GEC 6 – Science, Technology, and Society

Module 2
Chapter 1: The Nature and Relationships of Science, Technology, and
Society
Characteristics of Science and Technology: The Scientific Method

Scientific method
A process or sequence of activities undertaken to gather information and to come to conclusions
about the natural world.

Why one deliberately engages in the scientific method?

1. give an outlet to our ever curious mind;
2. desire to produce material for economic gains.

1. Making Observations and Gathering Knowledge About A Phenomenon

(Initial Observation, Recognition of a Problem and Defining It, Further Observation and Expanding
Knowledge)

- The prefix "super" means "above." So supernatural means "above (or beyond) the natural." The
toolbox of a scientist contains only the natural laws of the universe; supernatural questions are outside
their reach.
- Man has the inherent capacity to observe the things around him. Careful observation could make
one recognize that there is a problem or a phenomenon that is worthy of further attention and study.
After initial observations, details not previously observed can be determined using instrumentation.
Search and review of related literature (books, scientific journals, online sources, etc.) should also
be undertaken to learn more about the problem.

2. Formulation of Hypothesis
(Use of inductive reasoning to provide a tentative solution to the problem)

- Scientists use generalizations to come up with a hypothesis, which is an intelligent guess that is a
possible explanation for a natural event. The hypothesis is presented as an actual statement and must
be testable.
- In the development and proving of hypotheses, scientists use inductive and deductive logic.

Inductive logic involves arriving at a probable conclusion based on several samplings.

Example: a person tasted a green mango and found it sour and slightly tangy to the taste buds. Then
he subsequently tasted 24 other mangoes and found the same result. Based on the these 25
samplings, he may then conclude that all green mangoes are sour and tangy to the taste.
Inductive logic thus proceeds from several specific observations to a generalization - Cell Theory,
the Theory of Biological Evolution by Natural Selection, and the theory of plate tectonics, all these
are generalizations arrived at by inductive reasoning.

Deductive logic proceeds from a generalization to specifics.

Example:
After testing 25 green mangoes and finding them sour and tangy, one may hypothesize that the next
mango he will taste will be sour and tangy. This kind of reasoning is used to formulate a new
hypothesis after a generalization.

The scientists may further formulate a new hypothesis using deductive logic. If 25 green mangoes
are sour and tangy, then the next green mango I will taste should be sour and tangy. If indeed the
mango tasted sour and tangy, then the validity of the original generalization has gained greater
probability (or credibility). Thus, the scientific procedure; or science progress by the interplay of
inductive and deductive reasoning.

3. Testing of Hypothesis
(Experimentation and Conduct of Further Observations)

- In this phase, the scientist uses deductive reasoning involving the “if, then” logic. Foresight or the
capability to predict what will happen next is necessary to guide the scientist on how to go about his
experiment. The scientist must come up with an experimental design that will make him generate
meaningful results. Usually a “control” or “control group” is set up side by side with the experimental
group. This contains all components and undergoes all parts of the experiment except for the factor
being tested.
- In any experiment, we can really only test one thing at a time. So we try to control all the variables
except one that we will change.

Independent variable = the variable that you change during the experiment.
Dependent variable = the variable that you observe changes in (depends on the independent
variable)

4. Experimentation

- Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false.

- It is important that the test is fair: you change ONLY ONE variable at a time, keeping all others
the same (constant).
- You should repeat your experiment several times to make sure your results weren’t just an accident.
- Good precision = at least 3 trials.

5. Drawing of Conclusion
(Analysis of Data to Determine whether the Hypothesis is Supported or Not, Publication of Results)

- Data are results of the experiment which may lead one to accept or reject the hypothesis initially
formulated. These should be observable and objective. Mathematical data are usually presented in
tabulated and graphical forms and may require statistical analysis to confirm validity or significance.
- A conclusion is the answer to the problem and based on a supported hypothesis. Science is a
progressive process such that the conclusion of one experiment can lead to the hypothesis for
another experiment. The results that do not support the hypothesis may be used by scientists to
formulate another hypothesis to be tested.
- Conclusions from many different but related experiments may lead to the development of a
Scientific Theory, a general concept about the natural world.
- A theory, therefore, is a hypothesis that has been repeatedly and extensively tested and always found
to be true. However, no theory in science is ever absolutely and finally proven. Scientists should be
ready to alter or even abandon their most cherished generalizations when new facts contradict them
(Keeton and McFadden, 1983).

From Scientific Knowledge to Technology

1. J. Watt’s invention of the condensation steam engine that was a prime mover of transport and
industry, was made possible by the concept of latent heat discovery of J. Black.
2. London’s synthetic dye industry came from the accidental of aniline dye magenta by W. Perkins
attempt to synthesize quinine.
3.Hermann von Helmholtz’s study on sound waves inspired A. Graham Bell to create the telephone.
4. The electrical industry owes much to the works of H.C. Oersted on magnetic fields produced by
electric currents which was used by A. Volta who invented electrical batteries.
5. The dynamo, alternator and transformer were made based from the works of M. Faraday on
interrelated concepts of motion, magnetism and electricity.

Scientific Processes

Basic Science Process Skills:

1. Observing - using your senses to gather information about an object or event. It is description of
what was actually perceived. This information is considered qualitative data.
2. Measuring - using standard measures or estimations to describe specific dimensions of an object
or event. This information is considered quantitative data.
3. Inferring - formulating assumptions or possible explanations based upon observations.
4. Classifying - grouping or ordering objects or events into categories based upon characteristics or
defined criteria.
5. Predicting - guessing the most likely outcome of a future event based upon a pattern of evidence.
6. Communicating - using words, symbols, or graphics to describe an object, action or event.

Integrated Science Process Skills:

• Formulating Hypotheses - stating the proposed solutions or expected outcomes for
experiments. These proposed solutions to a problem must be testable.
• Identifying of Variables - stating the changeable factors that can affect an experiment. It is
important to change only the variable being tested and keep the rest constant. The one being
manipulated is the independent variable; the one being measured to determine its response
is the dependent variable; and all being kept constant are constants or controlled variables.
• Defining Variables Operationally - explaining how to measure a variable in an experiment.
• Describing Relationships Between Variables - explain relationships between variables in an
experiment such as between the independent and dependent variables.
 • Designing Investigations - designing an experiment by identifying materials and describing
appropriate steps in a procedure to test a hypothesis.
• Experimenting - carrying out an experiment by carefully following directions of the
procedure so the results can be verified by repeating the procedure several times.
• Acquiring Data - collecting qualitative and quantitative data as observations and
measurements.
• Organizing Data in Tables and Graphs - making data tables and graphs for data collected.
• Analyzing Investigations and Their Data - interpreting data, identifying errors, evaluating the
hypothesis, formulating conclusions, and recommending further testing where necessary.
• Understanding Cause and Effect Relationships - what caused what to happen and why.
• Formulating Models - recognizing patterns in data and making comparisons to familiar
objects or ideas.

Scientific Traits and Values

Intellectual Honesty - This attitude allows a scientist to recognize the work done by other scientists
before him. This attitude is also shown by reporting data truthfully.

Open Mindedness - A scientist is open minded. Open-mindedness is an attitude that allows a

scientist to look at other possibilities. This attitude is also shown by evaluating,, validating, and
accepting other people’s idea towards a question.

Creative and Critical Thinker

- A scientist can do critical assessment of results and limitations. This enables a scientist to come up
with new concepts which lead to discoveries that traditional scientists have overlooked.

Curiosity - This attitude/quality-curiosity-enables a scientist to try to discover more about the things
around him.

Risk taker, confident and persistent - These attitudes are very important because it enables a scientist
to continue a project despite obstacles and failures.

Objectivity - A scientist must be objective in declaring results of his/her experiments and judgment
is based on observable phenomena and not influenced by emotions or personal prejudices.

Precision - A scientist must always consider the precision of his work if it forms a pattern or
repeatedly occurring in nature. Lack of precision to a work would mean inconsistency.

Responsibility - The moral, social, and personal responsibility and accountability of a scientist to all
of his works must be observed.

Collaboration and Readiness to reach consensus - “No Man is an Island.” All people need others
criticism for us to know if this can be widely accepted or not. Two minds are better than one.