Measurements
Measurements
(2) Fidelity: ability of system to reproduce the o/p in same form as i/p
x1 + x2 + + xn
1. A.Mean = =x
n
2. Deviation d1 = x1 − x
d2 = x2 − x
xmax − xmin
=
2
1. Absolute Instruments:
• These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms
of physical constants of the instruments.
• Among all the instruments these are more accurate instruments.
• Absolute instruments are mostly used in standard Laboratories and in similar
instruments as standardizing.
• The examples of this class of instruments are
➢ Tangent galvanometer
➢ Rayleigh’s current balance
➢ Absolute Electrometer
➢ Lorenz force method.
• Absolute instruments are used to calibrate the secondary instruments.
2. Secondary Instruments
• These instruments measure the unknown quantity in terms of parameter under
measurement.
• These instruments are less Accurate
• These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument (or)
another secondary instrument which has already been calibrated against an
absolute instrument.
• Measurement using absolute instruments is a time-consuming process hence
secondary instruments are most commonly used almost in every sphere of
instrument.
• Ammeter, voltmeter, Wattmeter, thermometer, etc. are examples of secondary
instruments.
Type of instruments
Eg: ECG, x-y plates, potentiometric Recorder, cockpits voice Recorder, seismograph
Order of Effectiveness: Eddy current > fluid friction > Air friction
Order of priority Preference: Eddy current > Air friction > fluid friction
dM V2 dM
Td = I2 = 2.
d Z d
dM
Although, keeping = constant, i.e., M varies with θ linearly, deflecting torque is
d
directly proportional to the square of current. So, the scale in dynamometer type
ammeter or voltmeter is non-linear.
T T T
w PMMC w MI w EMMC
cos
For leading power factor, K=
cos cos( + )
Where,
= Angle between current in the current coil and voltage of pressure coil
β = Angle between current and voltage of pressure coil
True power = Correction factor x actual wattmeter reading
For Very small β
Advantages:
✓ Long scale
✓ Free from effects of the stray field
✓ They have effective damping torque, the damping torque in induction type instruments
is provided by the eddy currents produced in the rotating disc.
Disadvantages:
Cm new range
For increasing range Cse = ;m=
m-1 old range
Advantage
➢ works for both AC and DC
➢ No hysteresis error and No eddy current error
➢ low pressure, temperature error ↓↓
Disadvantage
➢ Non uniform scale
➢ An Instrument not suitable for measuring lower value of voltage
➢ Not suitable for measuring current
➢ cost high and size high
For parallel plate ESV: Motion of pointer → Linear and Scale → Non-linear
Circular plate ESV: Motion of pointer & scale → Non-linear.
i)Type of Detector:
ii)Types of supply:
Inductance:
Capacitance.
1. Loading Effect:
Hence the instrument must possess high input impedance to reduce loading effect.
As the LPF is most suitable for inductive loads, it is suitable for the measurement
of power in inductive loads, open circuit test on single phase transformer and load
test on induction motor. It is not suitable for the measurement of power in resistive
loads.
But the swamping resistance is 20 to 30 times the resistance of the meter movement,
so that changes in meter movement resistance make very little difference in the overall
series resistance and therefore very little change in sensitivity.
5. Hysteresis error:
➢ Due to the hysteresis effect, error in moving-iron instruments, owing to
the magnetic hysteresis effect in the parts of the moving system which
are made of iron.
➢ The magnetism lags the current resulting in higher reading when
descending values of current or voltage are measured than when
ascending values are measured.
➢ The position of poles in the moving iron changes with rotation. This is
known as position error and is usually small.
➢ The hysteresis error is reduced considerably by making the iron parts
small and reducing the length of paths of working fluxes to the shortest
possible and working of iron at a flux density where hysteresis error is
small.
6. Blondel’s theorem:
According to this theorem,
➢ In N Phase system, if there is Neutral point then the number of wattmeter’s
required is N for unbalanced load. For balanced load it is 1.
➢ If there is no neutral point is available, the number of wattmeter’s required is
N-1.
7. Ballistic galvanometer (BG):
➢ The deflection of the coil which is directly proportional to the charge passes
through it.
➢ The galvanometer measures the majority of the charge passes through it in
spite of current.
➢ In BG, Damping follows logarithmic decay.
8. Energy meter:
Creeping:
➢ In energy meters, when the pressure coil is energized, a slow, but the
continuous rotation of the disc is observed even when there is no current in the
current coil. This is called Creeping.
➢ This can be due to several reasons such as overcompensation for friction,
vibrations, stray field effects, and excessive pressure coil voltage.
➢ To prevent creeping, two diametrically opposite holes are drilled on the disc.
The disc will stall when one of the holes comes under one of the poles of the
shunt magnet. Thus, the rotation is restricted to a maximum of half a
revolution. Thus creeping is limited to a maximum of half of the rotation
Current Transformer:
Secondary side of current transformer is always kept short circuited in order to avoid core
saturation and high voltage induction, so that current transformer can be used to measure
high values of currents.
Important Points: