Measurements

(1) Drift: - undesirable Qty. of instrument

(2) Fidelity: ability of system to reproduce the o/p in same form as i/p

Gaussian Statistical Error

x1 + x2 + + xn
1. A.Mean = =x
n

2. Deviation  d1 = x1 − x

d2 = x2 − x

d12 + d22 + + dn2

3. Standard deviation () =
n

4. Probable error = 0.8845

5. Min. range error = x − xmin

Min. range error = xmax − x

6. Avg. rage = min +Max. range

Min + Max. range

Avg.rage =
2

xmax − xmin
=
2
1. Absolute Instruments:
• These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms
of physical constants of the instruments.
• Among all the instruments these are more accurate instruments.
• Absolute instruments are mostly used in standard Laboratories and in similar
instruments as standardizing.
• The examples of this class of instruments are
➢ Tangent galvanometer
➢ Rayleigh’s current balance
➢ Absolute Electrometer
➢ Lorenz force method.
• Absolute instruments are used to calibrate the secondary instruments.

2. Secondary Instruments
• These instruments measure the unknown quantity in terms of parameter under
measurement.
• These instruments are less Accurate
• These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument (or)
another secondary instrument which has already been calibrated against an
absolute instrument.
• Measurement using absolute instruments is a time-consuming process hence
secondary instruments are most commonly used almost in every sphere of
instrument.
• Ammeter, voltmeter, Wattmeter, thermometer, etc. are examples of secondary
instruments.
Type of instruments

1. Indicating Instrument: display shows only

Eg: All analog meter, Ammeter, voltmeter

2. Recording Type inst: Display + Record

Eg: ECG, x-y plates, potentiometric Recorder, cockpits voice Recorder, seismograph

3. Integrating Type: Display + Record + cumulative addn

Eg: Energy meter, speedometer

Damping Techniques

1. Air friction → EMMC & MI

used where Low Magnetic fields are produced
Advantage: less maintenance cost use for repeated no. of operation.

2. Fluid friction → Electrostatic voltmeter, wall mounted instr.

• used where deflecting torque is Minimum

• disadvantage: more maintenance cost not used for repeated operation

• effective Than air friction

3. Eddy current → PMMC, Induction type meter

4. Electromagnetic damping → Galvanometer, flux meter

Order of Effectiveness: Eddy current > fluid friction > Air friction

Order of priority Preference: Eddy current > Air friction > fluid friction

1. PMMC (High Cost)

➢ Uniform scale
➢ Less hysteresis error (hysteresis loop narrow). Hysteresis means that loading energy
may not be equal to unloading energy, reduced by using 'thin AL former'
➢ For DC only. For AC Qty, it just oscillates around zero reading
➢ PMMC instr. having self-shielding property therefore used in Aircraft system as it has
very strong internal magnetic field.
➢ It has the least power consumption (25 μW to 200 μW) among all kinds of analog
instruments.
➢ In terms of accuracy PMMC meter has the highest accuracy. The order of accuracy
is given below. Induction < Moving iron < PMMC instruments
➢ Controller spring made by Phosphor bronze and pointer made by aluminium
➢ If control spring Breaks: Pointer goes to zero position
In other instruments: It goes to max. value (Full scale deflection).
2. MI (Less cost)
➢ Based on principle of change in self inductance
➢ works for both AC and DC
➢ Robust construction
➢ frequency error present
➢ Spring or Gravity control is used.
➢ Hysteresis error is more in MI
➢ To Avoid hysteresis error in MI:
1)We make iron parts short so that it can demagnetize itself
2) We use high permeability material i.e., in place or iron/steel we use MU-Metal (77%
nickel +16% iron+5% cu+ 2% chromium) or permalloy (80% Ni & 20% iron).
3. EMMC/EDM:
➢ Based on principle of change in mutual inductance
➢ Two F.C→ current coils (current coil divided into two halfs)
one moving coil → voltage coil/pressure coil
➢ No. of turns (F.C) < N (M.C)
➢ Works for both AC and DC.
➢ Used as P.f meter, Meggar, wattmeter, energy meter, ammeter, voltmeter etc.
➢ Dynamometer wattmeter: uniform scale.
Dynamometer Ammeter/voltmeter: non-uniform scale.

Dynamometer type Wattmeter

Deflecting torque,
dM
Td  P.
d
where, P is the power measured.
i.e., by making the mutual inductance between fixed coil and moving coil vary linearly,
the scale of dynamometer type wattmeter can be linear. By suitable design, mutual
inductance is made vary linearly over an angle range of 40° to 50° on either side of zero
mutual inductance position. Hence, the scale can be made uniform over 80° to 100°
keeping position of zero mutual inductance at the midscale.
Dynamometer type Voltmeter/Ammeter
Deflecting torque,

dM V2 dM
Td = I2 = 2.
d Z d
dM
Although, keeping = constant, i.e., M varies with θ linearly, deflecting torque is
d
directly proportional to the square of current. So, the scale in dynamometer type
ammeter or voltmeter is non-linear.

➢ Air core coil is used → No Hysteresis loss

➢ High accuracy
➢ It is 'transfer instrument' i.e., used for measuring DC as well as AC without any
calibration.
 ➢ Strong magnetic field, so error is more
➢ Power loss and power consumption more
➢ Internal heating and temperature error are more
➢ Frequency error present

 T   T   T 
       
 w PMMC  w MI  w EMMC

Errors in Electrodynamometer Wattmeter:

Correction factor (K) The correction factor is a factor by which the actual wattmeter reading is
multiplied to get the true power.
cos 
For lagging power factor, K=
cos  cos( − )

cos 
For leading power factor, K=
cos  cos( + )

Where,
 = Angle between current in the current coil and voltage of pressure coil
β = Angle between current and voltage of pressure coil
True power = Correction factor x actual wattmeter reading
For Very small β

Actual wattmeter reading = true power (1 + tan  tan β)

Error = tan φ tan β × true power = VI sin  tan β

%error = tan  tan β × 100

True power = VI cos 

Where, V = Voltage applied to pressure coil, I = Current in current coil

4. Induction type instruments:
✓ Induction type of instruments are used to measure AC quantities only. We can use
these instruments as an ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, and an energy meter.
✓ The scale of induction type instruments is quite uniform and extends over an angle of
300°.
✓ Currents up to 100 A can be handled by induction type instrument so that their power
consumption is fairly large and cost relatively high.

Advantages:

✓ Long scale
✓ Free from effects of the stray field
✓ They have effective damping torque, the damping torque in induction type instruments
is provided by the eddy currents produced in the rotating disc.

Disadvantages:

✓ Power consumption is large and hence not recommended where continuous

monitoring of ac quantities is required.
✓ Variation in temperature and frequency may cause serious errors, if necessary,
compensations are not provided.
5. ESV (Electrostatic voltmeter)
1 2 dc
works on principle of rate of change in capacitance Fd = V
2 dx

Cm new range
For increasing range Cse = ;m=
m-1 old range
Advantage
➢ works for both AC and DC
➢ No hysteresis error and No eddy current error
➢ low pressure, temperature error ↓↓
Disadvantage
➢ Non uniform scale
➢ An Instrument not suitable for measuring lower value of voltage
➢ Not suitable for measuring current
➢ cost high and size high
For parallel plate ESV: Motion of pointer → Linear and Scale → Non-linear
Circular plate ESV: Motion of pointer & scale → Non-linear.

6. Hot wire instrument

➢ Principle: Heating effect
➢ Wire: Made-up of platinum-iridium because expansion/suspension due to heat
occurs quickly in this material. It also withstands oxidation at high temp.
 ➢ Sluggish instr. Because it takes time to heat up.
➢ Damping: Air friction
➢ Non-Uniform scale (Measure RMS).
➢ Unaffected by stray Magnetic fields (important)
7. Thermocouple instrument
➢ Principle: Thermoelectric effect or see back effect.
➢ Damping: Air friction
➢ Measures current at high frequency(50MHz)
➢ Both AC & Dc
➢ Particularly suitable for measuring radio frequency current such as these occurs
in antenna system
➢ Thermocouple usually made up of two dissimilar metals (usually bismuth &
antimony)
➢ Non uniform scale (measures rms).
8. Quality factor meter:
➢ Principle: series resonance
➢ Measure Quality factor
➢ Also used to measure inductance, distributive capacitance, self-capacitance and
resonance frequency.
Bridges
Dc bridges:
Type of detector: D’arsnoval galvanometer
1. Resistance:
➢ Best resistor: Low temp coefficient
Magnin: 0.00015/oC
constantan: 0.00020/oC
copper: 0.004/oC
➢ Eliminate inductive effect in resistor: Bifilar wdg used
➢ Eliminate capacitance effect: Arytor pery winding used
➢ To avoid leakage current: Guard terminal used
➢ To avoid stray mag. Effect: shielding used
➢ Eliminate inter capacitance: Wagner earth device.
Megger

➢ It is a portable instrument to measure high insulation resistance

➢ It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
➢ The electrical power to a megger is provided by a permanent magnet D.C. generator.
 ➢ The operating voltage of a megger is about 50 to 100 V.
➢ The speed of megger is kept around at 160 rpm.
➢ Controlling torque is not provided by spring, it is provided by using voltage coil
➢ Megger is the combination of DC generator and series type ohmmeter. Series type
ohmmeter is used due to the measurement of a high range of resistance i.e., insulation
resistance.
➢ It works on the principle of comparison, i.e., the resistance of the insulation is
compared with the known value of resistance.
➢ The Megger has three coils two pressure coils (control coil) and one current coil. The
pressure coil rotates the moving coil in the anticlockwise direction, whereas the current
coil rotates it in the clockwise direction.
➢ If the resistance of the insulation is high, the pointer of the moving coil deflects towards
infinity, and if it is low, then the pointer indicates zero resistance. The accuracy of the
Megger is high as compared to other instruments.

Low (R <1Ω) • Kelvin: Used to eliminate ‘Lead

➢ Kelvin double bridge resistance’ effect. so suitable in
➢ potentiometer method microohm range.
➢ AV method • Low resistance measurement
required 4 Terminals
Medium (1Ω – 100kΩ) • Unlike all other meter, ohmmeter has
(So What V & A) decreasing scale.
➢ Substitution • Ohmmeter method is generally used to
➢ Ohmmeter check continuity of supply
➢ Wheatstone bridge • V-A method best suitable for high
➢ VA method resistance in medium range.
➢ Carry foster bridge or slide wire • V-A method best suitable for low
resistance in medium range.
High resistance (HDL) • Loss of charge method for (Insulation
➢ Meggar resistance of cables)
➢ Direct deflection. • Direct deflection for resistive
➢ Loss of charge measurement
➢ Mega ohm meter method
Ac Bridges:

i)Type of Detector:

1.Vibrational galvanometer: Power Frequency -50 to 100Hz

2.Headphones & Telephonic detector: Audio frequency: 250Hz to 4Khz

3. Tunable amplifier: 10Hz to 100Khz

ii)Types of supply:

1. Crystal oscillators: frequency upto 125khz, power: 7watt

2.Fixed free oscillators (Any RLC): upto 100Hz, power: 1watt.

3.Microphone hummer: frequency 500Hz to 3Khz, power: very small.

4.Alternator: frequency is 50Hz, power is more.

Inductance:

1. Maxwell inductance bridge

2. Maxwell inductance capacitance bridge: Medium Q; 1<Q<10
3. Hay’s bridge:
i. Having High Q
ii. Slowest bridge
4. Owen’s bridge: Measurement of incremental inductance (variable inductance)
5. Heaviside Campbell bridge: To measure mutual inductance.
6. Anderson’s bridge:
i. Accurate bridge
ii. Low Q

Capacitance.

1. Desauty bridge: Measurement of perfect capacitor value (No dielectric loss)

2. Modified Desauty bridge: Measurement of ‘C’ and dissipation factor (Tan𝛅)
3. Schering bridge: C, D-factor, Dielectric loss and relative permeability

1. Loading Effect:

When a voltmeter having an internal resistance of Rm is connected in parallel with

load resistance RL of circuit under test, the circuit conditions will be altered. The
effective resistance will be the parallel combination of R L and Rm. The voltmeter
indicates the voltage across this effective resistance, where the indicated voltage will
always be less than true voltage. This is known as loading effect.

Hence the instrument must possess high input impedance to reduce loading effect.

2. Null Type Vs Deflecting Type Instruments:

➢ The accuracy of null-type instruments is higher than that of deflection type. This is
because the opposing effect is calibrated with the help of standards that have a
high degree of accuracy.
 ➢ The accuracy of deflection type instruments is dependent upon their calibration
which depends upon the instrument constants which are normally not known to a
high degree of accuracy.
➢ In the null type of instruments, the measured quantity is balanced out. This means
the detector has to cover a small range around the balance (null) point and
therefore can be made highly sensitive.
➢ Also, the detector need not be calibrated since it has only to detect the presence
and direction of unbalance and not the magnitude of unbalance.
➢ A deflection type of instrument must be larger in size, more rugged, and thus less
sensitive if it is to measure a large magnitude of an unknown quantity.
➢ Deflection types of instruments have a faster response than null type instruments
3. Low power factor meter:
➢ The instrument that measures the low value of power factor accurately is known
as the Low Power Factor Wattmeter (LPFW).
➢ The low power factor meter is used for measuring the power of the highly inductive
circuit. The ordinary Wattmeter used for measuring the low power factor gives the
inaccurate result. This happens because of two reasons.
➢ In low power factor meter, the magnitude of deflecting torque on moving coil is
small even after the full excitation of the pressure and current coil. The error occurs
in the reading because of the pressure coil inductance.
Compensating coil in LPF wattmeter:
➢ Compensating coil requires only for LC connection not for MC connection
In L.C connection current coil carrying potential coil current, because of this additional
flux produced in the current coil. It links with a potential coil induces an emf and causes
the current in a potential coil because of this power loss is present in the potential coil.
➢ In case the load current is large, and the power factor is small, the error caused
by the pressure coil in the L-C short wattmeter is large.
➢ To compensate for the power loss in the pressure coil compensating coil with an
equal number of turns of the current coil is connected in series opposition to the
potential coil.
Application:

As the LPF is most suitable for inductive loads, it is suitable for the measurement
of power in inductive loads, open circuit test on single phase transformer and load
test on induction motor. It is not suitable for the measurement of power in resistive
loads.

4. Swamping resistance (To avoid temp error):

The swamping resistance is a resistor with zero temperature coefficient (made up

of Manganin and Constantan), put in series with the meter movement in an
 ammeter circuit. The meter movement is sensitive to changes in temperature, it
changes resistance due to this. So, the accuracy of the ammeter suffers.

But the swamping resistance is 20 to 30 times the resistance of the meter movement,
so that changes in meter movement resistance make very little difference in the overall
series resistance and therefore very little change in sensitivity.

5. Hysteresis error:
➢ Due to the hysteresis effect, error in moving-iron instruments, owing to
the magnetic hysteresis effect in the parts of the moving system which
are made of iron.
➢ The magnetism lags the current resulting in higher reading when
descending values of current or voltage are measured than when
ascending values are measured.
➢ The position of poles in the moving iron changes with rotation. This is
known as position error and is usually small.
➢ The hysteresis error is reduced considerably by making the iron parts
small and reducing the length of paths of working fluxes to the shortest
possible and working of iron at a flux density where hysteresis error is
small.

6. Blondel’s theorem:
According to this theorem,
➢ In N Phase system, if there is Neutral point then the number of wattmeter’s
required is N for unbalanced load. For balanced load it is 1.
➢ If there is no neutral point is available, the number of wattmeter’s required is
N-1.
7. Ballistic galvanometer (BG):
➢ The deflection of the coil which is directly proportional to the charge passes
through it.
➢ The galvanometer measures the majority of the charge passes through it in
spite of current.
➢ In BG, Damping follows logarithmic decay.
8. Energy meter:
Creeping:
➢ In energy meters, when the pressure coil is energized, a slow, but the
continuous rotation of the disc is observed even when there is no current in the
current coil. This is called Creeping.
➢ This can be due to several reasons such as overcompensation for friction,
vibrations, stray field effects, and excessive pressure coil voltage.
➢ To prevent creeping, two diametrically opposite holes are drilled on the disc.
The disc will stall when one of the holes comes under one of the poles of the
shunt magnet. Thus, the rotation is restricted to a maximum of half a
revolution. Thus creeping is limited to a maximum of half of the rotation
Current Transformer:

Secondary side of current transformer is always kept short circuited in order to avoid core
saturation and high voltage induction, so that current transformer can be used to measure
high values of currents.

✓ Current transformer works on the principle of shorted secondary.

✓ It means that burden on the system Zb is equal to 0.
✓ Thus, current transformer produces a current in its secondary which is proportional to
the current in its primary.

Important Points:

✓ Most important precaution in use of a CT is that in no case should it be open

circuited (even accidently).
✓ As the primary current is independent of the secondary current, all of it acts as a
magnetizing current when the secondary is opened.
✓ This results in deep saturation of the core which cannot be returned to the normal
state and so the CT is no longer usable.
✓ Again, due to large flux in the core the flux linkage of secondary winding will be
large which in turn will produce a large voltage across the secondary terminals of
the CT.
✓ This large voltage across the secondary terminals will be very dangerous and will
lead to the insulation failure and there is a good chance that the person who is
opening the CT secondary while primary is energized will get fatal shock.