Repair
Operation
Tires Consumption
Fuel Consumption
Energy Sources Time-related Vehicle
Production Planed Maintenance and Depreciation
FOG
Mileage-related Vehicle
Depreciation
Repair
Tires Consumption
Mobilization Transportation of Materials
Hauling Trucks:
Special Wear Items Hauling Trucks:Owning Operation Labor
Depreciation/ Fuel Consumption Trucks Driver's

Leasing
Wages and Benefits
Planed Maintenance
Labor Interest and FOG
Crew Members' Insurance Repair

Wages and Benefits
Property Taxes
and Licenses Tires Consumption
Legend
Economic LCI and Economic LCI and Economic LCI and a combination of
Environmental I-O LCI
Economic LCI Modelling process T Transportation of materials
Environmental P-LCI Environmental P-LCI and I-O LCI
Fig. 2. Pavement LCC-LCA model phases included in the system boundaries and relations between the economic and environmental LCI.
ated with the operation of the (1) mixing plant (i.e. dryer, hot 4.3.3.1.1.1. Materials extraction sub- phase
screen, mixers, etc.), (2) wheel loader during the movement of Process-based LCI data collected from several published LCI and
aggregates from the stockpiles to the feed bins, and (3) RAP pro- LCA reports was adopted in this case study for modelling the LCI of
cessing unit so that the RAP ensures the required properties to be the following materials: fine and coarse aggregates (Stripple, 2001),
incorporated into a new asphalt mixture. bitumen and asphalt emulsion (Eurobitume, 2011), and tap water
(Weidema et al., 2013). On the other hand, the LCI data for the is the initial mass of water vapor (kg), and HeatingEffF is a factor
following materials was obtained through the I-O LCI approach: that represents the casing losses.
hydrated lime, SBR, WMA additive (Sasobit® ). Information about To account for the fact that specific heat capacities of minerals
the economic sectors responsible for manufacturing the previously and fluids increase substantially with temperature, the equations
mentioned materials are presented in Table 3.1.1 of the electronic presented by Waples and Waples (2004a,b) were adopted, taking
Supplementary materials. the temperature of 20 ◦ C as the reference temperature. The heat-
As far as the system boundaries for RAP are concerned, it is ing requirements for the aggregates applied in bound layers other
assumed that prior to its utilization the material is processed via than surface layers were modelled by considering the specific heat
a crushing operation, which reduces the variable RAP fragments value of limestone [880 J/(kg/◦ C)]. In the case of the surface layers,
to uniform size in order to promote final blend consistency. The the value for quartzite [1013 J/(kg/◦ C)] and diabase [860 J/(kg/◦ C)]
environmental burdens resulting from milling or removing the pre- were taken to represent the aggregated used in the SM-type mixes
vious pavement and hauling the recycled materials from the work and THMACO, respectively. With regard to binder and water, the
site to the recycling unit were not included into the system bound- third equation proposed by Gambill (1957) and the equation devel-
aries on the basis of a ‘cut-off’ allocation criterion. Thus, only the oped by Somerton (1992), both cited and displayed in Waples and
post-processing of these materials is considered. Waples (2004b), were adopted, respectively. The initial moisture
To accomplish the RAP processing task, a crusher unit located content of fine and coarse aggregates were assumed to be 3% and
within the asphalt plant facility is considered, which consists 1% (Harder et al., 2008), whereas for RAP a value of 4% was con-
of diesel-powered crusher (model Cone LS1200 from Kolberg- sidered. As for the HeatingEffF, a value of 80% was adopted for the
Pioneer, Inc.), a diesel-powered mobile screening plant (model production of all mix types after calibrating the model with the
FNG 2612D from Kolberg-Pioneer, Inc.), an electrically-powered data corresponding to the HMA production in the case study of
stackable conveyor (model 47-3050S from Kolberg-Pioneer, Inc.) Munster, Indiana, reported by West et al. (2014). The HMA mixing
and a wheel loader (model 924HZ from Caterpillar). Based on the temperature was set at 160 ◦ C (APEC, 2000) and the initial tem-
technical features of the equipment, a RAP processing capacity of perature of all raw materials other than bitumen was assumed to
184 tonnes per hour was considered. The environmental burdens be equal to the ambient temperature of 15 ◦ C. In the case of the
from processing RAP are those resulting from the operation of the latter, it was considered that it remains stored at 160 ◦ C in heated
engines and were obtained by applying the methodology adopted tanks located in the asphalt plant facility. The volume of natural gas
by the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (US EPA’s) required to heat the insulated storage tanks was calculated based
NONROAD 2008 model (US EPA, 2010a). However, the crusher units on the total quantity of binder heated, the total time the bitumen
also emit fugitive particulate matter (PM) when processing RAP. spends in the tanks throughout the paving season and the heat
The total emissions of fugitive PM released when crushing and capacity of the tanks (see Table 3.1.2, Table 3.1.3 and Table 3.1.4 in
screening RAP were determined from the Crushed Stone Processing electronic Supplementary materials). As for the WMA, whose mix
and Pulverized Mineral Processing section of the U.S. EPA’s AP-42: design was considered the same as that of the homologous HMA,
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (US EPA, 2004). it was assumed that the addition of 1.5% of Sasobit® per mass of
4.3.3.1.1.2. Materials production sub- phase bitumen reduces the mixing temperature by 25 ◦ C in relation to
This section addresses the LCI of the asphalt production pro- the reference temperature of 160 ◦ C. This assumption was based
cess by considering different types of mixes, both with and without on the range values of reduction of temperature of 20–30 ◦ C com-
different RAP content. In this case study it was assumed that all monly referred to in the literature (D’Angelo, et al., 2008; Rubio
asphalt mixes were produced through a natural gas-fired conven- et al., 2012; Zhao and Guo, 2012). Moreover, it was also assumed
tional drum-mix plant. In a conventional drum mix plant, RAP is not that the RAP used in WMA can be blended with new asphalt binder
heated directly to prevent additional aging of RAP binder. Instead, at this lower temperature.
the virgin aggregates are previously superheated so that when the In order to determine the air emissions resulting from the
RAP is introduced into the drum they dry and heat the RAP by mixing process of all mixes considered in this case study, a method-
conduction. However, such a superheating temperature is likely to ology was developed based on the emission factors (EFs) published
cause additional energy consumption, which may eventually offset by the AP-42 study of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) plants (US EPA,
the economic and environmental benefits associated with the use 2004) corresponding to a natural gas-fired filter-controlled drum-
of RAP. mix plan, and the thermal energy required to produce the asphalt
In order to capture these tradeoffs along with the sensitivity of mixes. Firstly, the average EFs referring to the production of a
the air emissions due to the variations in composition and man- HMA with 0% RAP were taken as reference. Secondly, as the CO2
ufacturing temperature of the mixes and the moisture content of emissions primarily result from fuel combustion, the average emis-
the raw materials, the heat energy required to produce the asphalt sion of this GHG was combined with the fuel emission coefficient
mixes was determined through an energy balance represented by (53.1 kg/MMBtu) reported by United Sates Energy Information
Eq. (3). Agency (EIA) to determine the quantity of natural gas whose com-
bustion would release the same amount of CO2 (US EIA, 2013).

M Tfi Thirdly, for each mix an EF multiplier was determined through the
ratio between the thermal energy computed with Eq. (3) and the
mi × Ci (T ) dT + Lv × (mwvf − mwvo )
thermal energy calculated according to the procedures previously
i=0 T0i described. Finally, GHG and air pollutant EFs from mixes produc-
Q = , (3)
HeatingEffF tion were derived by multiplying the EFs taken as reference by the
EF multipliers. The values of the EF multipliers as well as the natural
where Q is the heat energy required to produce the asphalt mix- gas consumption requirements for producing all mixes considered
ture (J), mi is the mass of material i (kg), M is the total number in this case study are shown in Table 4. The natural gas consumption
of materials, including water, Tfi is the final temperature of mate- reported in this table was complemented with the consumption of
rial i (◦ C), T0i is the initial temperature of material i (◦ C), Ci (T ) is electricity to account for the operation of the electric components of
the specific heat capacity coefficient, as a function of temperature, the asphalt plant setup, e.g. conveyor, screens, etc. (Stripple, 2001).
of material i [J/(kg/◦ C)], Lv is the latent heat required to evaporate Emissions and energy consumption due to the operation of the
water (2256 J/kg), mwvf is the final mass of water vapor (kg), mwvo wheel loader at asphalt plant facility were estimated based on the
Table 4
Natural gas consumption requirements for producing the asphalt mixes and EF multiplier values.
Type of mix Natural gas consumptiona Natural gas consumptionb

3
MJ m EF multiplier MJ m3
Reference mix 247 6.74 1 – –

HMA: BM – 25.0 D, 0% RAP 217 5.93 0.880 225 6.15
HMA: IM – 19.0 D, 0% RAP 219 5.99 0.888 228 6.23
HMA: SM – 12.5 D, 0% RAP 245 6.69 0.992 254 6.94
THMACO 218 5.95 0.882 226 6.18
HMA: BM – 25.0 D, 15% RAP 229 6.26 0.929 236 6.44
HMA: IM – 19.0 D, 15% RAP 228 6.23 0.924 236 6.43
HMA: SM – 12.5 D, 15% RAP 254 6.93 1.028 262 7.16
HMA: BM – 25.0 D, 30% RAP 242 6.59 0.978 247 6.74
HMA: IM – 19.0 D, 30% RAP 244 6.65 0.987 250 6.82
HMA: SM – 12.5 D, 30% RAP 270 7.36 1.091 276 7.55
WMA: BM – 25.0 D, 0% RAP 181 4.94 0.733 189 5.15
WMA: IM – 19.0 D, 0% RAP 183 4.99 0.740 191 5.22
WMA: SM – 12.5 D, 0% RAP 203 5.55 0.823 213 5.81
WMA: BM – 25.0 D, 15% RAP 193 5.27 0.781 199 5.45
WMA: IM – 19.0 D, 15% RAP 195 5.32 0.788 202 5.52
WMA: SM – 12.5 D, 15% RAP 215 5.88 0.872 224 6.11
WMA: BM – 25.0 D, 30% RAP 205 5.60 0.830 210 5.74
WMA: IM – 19.0 D, 30% RAP 207 5.65 0.837 213 5.81
WMA: SM – 12.5 D, 30% RAP 228 6.21 0.921 235 6.40
a
It does not include the requirements for heating the insulated bitumen storage tanks.
b
It includes the requirements for heating the insulated bitumen storage tanks.
rate at which the wheel loader can move aggregates (Santos et al., ufacturing, repair, maintenance, fuel, oil and greases (FOG)
2015c) and the methodology adopted by the US EPA’s NONROAD consumption, interest on loan, asset insurance, taxes on property,
2008 model (US EPA, 2010a). special wear items consumption and tire consumption of the equip-
In addition to the process-based components described ment that define the construction or M&R process being considered
throughout this section, the I-O LCI approach was adopted to (Table 3.1.1 of the electronic Supplementary materials).
estimate the environmental burdens associated with the manu- In this section it is worth mentioning that the operating condi-
facturing, repair, maintenance, interest on loan and insurance of tions of paving machines were considered the same, regardless of
the asphalt plant setup and auxiliary equipment (Table 3.1.1 of the the type of asphalt mix considered, i.e. HMA or WMA. Although a
electronic Supplementary materials). The amortization of the envi- reduction in the number of roller passes needed to achieve a spec-
ronmental burdens was done by applying the portion of the asphalt ified density was theoretically expected due to the lower viscosity
plant setup and auxiliary equipment’s depreciation that was actu- of WMA (Rubio et al., 2012; Zaumanis, 2014), there is no accurate
ally allocated to the quantity of asphalt mixes consumed in a given and consistent scientific knowledge in the literature on the close
construction activity and considering the average annual produc- relation between the reduction of the compactive effort required,
tion of asphalt mixes. For example, if the annual depreciation of the in terms of roller passes, and the enhancement of WMA workability.
asphalt plant setup is $150,000, the average annual production of 4.3.3.1.3. Transportation of materials phase. The process-based
asphalt mixes in 2011 is 114,000 t (Hansen and Copeland, 2014) and environmental impacts resulting from the materials and mix-
the quantity of asphalt mixes to be consumed in the construction ture transportation are due to the combustion process emissions
activity is 1,000 t, then (150,000/114,000) ×1000 = $1360 is the eco- released by the transportation vehicles. All materials and mixtures
nomic value that will be input into the EIO-LCA model to determine were assumed to be hauled by heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs). The
the environmental burdens resulting from the manufacturing of US EPA’s Motor Vehicle Emissions Simulator (MOVES) (US EPA,
asphalt plant that will be allocated to the construction activity con- 2010b) was used to determine the average fuel consumption and
sidered. A similar approach was adopted in the construction, M&R airborne emissions factors for operating diesel powered, single unit
and transportation of materials phases for determining the envi- short-haul trucks and long-haul combination trucks. The I-O LCI
ronmental burdens associated with the construction equipment components considered in this pavement life cycle phase can be
and hauling trucks, but taking as allocation factors the number of found in Table 3.1.1 of the electronic Supplementary materials.
usage hours and hauling kilometers travelled to undertake a given 4.3.3.1.4. WZ traffic management phase. This pavement life
construction activity. cycle phase accounts for the fuel consumption and airborne emis-
4.3.3.1.2. Construction and M&R phase. In the construction and sions resulting from on-road vehicles traversing and detouring a
M&R phase, the process-based environmental burdens are due to work zone (WZ). It was assumed that whenever a WZ is in place, all
the combustion-related emissions from construction equipment vehicles will take a 10 km detour on a lower hierarchical level road
usage and were obtained by applying the methodology adopted at a speed 15 mph lower than the normal operating speed of 70 mph
by the US EPA’s NONROAD 2008 model (US EPA, 2010a). Infor- (112 km/h). The environmental burdens were calculated by adopt-
mation regarding the type and features (e.g. brand, model, engine ing a process-based two-step method. First, the US EPA’s MOVES
horsepower, etc.) of each equipment used to perform the several model was run multiple times to compute a set of fuel consump-
construction and M&R activities, as well as their respective production factors (FCFs) and airborne EFs on an hourly basis as a function
tion rates were taken from the technical specifications provided of sixteen speed ranges. Second, the changes in traffic flow were
by the equipment’s manufacturers and complemented with the estimated using the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) 2000 (TRB,
literature (US ACE, 2011; Caterpillar Inc., 2012). 2000) to determine several outputs, such as the number of vehicles
In addition to the process-based components presented pre- that traversed the WZ, the average queue length, the average queue
viously, the I-O LCI approach was adopted to estimate the speed in each hour, etc. Once the changes in driving patterns were
environmental burdens associated with the equipment man- determined, they were combined with the FCFs and tailpipe vehicle
Efs previously computed and stored in look up tables to derive the 4.3.3.2.1. Materials extraction and production phase. This phase
environmental load of a WZ day. accounts for the costs incurred by the highway agency in producing
Finally, the marginal fuel consumption and airborne emissions the mixtures to be applied during the construction and M&R phases.
due to the WZ traffic management plan were calculated by sub- Materials extraction and production phase costs were divided into
tracting fuel consumption and airborne emissions released during three main categories: (1) raw materials costs, (2) energy sources
a WZ period from the results of an equivalent non-WZ period. costs and (3) asphalt plant operating costs. The last category was
The same methodology was adopted to calculate the I-O LCI com- further divided into fixed and variable costs sub-categories.
ponents shown in Table 3.1.1 of the electronic Supplementary In this section, it should be mentioned that a change in the price
materials. of the virgin asphalt binder was considered when a RAP percentage
4.3.3.1.5. Usage phase. The usage phase addresses the pave- of 30% was used in the mixes due to the lower PG category of the
ment’s environmental burden resulting from the interaction of the asphalt binder used in those circumstances (VDOT, 2012a).
pavement with the vehicles, environment and humans through- 4.3.3.2.2. Construction and M&R phase. The construction and
out its PAP. Among the factors that have been identified in past M&R phase costs represent the costs incurred by the highway
research as being worthy of consideration during the usage phase agency during the actual performance of a construction or M&R
of the pavement (i.e. tire-pavement interaction, traffic flow, albedo, activity at a particular work site on a specific day and time. They
leachate and runoff, carbonation and lighting) only the contribution include the construction equipment owning costs (depreciation,
from the tire-pavement interaction, namely the pavement rough- interest, insurance, taxes on property and allocation to work site),
ness as measured by IRI, was taken into account in this analysis. the construction equipment operation costs (fuel consumption,
The rationale for this decision lies with the fact that the remaining planned maintenance and FOG, repair, tire consumption and spe-
components either do not apply to the features of the case study cial wear items) and the labor costs corresponding to the wages
under evaluation or lack well established and consistent scientific and benefits paid to the crew members for the work performed
background. In order to determine the influence of the pavement at a work place. The materials costs, as well as the costs associated
roughness on vehicle FC and tailpipe emissions, the HDM-4 fuel with the hauling movements required to deliver the materials from
consumption model (Bennett and Greenwood, 2003), calibrated the point of production to their destinations are accounted for in
and validated for US conditions by Chatti and Zaabar (2012), was individual phases. Data required for computing the various sub-
combined with data from the US EPA’s MOVES model according categories of construction equipment owning and operating costs
to the approach proposed by Santos et al. (2015c). In the particu- were collected for each piece of equipment according to the infor-
lar case of the effect of the macrotexture on vehicle fuel economy, mation made available by equipment manufacturers, suppliers and
this was not considered because the prediction of its evolution over dealers, or existing in the literature (US ACE, 2011; Caterpillar Inc.,
time is a difficult task, in the sense that it may present contradictory 2012). The number of workers needed to carry out the several M&R
behaviours (i.e., increase or decrease over time) depending on the actions for a given M&R activity was estimated according to data
type of distresses developed throughout the pavement life cycle. gathered in the field during visits to similar recycling projects, or
The effects of this surface property on fuel consumption would have existing in the literature (EAPA and NAPA, 2011).
been considered if the research work described in this paper had 4.3.3.2.3. Transportation of materials phase. The theoretical
been applied to a real pavement section with a record of macrotex- economic advantage of recycling-based construction and M&R
ture measurements that enabled the development of a prediction practices is strongly affected by material transportation costs and
model. However, the pavement section considered in the case study how those costs compare to the cost of new virgin materials deliv-
is a generic section, representative of the conditions existing in a ered to the construction site. Thus, unlike the majority of the LCC
typical Interstate highway in Virginia. models existing in the literature, the proposed LCC model presents
As far as the I-O LCI components are concerned, the environ- the costs incurred by the highway agencies due to the transporta-
mental burdens related to the following items were considered: tion of the materials separated out from the remaining categories
on-road vehicles manufacturing, maintenance and repair and tire that constitute the total delivery price.
consumption (Table 3.1.1 of the electronic Supplementary materi- As with construction and M&R phase costs, three main cost
als). categories were considered: (1) hauling trucks owning costs
4.3.3.1.6. End-of-life phase. Given the hierarchical level of the (depreciation, interest, insurance and taxes on property), (2) haul-
road under consideration the most likely EOL scenario for the pave- ing trucks operation costs (fuel consumption, planned maintenance
ment section in this analysis is that it will remain in place after and FOG, repair, tire consumption and special wear items) and (3)
reaching the end of the PAP, serving as the foundation for the new labor costs (hauling truck drivers’ wages and benefits).
pavement structure. Thus, in order to model this pavement life 4.3.3.2.4. WZ traffic management phase. The WZ traffic man-
cycle phase a ‘cut-off’ allocation method was adopted. According agement costs consist of the additional costs borne by the road
to this allocation method, each product is assigned only the bur- users (RUC) when facing a disruption of the normal traffic flow as
dens directly associated with it (Nicholson et al., 2009). Therefore, a consequence of the constraints imposed by a WZ traffic manage-
no environmental burdens were assigned to the EOL phase of all ment plan. In this LCC model the following WZ traffic management
alternative scenarios. costs categories were considered: (1) time delay costs (TDC) and
4.3.3.1.7. Energy production. Although it is not considered a (2) vehicle operating costs (VOC). Accident costs, typically consid-
pavement life cycle phase, as are those previously introduced, ered as another WZ RUC category, were disregarded due to the high
energy source production and transportation is an unavoidable pro- level of uncertainty associated with the factors that might deter-
cess that is common to all pavement life cycle phases. In this case mine their occurrence (which are often related with driver errors
study, the GREET model (Argonne National Laboratory, 2013) was and other factors not related with the WZ).
used as the source of the LCI for the production and delivery of 4.3.3.2.5. Usage phase. The usage phase costs, frequently
energy sources. For all energy sources except electricity, the GREET named non-WZ RUC, account for the marginal VOCs supported by
model default data was used. In the case of electricity, a default the vehicle drivers throughout the PAP as a consequence of the
electricity mix was modified to reflect the electricity production in deterioration of the pavement condition. In the proposed LCC sub-
the state of Virginia (US EIA, 2012). model, the pavement roughness, as measured by the IRI, was used
to estimate the RUC associated with the overall pavement surface
4.3.3.2. Economic dimension. condition. The following costs categories were considered to be
contributors to the total usage phase costs: (1) fuel consumption, 5. Results and discussion
(2) tire wear, (3) vehicle maintenance and repair and (4) mileage-
related vehicle depreciation. The first three costs categories were 5.1. Life cycle impact assessment
estimated by adopting the VOCs model developed by Chatti and
Zaabar (2012). The effect of the pavement roughness on vehicle Fig. 3(a)–(h) display the normalized life cycle impacts of the
depreciation costs was determined according to the methodology alternative scenarios across the eight impact and energy demand
presented by Barnes and Langworthy (2003). categories. Each scenario is normalized by the impact category
4.3.3.2.6. End-of-life phase. In the case study, the most likely score observed in the first scenario, where all conventional materi-
EOL scenario for the analyzed pavement structure is that it will als and M&R activities were applied. In addition, for each pavement
remain in place after reaching the end of the PAP, serving as the life cycle phase, the relative savings in relation to the homologous
foundation for the new pavement structure. Thus, the salvage value phase of scenario 1 are presented. Complementarily, the abso-
of the pavement structure is given by the value of its remain- lute value of the impact category scores are illustrated with labels
ing service life. The service life of the pavement was assumed to placed right below the top of the bars.
end when the CCI exceeds the value of 49, which according to the These results clearly indicate that scenario 14 (preventive main-
VDOT’s Highway System Performance Dashboard (VDOT, 2012b) tenance: THMACO) is the least harmful to the environment, as it
corresponds to the threshold (CCITer min al ) beyond which a ride is was found to cause the lowest impact in seven out of eight impact
classified as “very poor”. and energy demand categories. Compared to scenario 1, a reduc-
In order to compute the value of the remaining service life, and tion in all impacts ranging from 18% (HH) to 38% (NFoPE), can be
thus, the salvage value of the pavement at end of the PAP, Eq. (4) achieved as a result of implementing the THMACO-based preven-
was adopted. It quantifies the salvage value of the pavement as the tive M&R strategy. The second best environmental performance
proportion of the total highway agency costs incurred due to the is denoted by the microsurfacing-based preventive M&R scenario.
application of the last M&R activity equal to the proportion of the The fact that the implementation of preventive M&R strategies
remaining life of that M&R activity (Walls and Smith, 1998). results in a better pavement condition throughout the PAP along
CCIEOL − CCITer min al with the key role played by the usage phase in driving the environ-
CEOL phase = CLast M& R activity × , (4) mental performance of a pavement system, explains the greater
100 − CCITer min al
reduction in the environmental impact associated with the imple-
where CLast M& R activity is the total highway agency cost resulting mentation of scenarios 13 and 14.
from the application of the last M&R activity. It is obtained by Contrary to the merits exhibited by the preventive maintenance
summing up the costs incurred by the highway agency during the scenarios, the scenarios consisting of implementing the VDOT M&R
materials, M&R and transportation of materials phases associated strategy present the highest environmental impact. In particu-
with the last M&R activity; CCIEOL is the CCI of the pavement at the lar, scenario 4 (VDOT M&R strategy: WMA – 0% RAP) entails the
end of the PAP; and CCITer min al is the CCI value beyond which a ride highest environmental impact for four out of eight impact and
is classified as “very poor”. energy demand categories. However, it is worth mentioning that
this result should not be seen as conclusive with regard to the
4.4. Life cycle impacts assessment disadvantages of WMA over conventional mixtures, since the envi-
ronmental burdens that scenario 4 originate are quite similar to
The US-based impact assessment methodology, the Tool for the those of the scenario 1 (VDOT M&R strategy: HMA – 0% RAP), and
Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and other environmental do not show a steady pattern of improvement or deterioration of
Impacts 2.0–TRACI 2.0 (Bare, 2011) from the US EPA, was adopted the environmental performance across all impact categories. More-
in this study to conduct the impact assessment step of the LCA over, scenario 1 entails the highest environmental impact for three
on the basis of obtained inventory as compiled in the previous out of eight impact and energy demand categories, and overall, it
step. The TRACI impact categories used in the analysis include: is the second most harmful scenario when scenario 4 presents the
acidification air (AC), eutrophication air (EU), human health cri- poorest environmental performance. For instance, examining the
teria pollutants (HH) and photochemical smog formation (PSF). lines in Fig. 3(b), which display the savings of emissions of SO2 -eq
The time-adjusted characterization model for the climate change incurred during the materials phases, one can see that the differ-
(CC) impact category that was proposed by Kendall (2012) was ence between the aforementioned scenarios is just 1.33%. Residual
used, as opposed to the traditional time-steady International Panel savings are also observed in the remaining impact and energy
on Climate Change model. Furthermore, three energy-based indi- demand categories. The exception is the NFoPE energy demand,
cators were also included in the assessment: (1) primary energy where an improvement of the environmental performance was
obtained from fossil resources, (2) primary energy obtained from observed, which can be as high as 33.18%. Such residual and contra-
non-fossil resources and (3) feedstock energy. The feedstock energy dictory values mean that for the conditions considered in this case
was fully allocated to the virgin binder, with none attributed to RAP. study, the overall impacts of WMA are not substantially different
This assumption aims to avoid double counting since it would be from those of HMA with the same RAP content, and a general con-
expected to be accounted for in the previous pavement system. clusion on which type of mix is environmentally preferable cannot
be drawn. Therefore, one noteworthy outcome of this case study
4.5. Life cycle costs computation is that the decrease in the impacts of WMA due to the reduction
of production temperature is offset by the increase in the impacts
Once all the cost categories associated with each scenario under due to the production of Sasobit® , despite its small proportion in
assessment are identified and calculated, the concept of net present mixture composition. Furthermore, even if the lower compacting
value (NPV) was applied. This allows expenses occurring at differ- efforts associated with the WMA were taken into account, there
ent points in time to be summed up on a yearly basis by using would be no meaningful change in the environmental performance
a discount rate in the calculations to reflect the “time value of of the system under analysis, as the environmental burdens associ-
money”. In this case study, a real discount rate of 2.3% was used. It ated with the operation of construction equipment have a relatively
follows the Office of Management and Budget’s (OMB’s) guidelines small impact over the life of a pavement.
for conducting benefit-cost of federal programs with durations of Regarding the environmental benefits resulting from incorpo-
longer than 30 years for the calendar year of 2011 (OMB, 2013). rating RAP into asphalt mixtures, the comparison of scenarios
(a) Usage WZ Traffic Manag. Transp. of Materials

(e)
Const. and M&R Materials Sav. - Materials Usage WZ Traffic Manag. Transp. of Materials
Const. and M&R Materials Sav. - Materials
Sav.- Const. And M&R Sav. - Transp. Of Materials Sav. - WZ Traffic Manag. Sav.- Const. And M&R Sav. - Transp. Of Materials Sav. - WZ Traffic Manag.
Sav. - Usage Sav.- Total Sav. - Usage Sav.- Total
4 262 100,00%
4 263 100,02%
4 217 98,94%
4 220 99,00%
4 178 98,03%
4 178 98,02%
96,69%
4 121 96,70%
4 082 95,77%
95,80%
100,00%
94,99%
94,96%
99,99%
98,90%
98,76%
91,44%
97,57%
97,57%
97,58%
97,56%
96,50%
96,50%
95,49%
95,47%
93,20%
79,86%
Normalised CC score (tonnes CO2-eq)
76,56%
100% 80%
Normalised PSF score (Kg O3-eq)

4 121
90%
4 083
4 049
4 047
100% 80%
3 897
60%
449 700
449 642
444 739
444 120
438 820
438 777
438 770
438 712
433 947
433 968
429 406
429 313
80% 90% 60%
3 404
Savings (Sav.) [%]
419 103
70% 40% 80%
Savings (Sav.) [%]

40%
344 294
60% 70%
20% 20%
50% 60%
0% 50% 0%
40%
40% -20%
30% -20% 30%
20% -40%
20%
-40% -60%
10% 10%
0% -60% 0% -80%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Scenario ID Scenario ID
(b) Usage WZ Traffic Manag. Transp. of Materials Usage WZ Traffic Manag. Transp. of Materials
Const. and M&R Materials Sav. - Materials Const. and M&R Materials Sav. - Materials
Sav.- Const. And M&R
Sav. - Usage
Sav. - Transp. Of Materials
Sav.- Total
Sav. - WZ Traffic Manag. (f) Sav.- Const. And M&R Sav. - Transp. Of Materials Sav. - WZ Traffic Manag.
Sav. - Usage Sav.- Total
27 721 100,00%
27 764 100,15%
27 492 99,17%
27 444 99,00%
27 154 97,95%
27 178 98,04%
27 222 98,20%
27 116 97,82%
26 920 97,11%
26 881 96,97%
26 692 96,29%
26 656 96,16%
70 731 698 100,00%

92,46%
75,08%
99,76%
70 073 917 99,07%
98,86%
69 515 012 98,28%
69 322 094 98,01%
68 392 020 96,69%
68 261 432 96,51%

67 823 629 95,89%
67 703 825 95,72%

67 352 331 95,22%
67 189 390 94,99%
66 927 860 94,62%
80,16%
100% 80%
Normalised AC score (Kg SO2-eq)
100% 80%
Normalised FoPE score (MJ-eq)

90% 60%
70 563 258
69 924 705
25 631 90% 60%
Savings (Sav.) [%]

80%
40% 80%
70% 40%
56 697 496
Savings (Sav.) [%]

20 813
20% 70%
60% 20%
60%
50% 0%
50% 0%
40% -20% 40% -20%
30% 30%
-40% -40%
20% 20%
10% -60% -60%
10%
0% -80% 0% -80%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Usage WZ Traffic Manag. Transp. of Materials

(c) Usage
Const. and M&R
WZ Traffic Manag.
Materials
Transp. of Materials
Sav. - Materials (g) Const. and M&R
Materials
Sav. - Materials
Sav. - WZ Traffic Manag.
Sav.- Const. And M&R Sav. - Transp. Of Materials Sav. - WZ Traffic Manag.
Sav. - Usage Sav.- Total Sav. - Usage Sav.- Total
1 529 100,00%
1 529 100,00%
1 520 99,39%
1 520 99,40%
1 983 694 105,91%

1 511 98,82%
1 511 98,81%
1 969 401 105,14%

1 502 98,25%
1 502 98,25%
1 494 97,72%
1 494 97,73%
1 487 97,23%
1 486 97,22%
1 950 118 104,11%
1 913 017 102,13%
1 898 518 101,36%
61,61%
1 881 948 100,48%
1 873 049 100,00%
69,03%
93,37%
98,93%
97,90%
97,18%
96,26%
1 786 422 95,38%

73,90%
100% 80% 105% 80%

Normalised EU score (Kg N-eq)
Normalised NFoPE score (MJ-eq)
90% 60%
1 853 062
60%
1 833 797
1 820 207
1 428
1 802 995
80% 85%
Savings (Sav.) [%]
40% 40%
Savings (Sav.) [%]

70%
20% 65%
1 130
1 293 030
60% 20%
1 153 958
50% 0%
45% 0%
40% -20%
30% -20%
-40% 25%
20% -40%
10% -60%
5%
0% -80% -60%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-15% -80%
Usage WZ Traffic Manag. Transp. of Materials

(d) Const. and M&R
Materials
Sav. - Materials
Sav. - WZ Traffic Manag.
(h) Materials Sav. - Materials
Sav. - Usage Sav.- Total
114,17%
105,19%
100,00%
100,00%
100,00%
99,73%
98,81%
98,62%
97,75%
97,51%
96,47%
96,26%
95,44%
95,29%
94,54%
94,33%
96,39%
89,81%
32 398 313 89,81%
30 904 349 85,66%
30 904 349 85,66%

82,18%
28 153 198 78,04%

28 153 198 78,04%
Normalised HH score (Kg PM2.5-eq)
100% 80%
71,33%
25 732 438 71,33%

36 076 259
36 076 259
41 186 767
23 908 082 66,27%
37 946 883
23 908 082 66,27%
Normalised FsE score (MJ)
100% 80% 90% 70%

1 261
1 257
1 246
1 243
1 232
1 229
1 216
1 214
32 398 313
1 203
1 201
1 192
1 189
90% 60% 80% 60%

1 215
Savings (Sav.) [%]

80% 70% 50%
1 036
Savings (Sav.) [%]
25 732 438
40%
70% 60% 40%
60% 20%
50% 30%
50% 0% 40% 20%
40% -20% 30% 10%
30% 20% 0%
-40%
20% 10% -10%
10% -60%
0% -20%
0% -80% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Scenario ID
Scenario ID
Fig. 3. Life cycle impact assessment results: (a) CC, (b) AC, (c) EU, (d) HH, (e) PSF, (f) FoPE, (g) NFoPE and (h) FsE.
involving the application of the same type of mixture but with dif- from materials and WZ traffic management phases, depending on
ferent RAP contents shows that the environmental impacts can be the impact category being considered. Despite the overall benefits
reduced by as much as 17% (AC due to materials phase), and 29% associated with the implementation of the recycling-based VDOT
(FsE). Overall, in relative terms, the greatest advantage stems from M&R strategies (scenarios 7–12), it should be noted that the con-
either the materials or the transportation of materials phases, while struction and M&R phases of those scenarios present the poorest
in absolute terms the materials phase plays the most important role environmental performance among competing scenarios. The rea-
in lowering the overall environmental impact. son for this outcome lies with the fact that the implementation of
As far as the potential environmental benefits of implement- recycling-based M&R activities requires the use of heavy construc-
ing recycling-based M&R activities, as opposed to the conventional tion equipment with high-rated power engines.
M&R practices, are concerned, Fig. 3(a)–(h) show considerable envi-
ronmental impact reductions across all categories. The maximum
reduction in environmental burden can be as high as 16% and was 5.2. Life cycle costs analysis
observed in the NFoPE energy demand of the materials phase. In
absolute terms, the majority of the environmental benefits spring Fig. 4(a) shows the normalized life cycle highway agency costs
corresponding to the alternative scenarios. Each scenario is nor-
(a) EOL Transportation of Materials Construction and M&R

Materials Sav. - Materials Sav.- Const. And M&R
Sav. - Transp. Of Materials Sav.- Total
108,76%
102,83%
100,00%
$995,17 102,19%
94,81%
120% 100%
92,86%
92,51%
90,40%
85,17%
84,37%
80,93%
$1 059,08
78,83%
75,97%
$1 001,34
74,14%
100% 80%
$973,81
$923,28
$900,85
$904,29
$880,28
Normalised HAC(%)
80%
$829,42
$821,62
Savings (Sav.) [%]

$788,07
60%
$767,66
$739,81
$721,97
60%
40%
40%
20%
20%
0% 0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-20% -20%
Scenario ID
(b) Non- WZ Traff. Manag. WZ Traff. Manag. Sav. - WZ RUC
121,61%
Sav.- Non- WZ RUC Sav.- Total RUC
$3 043,77 100,00%
$3 043,77 100,00%
$3 043,77 100,00%
$3 043,77 100,00%
$3 043,77 100,00%
$3 043,77 100,00%
97,13%
97,84%
97,84%
97,84%
97,84%
97,84%
97,84%
120% 120%
$3 701,51
$2 978,17
$2 978,17
$2 978,17
$2 978,17
$2 978,17
$2 978,17
$2 956,46
Normalised RUC (%)
70% 70%
Savings (Sav.) [%]

20% 20%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-30% -30%
-80% -80%
Scenario ID
Fig. 4. Life cycle costing results: (a) highway agency costs (HAC) and (b) road user costs (RUC).
malized by the net life cycle highway agency cost observed in the comply with the M&R triggering policy. Another outcome worth
first scenario. In addition, for each pavement life cycle phase, the highlighting in Fig. 4(a) concerns the third poorest performance,
relative savings in relation to the homologous phase of scenario 1 among all the competing alternatives, as seen in scenario 4 (VDOT
are presented. Complementarily, the absolute value of the net life M&R strategy: Sasobit® WMA – 0% RAP), as it implies a slight
cycle highway agency costs, expressed in thousands of US dollars, increase in the life cycle highway agency costs of about 2.2% in rela-
are illustrated with the labels placed right below the top of the bars. tion to scenario 1. This result means that the benefits resulting from
From the analysis of Fig. 4(a), it can be seen that overall, the energy cost savings associated with the manufacturing of WMA
recycling-based VDOT M&R scenarios are the most advantageous were offset by the increased production costs related to the asphalt
from the highway agency’s perspective. Four out of six scenarios plant modifications, which in this case study, consisted of adding a
rank in the top six of the least expensive, with scenario 9 (recycling- pneumatic Sasobit® feeder to the default equipment existing in an
based VDOT strategy: HMA – 30% RAP), being the one that allows asphalt plant facility, and the acquisition and transportation costs
highway agencies the greatest life cycle savings. A reduction of of the Sasobit® .
approximately 24% of the net life cycle highway agency costs can As for the costs incurred by road users, Fig. 4(b) shows the nor-
be achieved if this scenario is implemented instead of the first malized life cycle RUC. Analogously to Fig. 4(a), each scenario is
one. The contributions to the reduction of the net life cycle high- normalized by the road user life cycle cost observed in the first sce-
way agency costs for the scenario 9 come from the materials (30%) nario. The relative savings in relation to the homologous phase of
and transportation of materials (24%) phases. Despite the overall scenario 1 and the absolute value of the life cycle RUC, expressed
benefits resulting from implementing recycling-based VDOT sce- in thousands of US dollars, are also presented in the same figure.
narios, their construction and M&R phases exhibit worse economic The THMACO-based scenario, which imposes on road users a life
performances than the non-recycling-based counterparts. This is cycle cost of about $2,956,458, exhibits the lowest life cycle RUC
because undertaking recycling-based M&R activities requires the among alternatives. This scenario is followed by the scenarios 7-
use of heavy construction equipment which commonly incurs high 12 (recycling-based VDOT M&R scenarios), which impose on road
owning and operating costs. users a life cycle cost of about $2,978,166. On the other hand, the
In contrast, the preventive maintenance scenarios are the least microsurfacing-based scenario implies the highest costs for road
beneficial for the highway agency’s interests, as they imply an users, with a life cycle value of approximately $3,701,513. Compar-
increase in the life cycle costs of about 3 and 9% in relation to ing the contribution given by each type of RUC, Fig. 4(b) shows that
scenario 1. These outcomes are explained by the greater number
of interventions that are required to be implemented in order to
Scenario 14
WHAC = 1 WHAC + WRUC + WEnv = 1 narios being compared have the same ranking position. From the
Scenario 9 analysis of Fig. 5 one can conclude that of the competing scenarios,
0
1 only two (scenarios 9 and 14) have the potential to rank best. Of
0,1
0,9 those, scenario 9 is clearly the one that presents the largest area
0,2
0,8 of superiority. If the decision is exclusively based on either HAC
0,3 or RUC, scenario 9 ranks best. In turn, if the environmental perfor-
0,7
WHAC 0,4 WRUC mance is the only criterion taken into account, then scenario 14
0,6
0,5 outperforms the remaining ones.
0,5
0,6
0,4
0,7
0,3
0,8
0,2
0,9
0,1
1
0
WEnv = 1 1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 WRUC = 1
5.4. Sensitivity and scenario analysis
WEnv
The economic and environmental assessment of new pavement
Fig. 5. Best scenarios for all possible weighting combinations of the main criteria. engineering solutions was carried out on the basis that those solu-
Note: WHAC , weight assigned to highway agency costs; WRUC , weight assigned to
road user costs; WEnv , weight assigned to environmental impacts.
tions perform in the same way as their conventional counterparts
with respect to IRI progression. Although this assumption finds sup-
port in several studies for some technologies (Sol-Sánchez et al.,
the percentage of non-WZ RUC in the total value incurred by these 2016; Mohammad et al., 2015), there are also other studies sug-
stakeholders ranges from 15 to 33%, with an average value of 31%. gesting that some of those solutions may not perform as well as
the conventional solutions (Modarres et al., 2014). Given the lack of
5.3. Overall performance results obtained from comprehensive field studies about the long-
term performance of road pavements incorporating new pavement
In order to determine the preference order of alternative scenar- engineering solutions, it is pertinent to consider that new paving
ios, a MCDA method was applied. Specifically, the TOPSIS method materials/solutions may not be as durable as the conventional
(Hwang and Yoon, 1981), was chosen due to its (1) simple, rational materials. Furthermore, there is also literature arguing that in some
and understandable concept; (2) straightforward computation; (3) cases, not all of the binder on the recycled aggregates will be mobi-
ability to depict the relative performance of decision alternatives in lized (partial blending effects for RAP integration) (Shirodkar et al.,
a simple mathematical form (Anupam et al., 2014); and (4) broad 2013, 2011). In addition, the degree of blending may be lower in
recognition and application in the construction sector (Jato-Espino WMA due to lower mixing temperatures, but this effect is not fully
et al., 2014). Three main criteria were considered: HAC, RUC and known yet (Bowers et al., 2014; Gaitan et al., 2013). Therefore, the
environmental impacts. The last criterion was further broken down 100% assumption of activated RAP binder may result in underper-
into 8 sub-criteria, each representing one environmental impact forming under-asphalted mixture designs. Similarly, Sasobit® may
category. change their design and increase the amount used in mixes. As such,
Depending on policy makers’ preferences, different weights can the results presented in the previous sections are likely to be subject
be assigned to each criterion. This is a challenging task since there to some degree of uncertainty. Therefore, a sensitivity and scenario
are often multiple decision-makers with different agendas and analysis were conducted to examine how variations across a set of
biases towards their interests. To elucidate decision-makers on the parameters and assumptions affect the robustness of the reported
consequences of the weighting in the ranking of the alternative sce- outcomes, and thereby, the relative merits of the alternatives being
narios, a combinatorial weight assignment method was undertaken considered and compared. In particular, the “One-(factor)-At-a-
for the main criteria, while the weights assigned to the environ- Time” (OAT) sensitivity analysis method was used. In this method,
mental sub-criteria remained unchangeable and equal to those output variations are induced by varying one input factor at a time,
adopted by the US-based Building for Economic and Environmen- while all others are held at their default values.
tal Sustainability (BEES) software (Lippiat, 2007). Since the energy Table 5 presents the triangular diagrams that display the best
demand indicators considered in the proposed LCC-LCA model are scenarios for all possible weighting combinations between the
not available in the BEES software, they were given a weight of three main criteria when each model parameter is individually
5 points each, as much as the weight assigned to the Fossil Fuel changed +60% with respect to the base scenario. For the sake of
Depletion impact category considered in BEES software. All the brevity, the corresponding normalized life cycle impacts, energy
weights assigned to the environmental sub-criteria were posteri- demand scores and component costs (highway agency and road
orly rescaled, so that the sum of their values totals 100 points. Thus, user costs) are shown in the electronic Supplementary materials
in the MCDA, the final weight of each environmental sub-criterion (Section 4).
is the value resulting from multiplying the weight of the main envi- From the analysis of Table 5 it is clear that the position of sce-
ronmental criterion by the weight determined, as explained above. narios 9 and 14 in the ranking of the best compromise solutions is
The best scenario for all possible weighting combinations robust. In general, the consideration of scenarios different from the
between the three main criteria is displayed in Fig. 5 through a baseline only originate a slight change in the areas of dominance.
triangular diagram (Hofstetter et al., 1999; Graham and Midgley, The only exception to this outcome is observed when different IRI
2000). The axes are scaled so they increase in a clockwise direction grow rates are considered. In these circumstances, for a given set of
around the diagram. Each point in the triangle area corresponds to weights scenario 1 was found to be the best compromise scenario.
a specific weighting set and the relative weights always add up to a This happens when the weight values assigned to the RUC criterion
total weight of 1 (or 100%). This leads to a graphical representation are high while those assigned to the remaining criteria are low,
of two dominance areas separated by a straight equilibrium line. and can be explained by the increase in the roughness-related user
This line comprises a set of points in the triangle where the sce- costs associated with higher IRI grow rates.
Table 5
Results of the sensitivity and scenario analysis expressed in terms of the best M&R scenarios for all possible weighting combinations of the main criteria.
Scenario name Relative variation of the model parameter under evaluation
+30% +60%
Reduction of the degree of blending
Increase in Sasobit® content
Increase in IRI grow rate
5.5. Key findings • The recycling-based VDOT M&R strategy: HMA − 30% RAP is
clearly the scenario that best suits the majority of the interests
From the methodology and results presented and discussed in of the stakeholders as a whole, even when different design and
the previous sections, the following findings are worth highlight- performance scenarios of the mixtures and type of treatments are
ing: evaluated.
6. Summary and conclusions

• THMACO-based preventive maintenance is the least harmful
scenario to the environment, being responsible for the lowest A shift towards more environmentally and economically
impacts in the overwhelming majority of the categories. Com- responsible behavior in the road pavement construction and man-
pared to the scenario where only conventional materials and agement field triggered the need to develop and implement new
treatments are applied (scenario 1), a reduction in all impacts pavement engineering solutions. Complementarily, a comprehen-
ranging from 18% (HH) to 38% (NFoPE) can be achieved as a result sive and wide-scoped assessment of the effectiveness of those
of implementing the THMACO-based preventive M&R strategy; solutions in achieving their intended objectives, requires the use
• The life cycle environmental impacts of WMA are in general iden- of comprehensive life cycle modelling approaches, which provide
tical to those of HMA with the same RAP content. The decrease in valuable information for those in charge of making decisions.
the impacts of WMA due to the reduction of production tempera- Keeping this in mind, a comprehensive and integrated pavement
ture is offset by the increase in the impacts due to the production LCC-LCA model was developed and used to investigate the poten-
of Sasobit® ; tial environmental and economic benefits resulting from applying
• Producing asphalt mixes with 30% of RAP allows environmental in-plant recycling mixtures, WMA, cold in-place recycling and
impacts to be reduced by as much as 29% (FsE impact cate- preventive treatments throughout the life cycle of a pavement
gory). In relative terms, the greatest advantage springs from the structure.
transportation of materials phase, while in absolute terms the For the conditions considered in this case study, the recycling-
materials phase plays the most important role in lowering the based VDOT M&R strategy, where the asphalt mixtures are of type
overall environmental impacts; HMA containing 30% of RAP has been shown to be more compliant
• Applying a recycling-based VDOT M&R strategy where the struc- with the highway agency and road users’ demands for affordable
tural treatments is carried out through a CCPR technique leads road maintenance and usage over its life cycle than the remain-
to reduction in the environmental burdens of some pavement ing technical solutions investigated. Moreover, this solution also
life cycle phases that can be as high as 16% in relation to those revealed a superior overall performance when the interests of
generated by an equivalent and conventional M&R strategy; all three stakeholders, meaning highway agency, highway users
• Applying the THMACO-based preventive M&R strategy is simul- and the environment, were concomitantly taken into account in
taneously the most costly strategy for the highway agency and a MCDA. On the other hand, from the exclusive environmen-
the least expensive for road users. On the other hand, implement- tal performance point of view, implementing a THMACO-based
ing the recycling-based VDOT M&R strategy, where the asphalt preventive maintenance strategy has proven to be the most envi-
mixtures are of type HMA containing 30% of RAP (scenario 9), ronmentally preferable solution.
and the microsurfacing-based preventive M&R strategy, yield the A sensitivity and scenario analysis was undertaken to assess the
greatest life cycle highway agency savings and RUC expenses, robustness of the outcomes in response to variations in some of the
respectively; most relevant input values. The analysis has shown that variances
to the key assumptions considered when assessing the life-cycle for identification purposes only and is not to be considered an
environmental and economic performances of multiple pavement endorsement. Moreover, this paper does not constitute a standard,
construction and maintenance practices do not considerably alter specification, or regulation.
the overall advantage resulting from implementing a recycling-
based VDOT M&R strategy, where the asphalt mixtures are of type Appendix A. Supplementary data
HMA containing 30% of RAP.
Providing life cycle perspectives of the environmental and eco- Supplementary data associated with this article can be found,
nomic implications of implementing new pavement engineering in the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.
solutions and management practices is without doubt an essential 08.025.
first step towards enhancing pavement infrastructure sustainabil-
ity. In this sense, because the methodology presented in this paper
possesses a clear and well-defined mathematical formulation, it References
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Resources, Conservation and Recycling 116 (2017) 15–31

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation and Recycling

Full length article

Environmental and economic assessment of pavement construction

1. Introduction evidence of the environmental effects of these activities, along

VDOT 1 HMA – 0% RAP

M&R scenario ID M&R activity ID

Scenarios 1 to 12 Scenario 13 Scenario 14

IRI [m/km] 1.40

Materials Extraction and

Interest Maintenance and

Mobilization Transportation of Materials

Depreciation/ Fuel Consumption Trucks Driver's

Crew Members' Insurance Repair

Type of mix Natural gas consumptiona Natural gas consumptionb

Reference mix 247 6.74 1 – –

(a) Usage WZ Traffic Manag. Transp. of Materials

Normalised PSF score (Kg O3-eq)

Savings (Sav.) [%]

Savings (Sav.) [%]

70 731 698 100,00%

69 322 094 98,01%

68 392 020 96,69%

68 261 432 96,51%

67 703 825 95,72%

67 189 390 94,99%

66 927 860 94,62%

Normalised FoPE score (MJ-eq)

Savings (Sav.) [%]

Savings (Sav.) [%]

Usage WZ Traffic Manag. Transp. of Materials

1 983 694 105,91%

1 969 401 105,14%

1 950 118 104,11%

1 913 017 102,13%

1 898 518 101,36%

1 786 422 95,38%

100% 80% 105% 80%

Normalised NFoPE score (MJ-eq)

Savings (Sav.) [%]

Usage WZ Traffic Manag. Transp. of Materials

30 904 349 85,66%

28 153 198 78,04%

25 732 438 71,33%

100% 80% 90% 70%

90% 60% 80% 60%

Savings (Sav.) [%]

Savings (Sav.) [%]

(a) EOL Transportation of Materials Construction and M&R

Savings (Sav.) [%]

(b) Non- WZ Traff. Manag. WZ Traff. Manag. Sav. - WZ RUC

Savings (Sav.) [%]

Scenario name Relative variation of the model parameter under evaluation

Reduction of the degree of blending

Increase in Sasobit® content

Increase in IRI grow rate

6. Summary and conclusions

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