Money, Credit and Velocity

MACK Ofl

Shakespeare: “Neither borrower, nor a lender he and to examine empirical evidence bearing on their
(Hamlet, 1, iii, 75, Polonius to Laertes) purported policy consequences. The analysis pre-
Goethe: “Let us live in as small a circle as we will, we are sented in this article does not support the critics’
either debtors or creditors before we have had time to look assertions. This conclusion rests on two arguments.
around.” (Elective Affinities, Bk. II, Ch. 4) First, the relation between money and credit
requires thatthe amount ofcredit granted match the
anticipated amount ofmoney thatwill be available to
settle the debt when it comes due. Thus, regulating
R.ECENTLY, many critics of monetary policy, the rate ofmonetary growth, which in turn regulates
and some monetary policymakers as well, have as- the anticipated future quantity of money, deter-
serted that the links between monetary aggregates mines the amount ofcredit and the conditions under
and national economic policy variables—that is, which it is granted. This constraining influence of
GNP, inflation and real economic growth—have monetary growth on credit would be undone only if
been severed by a host offinancial and credit market the relation between money and income growth
innovations. If these critics are correct, then a departed from its historical pattern.
monetary policy based on targeting the growth of a
monetary aggregate would become increasingly That it has not is the second argument: the em-
ineffective and inappropriate, as credit arrange- pirical evidence on velocity, the relation between
ments are substituted for monetary payments.1 money growth and income growth, reveals no sig-
nificant change during the last two years from its
The purpose of this article is to provide a theo- previous history. Consequently, despite recent
retical framework in which to assess these claims claims to the contrary, the growth of the monetary
aggregates is still reliably linked to the economic
variables of interest to policymakers.
The author, an associate professor ofeconomics at The Pennsyl-
vania State University, isa visiting scholaratthe Federal Reserve
Bank of St. Louis.
‘For examples, see Neil C. Berkman, “Abandoning Monetary MONEY, CREDIT AND EXCHANGE
Aggregates,” in Controlling Monetary Aggregates Jil, pro-
ceedings ofaconference sponsored by the Federal Reserve Bank In contemporary societies, the exchange of goods
of Boston (October 1980), pp. 76-100; Benjamin M. Friedman, is indirect The purchase or sale ofgoods, whether in
“The Relative Stability of Money and Credit ‘Velocities’ in the organized markets or through informal arrange-
United States: Evidence and Some Speculations,” NBER Work-
ing Paper No. 645 (March 1981); Anthony M. Solomon. “Finan- ments, is almost always in exchange for money or
cial Innovation and Monetary Policy” (remarks before the Joint money-denominated promises. Direct bartering
Luncheon of the American Economic and American Finance
Associations, December28, 1981); James M. Tobin, “Inflation,” of one good for another is either nonexistent or
in Encyclopedia of Economics, Douglas Creenwald, ed. unimportant
(McGraw-Hill, 1982), pp. 510-23. Forthe contraryposition—i.e.,
that monetary policy should be undertaken through effective The reason for this is at once obvious, yet theo-
control ofa monetary aggregate—see Milton Friedman, “Mone- retically challenging to elucidate. In the intro-
tar~’Policy: Theory and Practice ,“foun,al ofMoney, Credit and duction to his book, The Theory of Money, Jurg
Banking (February 1982), pp. 98-118; and Allan H. Meltzer,
Robert H. Rasche, Stephen H. Axilrod, and Peter Sternlight, Niehans observes:
“Money, Credit, and Banking Debate: Is the Federal Reserve s
Monetary Control Policy Misdirected?” Journal of Money, Economists (and laymen) have always felt that the
Credit and Banking (February 1982), pp. 119-47. use ofa medium of exchange increases the efficiency

21
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF ST. LOUIS MAY 1982

ofan economy. The gain was usually considered to he tam s what NI ilton Friecimain characterizes as
large. it hats both qualitative and quantitive aspects. temporary abodes of purchasing power that are
The qnaliative aspects appear when monetary ex- reatdilv convertible at low cost into an exchange
change is compared with barter. Classical and nec)—
classical economists were graphic in describing the medium .~
double coincidence of wants of the hungry tailor
and the shivering baker which would he necessary for Second, if the purchase of tlte good to be financed
an e xch alt go ill a I ~arte r eco n out van cI the narrow by the proceeds front the sale of another good pre-
limitations it imposes on the division of lahor. The cedes the sale of that other good, then the anticipated
use of’ us on cy wool cI increase cc-el hue by freeing future sale proceeds may he used to ntediate the
exchange from the shackles of the double coinci’-
2 earlier purchase. Of cotuse, an exchange arrange-
dence of wants.
ment like this is a fitmiliar part of modern economies;
such purchases are said to he macic “on credit.’’
Robert Clower succinctly summarized the results Credit is granted b sellers or other third party
of these advantages as imposing a constraint on ‘the lenders to buyers precisely on the basis of the
exchange process: Money buys goods and goods
‘ buyers anticipattecl future receipts (with the lender
buy money; but goods do not bny goods.’’~In other concurring) and, of course, is measured in utonetary
words, it is the nature of a system of monetary ex- units. As a consequence. credit is as much of a
change to replace the cumbersome barter exchange medium of exchange as is money-.8
of goods with two non—synchronized monetized
exchanges: at sale of goods for money and a later While both credit and money atre used to mediate
purchase of goods by money. This exchange attrib- exchainge, they are obviously different entities. The
ute in turn has implications for both the appropriate qttautity of money circulating in ant economy is at
definition of money and for the monetary- arrange- stock; its units are used repeatedly itt at sequeitce of
ments used in exchange.4 exchamges. Credit, on the other hand, is a flow and is
transaction—specific; it can only mediate the trains—
First, the period between the sale of one good fbr action fkr which it was created.~
money and the subsequent purchase of another good
may be long ettonglt or predictable enough to allow
t
the interim holding of funds in a non—transaction Two good s tI Salt are Pc ii ec-t sobs tito tes atre ectsn Ont i cal Iv tltt’ saltic’
good. If two dluraslsle goods are cssstlessly translorosalsle. sloe intts
account. This implies that the appropriate monetary he cstls c-’ r, tlteis tlsc v are pe rfec:t oils st i totes i It ails Ityento i-v - On
aggregate may not be narrowly defined money (i.e., tlsis criterion, if the cost of trasnsferrisg funds froloasaviogs
Ml), bitt a broader aggregate (e.g., M2) which con- ascc 000 t to a’ dIe itt all id ascd ow) t (Sr tts cat rid’ nc-v cv crc’ xc’to. t It eli,
1
cleat rI v, sasvhtgs scudssiitts wot tIc be eco ‘soiss i call v in cli itin gu is1
able flsno dci I and aicco outs tsr dill-re!)c-v at nd cviso I ci hc’ cxc I saili gr-
istccl iat - Coo ce rse lv, if th cc cit sts of trat)) STi~cv crc’ proIs il si ti ye1~
lasrgc’. sasc-iogs ascconitts would not Its’ at closc’ sohstitote for
burg Niebasits, the ?heor o/i/oslc-lf (jtslsits Hopkins University
t deinaotcl deposits. llencc’, ass Fniedloaso and Schwasrtz aarglls’, tlsc’
l rcss. 1978), is 2.
qnes tict is of cc-I tact in~n c-v is caoti sot be sc ttli’d on an at pri sri I sat s’s.
an0 sert \V. Clow Cr, ‘‘A Recoit side rastisSn of tlt e NI i e rolou it clation ]s sit is as,) c’inparic:as I it’ stion xv it i c It, iii pairt, dlepc’ Id 5 015 liow
of Nitti,ctarv The it rv,’’ Ue.s te,l butt it it Jo 01(1? (NI arc’lt 1967). c:o stl v ill te r—dlepO sit trasi n ft. rs a,rd -
~t6. Also, see Karl Brunner and Allan H, Meluer, ‘‘The Uses of °‘l’lsis ols servastion li its I ccl Clocvc’ r ails cI oth cr5 tss asrgtt t’ tI last sIll nd
NI to ca N loisti V i it Ut c Titeon of Ai Exchange Econctitsy,’’ A; car— 1 1
IIseal Snrc’ of c-s-cdit tic ~ii/c?~ /f tp or ist c’ of c-red it be’ in c-lu c ccl an tltd
a(~ossEcas ;iis;;i ic Rei - ic Ic (Decent her 1971), pp - 784—805.
p0 lit-v ri-I c’vasn t conc:ept of 111011ev: ‘‘for mdlsat pratcticasl l~
NI iI ton Fric’di 0 am and A itI las 5(11w asrtz cI C Sc ri hecl tlt is attn ho te ass poses, ‘ntis rs c’ v’ shcsul cI ht-’ tint sit lc’recI tcs md sidle I raid e c-ri-cl it ass
tlt e Se itarati rut of the act of ~torchase f rot it tlte act of sale,’’ hi It
well as c-u nt’s d’V a, Ic1 dIe It) sn dl dcc piss its. litsI sc- rt IV. Cl ocvc’
critic-i red the itt c-cl ~II lit of cxc it ange attproach as Ite fog titi I narrow Tlsecs rc’ticasl F; son dlast sins of Nit ltd tasr>- Pol ic:v,’’ in his sIt’ tc; 5-if
to calptsire the essential nature of lnonc’v: 5
T/~c’oojcis~c?Mossetos-sj Pcs?it-sy iii t?sc’ 1970.s, (;ecsrgi- Clasytisu, jcslsn
In order ft ir the aict of purchase to be separated I rum the act of sale. C. Gilbert audI Rohert Seclgccic:k, ecls - (Oxford University Press.
1
ti i crc so oat i odeeci be sonieth ing that w i I be gunera] lv accepted is 1971), p. 18. Sc-c- aIIm Ai-thor B. I.asffer.’’Trasde Credit abc tltd’
payut en t—th is is Use feature ens phati red in the “os ccl tons of cx— Money Market’’ tNIarch 1970). ~sp 239—67: audI I. Stephen Ferris.
cha! I ge’’ approach - o 1 a so there in tnt he something that! can serve as A Trati’ sasd’tiolis ‘l’ls tory ssfTrascle Creclit U sc’,’ (so cai it’ 1/1/ Jo or; to?
a te inporari abode of purchasing power, in whtc-h tIe seller hcslcls the v/ Lroossisoc-s (Nlasv 1981i, pp. 243—70.
teqi
proceeds in the in teri,n between sale ansi sobs ‘cut Ito rclsase or
irs) rn cdt icis sIte Is liver can extrascl the gels erasl porch asing power cv ith 7]t bass bee o as rgn ccl tli aid c-i-cs cii t is I ictt at)) c-xcltasItge nie cli oils, Iso
which he ~alys for what he Iso vs - - - - Both fe alt’ rca are o ecessarv to ntcrelv ails atrrallgc’lIti’itt tlsast rasises tltc’ vcelocity csf osoisey.
penn it the asct csf porchat; e to he s eparateci frcsns the aset of sale, hot the1 lronic-asllv. the sable asrgstissettt cc-ass Once osc’d algasirlst including
- son’ eth in g’ that is gencrall v accepted in payment need not cot nc-i c c’
1
dcn i asia clc-pcssits in 0 lonc’ - As 1”ii I-cl maIn am cl Scbwas rtz ~0 int ctsit,
with tise ‘solo eclon g’ that s crc-es as a tengtcsrasrv all sssde of porch assing 011db of tlse 19th c-c) Iliirv clc’hastc lsetcvc’en tbc’ Isasliking ails ci clii—
power the lastter 01 ay iItch ale the lcsr,ss er aol ci Ill! Ire he sides - rencv sc:hcso Is c-c’n tc- red isis wIt te tIter Isatik n cstc’ s anal clcpsssits we rd
1 1
NiII ton Fri cc , nan attic Aiii las Sc liw artz, oil’’ to o~S to t itt fcc of none’- onnserely ‘‘nlc-asns cdraising tlit- vclcscitv ssf Isatltk vasoltcassb
i/ic N,otcc? Stotcs: Estioiotcs. Soorce.s. Methods (NBEB, 1970). Iso t ii ot ass asclcl ing tct the qs Ian I titv s sI 011515 e - ‘‘ Fri s-cfits all I all dl
]t]t- 106—07, Schccatrtae,hionc’tostj Stotfstirs of t/tt’ Us,/tet? Stoic’s-, p. 95.

22
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK Of ST. LOUIS MAY1962

BOTH CREDIT AND MONEY ARE receive money or a promise to deliver money at a
NECESSARY FOB MONETIZED specified future time.
EXCHANGE If only commodities were exchanged, it would be
possible always to use money alone and never incur
The epigraphs from Shakespeare and Goethe rep- a debt Services, however, by their very nature,
resent conflicting views on the desirability and cannot be exchanged without one party, either seller
inevitability ofcredit; to wit, while money and credit or buyer, extending credit to the other. Hence, a law
are alternative exchange media, would either be attempting to enforce Shakespeare’s admonition
sufficient to mediate all exchanges without the would not prohibit the sale ofapples, automobiles or
other? Could any of us, as Polonius suggests, avoid clothing; it would, however, prohibit the renting ofa
credit transactions completely? Conversely, could house, the purchase of a ski-lift ticket or the hiring of
credit function as we know it without a monetary labor, In each of these latter examples, the trans-
framework? Not surprisingly, the answer to both action entails the exchange ofmoney before or after
questions is no. Hence, the advice of Polonius is as the completion of the activity with, necessarily, a
fatuous as the character offering it Both credit and concomitant issuance of credit.9
money are necessary in the exchange process, each
fulfilling functions that the other could not Thus, Goethe was right each of us inevitably
In order to establish this complementarity of engages in credit transactions every day. For ex-
money and credit, consider the exchange process as ample, we extend credit to our employer and receive
a contractual arrangement between buyer and it from our electric utility. Ifservices ofany form are
seller.’ Under this characterization, the exchange to be exchanged, credit mustbe offered either by the
and the settlement ofthe contract need not coincide seller—as in the typical employment arrangement
in tOne so thateither credit or money can mediate an where wages are received after the services have
exchange. In the case of a credit transaction, at the been delivered—or by the buyer—as in entertain-
time of the exchange the buyer incurs a contractual ment activities where the purchase of a ticket pre-
liability forasubsequent settlement to clearhis debt cedes the concert, game or movie.10
Using this contractual approac.1i, we can now dem-
Clearly, credit is inextricably bound up with sell-
onstrate why Goethe’s claim of the inevitability of ing services in a monetized economy in order to
credit in any society is correct
avoid the problem of making an indefinitely large
number of infinitesimal cash payments. Yet money
and credit are simply alternative means oflowering
Credit and the Exchange of Services the cost of exchanging goods relative to a primitive
barter system. Thus, even some commodities might
Two types of goods are voluntarily offered for be too costly to exchange in customary ways ifcredit
exchange in markets: commodities and services. By were ruled out (e.g., home-delivered newspapers or
definition, a commodity is a tangible physical entity raw materials purchased by fiims).11
not intrinsically dependent on time (e.g., an apple, a
phonograph record or an automobile), while a ser- ‘Note that this would also mle out the existence Many firm other
vice is an activity or process that is intangible and than owner-operated producers of commodities.
intrinsically sensible only with the passage of lime “Baiter exchange of services is conceivable as suggested in the
(e.g., a gardener’s chores, aconcertora taxi ride). In a maxim, “You scratch my back and Ill scratch yours.” Yet, even
monetized economy, sellers of either type of good here, credit sneaks in unless the exchange is simultaneous.
“Credit extended by sellers of raw materials is an especially
important example. Ifcredit were not extended to producers,
‘Under Anglo-American law, an enforceable contract must have either deliveries would have to be made more frequently (in
three elements: smallerlots) to match producers’ cash flow from sales ofoutput,
or the material-using finns would have to tie up ñlore oftheir
(1) There must be an offer; capital in raw material inventories and, hence, less In the capital
(2) There must be an acceptance precisely matching the offer— to process these materials. Alternatively, finns would find it
else it is a counter-offer; moreadvantageous to be vertically integrated—i.e..to own their
(3) There must be consideration—i.e., the olTeror or acceptor suppliers—them to acquire these materials from other finns. See
must make some perfonnance that would be a detriment to “Credit Allocation: An Exercise in the Futility of Controls”
him if the agreement were not fulfilled. (Citibank Economics Dept., 1979), p. 40. In any case—more
See “Contract” and other referenced citations thereunder in frequent delivery, larger inventories in capital, or more vertical
Henry Campbell Black, Black’s Law Dictionary, 5th ed. (West integration—resources would be less productively allocated
Publishing Co., 1979), pp. 291-94, Vi. than when credit is extended.

23
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF ST. LOUIS MAY 1982

•The Reln.tion.ship Betu~ecniVio•ne~ exchange system functions.12 From this vantage,

and Credit they have documented that, in moving from barter to
indirect exchange, the most useful function of
primitive monies is the commonly—agreed—upon
Monevanci credit are both substitutes and corn—
valuation unit.t3
pleinents in the exchange process. On the individual
level, money and credit are potential substitutes for Finally, credit mediation of exchange is facilitated
mediating any exchange of commodities. On the by the unix-ersal acceptability of money as a means of
societal level, money and credit are complements in settlement—the standard of dekrred payment fine—
the exchange process; each provides a function tion. All credit contracts can be settled (directly or
necessary to some exchanges that the other cannot through civil courts) by means of a money payment;
fulfill. In fhct, credit is a more general inedhmi of that is, money is legal tender in our economy. This
exchange than money in that it facilitates exchange general agreement on the means of settlement
involving time—both in permitting the sale of ser- makes credit less costly to extend, thereby increas-
vices and in permitting difftaing delivery dates in ing its availability for exchange mediation. A decen-
exchanges of commodities; mone without credit tralized use of credit requires that individuals and
can act as the exchange medium only for a corn— firms be able to clear their debts individually (i.e.,
moditv. Yet, money is likewise crucial to the func- pairwise) with some mutually agreeable means of
tioning of credit through its role as the primary settlement; without such agreement on the means of
means of settlement. settlement, credit clearing would reqnireacostlv
centralized system of record—keeping much like a
Monetary theorists generally have agreed that
‘barter cInl).
money in modern economies is anything that fulfills
all of the loll owing functions:

1. Medium of exchange, THF BFIATIflN• OF CBFOIT

2. Store of value. FXP.AN S.IO]N TO) MO.N FTA.RY POI.d.F: Y
3, Unit of account,
4. Standard of deferred payment.
Credit is not mone, bitt the promise of future
money to the lender in return for the temporary use
Most economists have argued that the crucial char- of current pnrchasing power—goods or money—
acteristic in this list is its functioning as a medium of extended to the borrower. Two errors that violate
exchange. Typically, they have argued that any this logic occur every day in the financial press:
durable good can fulfill the remaining three func-
tions, hut only money can fulfill the first.
e Philip C rierson, ‘TI Ic Origins of Money.’’ Resc’o re/I i I
However, we have seen that credit also fulfills the Lcono HI It’ Ant/i rs,poiogi), Vol. 1 (JAI Pre ss, Inc., 1978), C spe-
medium of exchange function. Credit in our dis- cial lv pp. 9—12 for evidence on the i osportancc of standai’d of
value in explaining early monetary systems. See also Ceorge
cussion has taken a special form—namely, credit Dalton, ‘‘Prinsitive Monev,’’A,,ic’ric’on Anthropologist (1965:1),
measured in units of money and, implicitly, with the pp. 44—65: and Denise Sehniandt—Besserat, ‘‘The Farl iest Pre-
deferred payment to be made in units of money. In 9
cursors of Writing,’’ Scientific’ Aenericon (june 1978), pp.5O-5 .
exchange systems with money and credit acting as ‘‘In tlsi 5 eo,etc xl, it is ironic and revealing that content porary
exchange media, the other three functions in ‘I sartc, r c loiss’’ use dollars as tlse unit of account Iin t not as an
exchange medium, Consider these description s from “As Barter
money’s repertoire take on an importance not ap- Boom Keeps Crowi,sg,’’ (iS .\ews out! Si:oc/c! Report (Sep-
parent in the conceptual monetary exchange models tember 21, 1981), p. 58:
A participant lists item s for sale, and they are advertised to the csthe
without credit. Inossli stirs. II a Ii sterl item is sold, 1the former owner is issued trade
credits—’soosetinse s called trade c n liars. ‘these credits Ca,, later he
Without agreement on the unit of account, credit sed tcs purcls ase goods and services fmoiss sstlier 01 ~i11hers. ‘‘We
don‘I make outri gltt trades; we perforsss a banking ft. ,scti o,,.
transactions would have all the disadvantages of This is also the mcthcscl by which every ‘‘barter exchange”
barter except simultaneity. Anthropologists, in con- prcsfilecl in the article appears to he organized:
Besides credits, nIost harte r exchanges issIse hsarter cards that ca’s
trast to economists, have placed more emphasis on he n sed (tsr purchases at participating cli erch suits Through the Trade
the unit of account function because their focus is on Bass k International exchange.
1 a NI esuphi s dentist hegao receiving
eustssm ems wh s, ci sec their barter c ardls for dental work. Wi thin a
how a monetized exchange system evolves from a year’s time, tl,e de,stist acenmu late d coon gil Cache riollars tcs buy
1
barter system rather than how an extant monetized arpetin g for his office, in stall new sign sand pay (tsr flying eison 5.

24
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK 0 ST. LOUIS MAY1902

1. Referringto the interest rate as the price of money; determined signals—that is, interest rate changes—
2. Identifying available credit as money.” to allocate credit efficiently to adjust to the shocks.

The first error is so commonplace that its repeti- Conversely, attempting to control interest rates
tion makes it seem valid; nonetheless, the interest requires the monetary authority, in effect, to allocate
rateis not the price but the rental rate for a dollar or, credit at the cost ofmaking the growth rate ofmone-
properly expressed, any other good. The price of a tar>’ expansion less predictable;since this makes the
dollar is a dollar’s worth of something—certainly real future value of the means of settlement more
more than a mere percentage of a dollar. No one variable, credit transactions become riskier, and
would refer to the rental rate at Hertz as the price ofa credit markets less stable. When non-monetary
new Ford, or to the rent on a house as its purchase shocks occur, the less predictable quantities of
price, but the confusion ofinterest on credit with the means of settlement with relatively fixed interest
price ofmoney has become so common thatthe error rates impede market signals from efficiently allo-
no longer jangles our sensibilities. Yet the distinc- cating credit.
tion is not only obvious but as important for money
and credit as for owned and rented automobiles. Since both money and credit are exchange media,
the key to effectively controlling either or both of
Similarly, the second error, referring to available them must be first to isolate their interconnections
credit as money, also escapes rebuke through fre- and mutual dependencies. This article has argued
quent use. The annual total of credit extensions is that credit is unavoidable and thata money means of
many times larger than the year-to-year increases in settlement is necessary for a decentralized credit
either Ml or M2, and, in recent years, has been larger system. What it now addresses is how monetary and
than the stock of Ml. Considering the consumer credit expansion relate to each otherand how both of
sector (which accounts for over 60 percent of na- these relate to national income.
tional income), a large share of credit extensions,
almost two-thirds, are by institutions other than
commercial banks and, therefore, do not entail Credit and Money Creation
monetary expansion. Considering only installment
consumer credit, about 40 percent of such credit is In contemporary market economies, the money
extended by non-depository institutions with about supply grows through two types of credit transac-
20 percent being extended by retailers and gasoline tions: the central bank creating deposits (money) and
companies. In these retail extensions, money affects bank reserves by buying government securities, and
the transaction only through the anticipated mone- depository institutions creating deposits (money)
tar>’ settlement.15 from increased reserves by granting loans.hS
These errors are substantive for they focus the Of course, not all credit extensions entail mone-
public’s evaluation ofmonetary policy on regulating tary expansion. There are three distinct sources of
the flow ofcredit instead ofcontrolling the growth of credit extension: (1) bank and non-bank depository
the stock ofmoney. Controlling the rate ofgrowth of institutio~’s(commercial banks, savings and loans,
the money stock in a predictable fashion enhances credit unions, mutual savings banks); (2) non-
the predictability of the future availability of the depository financial intermediaries (finance com-
means of settlement. This regularity of monetary
expansion makes for better-informed, intertemporal
decision-making and, therefore, contributes to the 50In other words, modem monetary systems have a flat base—
stabilization ofcredit markets. When non-monetary literally money by decree—with depository institutions, acting
as fiduciaries, creating obligations against themselves with the
shocks occur, the predictable availability of quan- flat base acting In part as reserves. The decree appears on the
tities of money in the system allows market- currency notes: “This note Is legal tender for all debts, public
and private.” While no individual could refuse to accept such
money for debt repayment, exchange contracts could easily be
“Recent examples are (1) “The price of money—the interest composedto thwart its use in everyday comme,ve. However, a
rate—reflects, therefore the interaction of millions of partici- forceful explanation as to why money Is accepted is that the
pants in the credit mnaricet Henry Kaufman, Washington federal government requires it as payment for tax liabilities.
Post, September 23, 1981; (2) “As long as the Federal Reserve Anticipation ofthe need to clear this debt creates a demand for
Board maintains its cnrrent cOltfle, credit—or money available the pure flat dollar, guaranteeing its exchange value. See Abba
to lend—will remain tight.” Harry B. Cuis, Christian Science P. Lerner, “Money as a Creature
Monitor, September 21, 1981. 3 of the State,” American Leo-
nosnic Ret~iew(May 1947), pp. I2-17; and Ross NI. Stan, “The
1 Price of Money in a Pure Exchange Monetary Economy with
Souive: Federal Re.serre Bulletin (January 1982), Tables 1.21,
1.56. 1.57, 1.58, 2.16. Taxation,” Eco,un,ietrlca (January 1974), fl). 45—54.

25
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF ST. LOUIS MAY 1982

parties, investment banks, brokerages, insurance In the second and third cases, credit extensions
companies); and (:3) sellers ofgoocls (retail and trade substitute for monetary mediation, while, in the first
credit). In the first case, a depository institution case, a dollar of money is created by each dollar of
lends money to a borrower who in turn uses these credit extended. Thus, for the case of loans by’ dc—
funds to purchase goods or repay debts; the credit posit creation, credit expansion has no apparent
extension entails monetary expansion of purchasing impact on the relation between the narrowly defined
power because it consists of checkable deposit money supply and income since Ml and credit move
expansion. During the last three decades, loans by together; however, in the latter two cases, credit
such depository institutions have accounted for substitutes for money which apparently would
between 35 and 50 percent of the annual total of change the ratio of income to money supply.
credit market francis extended to the non—financial
sector.17 Alternatively put, more than half of the Yet, to the extent that credit arrangements in-
credit extended annually in U.S. financial markets creasingly pros’ide as ready a source of purchasing
does not entail ciepos it expansion. power as narrowly defined money (Ml), the ap—
peanmces of these cases are sonaewhat misleading.
In the second case, a non—depository institution There should be an incentive to reduce Mi holdings
(e.g., a consumer finance company) issues the credit and to increase the non—NIl portion of M2 holdings.
or buys the accounts receivable of a credit—issuing For example, given the rising acceptability of bank
seller. The latter method of credit extension is called credit cards—about 30 percent of U.S. retail and
factoring, and non—depository institutions fund this service establishments accepted them in 1972, ap-
activity by either selling debentures directly or by proximately 50 percent in 1981—the utihty of hold-
acting as an agent for a depository institution. tinder ing a reserve of currency or demand deposit balances
either method, the extension of credit does stoi entail in order to mediate unforeseen or spur—of—the—
an expansion of deposits but a t’cdllocdlI ion of exist- moment purchases has been significantly reduced
ing deposit holdings. 18 for consumers.’° Still, to clear the short—term credit
Finally, in case three, credit may be extended carci debt at months end, a ready source of funds to
directly by the seller of goods and held as accounts shift to demand or other checkable deposits remains
receivable. Often this credit is financed by the sale of necessar. Consequently, even if the proportions of
commercial paper issued by the seller/credit—issuer cash and credit purchases were constant, given the
(e.g., firms with their own financial subsidiaries such increasing acceptability of crerht as an exchange
medium, it would not he surprising to see consumer
as Sears or General Motors). In these instances,
holdings of demand deposits decline relative to
whether the firm holds its own accounts receivable,
purchases (i.e., to have had a rising velocity).
factors its accounts receivable or sells commercial
paper, the extended credit represents an increase in
purchasing power not created by checkable deposit
‘as~f a ~ x’a~ ‘a’aas\f’ cf~j)5
expansion.
“(‘a 7j% ~ ‘a’a”’

.I.~(D.t.NO.\.iI{.../Af~’I’iV1Yj’
“Source: Board of Governors, Federal Reserve System. Of
Coltrse, this credit cx pars sion is limited b bank rese ne s nn dl er a If all credit extensions represented monetary ex-
given set of rest’ n’e require ments and is eonsequ end v ci ireetl~
controlled by the monctarv authority - F or this f/srni of ered it, pansion, then controlling monetary growth would
additional credit control a,ith on tv w onl ci be si spe rflsimis, Tbis control credit. The same constraint that limiting
ease also Covers bank credit card usage sin Ce credit is an ccl by a reserves imposes on deposit expansion also limits
seller to a buyer against a bank card becomes a demand deposit
increment as soon as the seller/credit—issuer submits the credit
invoice to the agent bank. In both types of credit extension,
direct or credit card, a depository institrition ei’eates money I ‘The total no mher of’ merchant (i.e., retail anci service) estails—
match ing the extenderl credit,
I istnnents in the Utsited States rose less than 2 percent per year
t~lI a depository insti tution is so es a I man to a crc cii tor using the 96
during the 1 0s’ and 1970s, while the nnmiser of oserchant
accounts or debt as Co Ilaterail, then the crc cli t exten Ion has the outlets accepting MasterCard and VISA rose at over $ percent
same one—for—one expan sion of deposits its if the loan were audi 9 percent per year, resliective Iv- ( Ssurees: S taOs tint I
directly placed, From 1977 through 1980, the percentage of Ahstroc:t oft/ic C/oiled! State,s, 1980 LJ,S, Dept. csf Commerce,
installment loans by non—depository institutions was .39, .37, Bairean ofthe Ceo sus), id)lst ed andl data supplied by VISA all) di
.40, .45 respectively; son ree: Feclcro 1 Rescrce B olleti ii (Sep- MasterCard). To e stiinate the percentage of merelsaists accept—
tember 1981), table 1.57. A breakdown fcsr non-installment i ng hank cards, we estimated total merchants for 1981 by’ cx-
credit has iiot iseeii present in the Bit lie diii sin Ce 1975, but fin iii trapdslatmg the 2 percent annual growth rate Irons 1977 forward,
1965 to1975, commercial banks extended only about one—third Tbis was di en divi dccliii to the n nit]’) er d) I nscrcliaist outlets that
of single—payment ncsn—in stal Intent loans. accept MasterCard,

26
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF ST. LOUIS MAY 1982

credht extensions, audi inflation policy can properly (3) v “a P ± Ni,

focus ois controlling money growth, leaving the
market to allocate credit. As we have seen, however, from equation 1, where indicates the annualizedi
dlepository institutions account for less than half of growth rate of each variable. From equation 3, we
the credht assnuallv extessnieci in the United States. obtam
Consequently, might not the purchasing power
(4) P v — v + Ni,
created by non—dieposit credht extensions render
monetary policies unelertaken through control of which shows the significance of’ velocity for mosse—
monetary growth rates ineffrctive? The answer is tary policy with the inflation rate, P, as its target.
no: money iii its role as the means of settlement
constrains non—depository as well as depository As is obvious from equation 4, if velocity is con-
crecht. stant (v = o), thess the inflation rate will he equal to
the difference between the growth rates of real
Ifan increase in the use ofcrediit alters the money— output, ~, and money, Ni; if v is relatively’ constasst
income relationship, tile income velocity of money
hut non—zero, then inflation would be the difference
will rise. That is, if a larger share of transactions by
betsveen the growth rates of money’ audi real output
householdis or firms can he medhated by credilt, those
households andl firms, relative to their incomes, will plus that of velocity’. If~’does not elepenni on M or
then equation 4 implies that if is simply’ pre— ~‘

plan to holdi less Nil and more ofother assets, issclud— dlid,table, even if not constant, thesi controlling the
ing non—M 1 deposits. As this substitution occurs, the money supply is tantamountto controlhinginflation. 2
2
ratio of nominal income to Ml (velocity) will rise.
Whether such a change will occur for all monetary This interpretation abstracts from variations in
aggregates, narrow anel broad, depends ois the extent real output, but, to the extent tlsat fluctuations in the
to which substitutions of non—M 1 assets for NIl growth rate of money exacerbate such variations,
cousprise elepos its includeel in other monetar setting a constant growth rate of’ money reduces that
aggregates.2° source of disturbance. Non—monetary’ disturbances
to real output growth (e.g., the OPEC oil embargo),
Velocity, v, which is the ratio of nominal gross
of cotirse, may cause inflation to nleviate from its
national prodluct, Y, to money, NI, anticipatedl path, hut over longer periodls of time, a
Y steady’ growth rate of mosiey’ will smooth real income
(1) y
Ni grosvth as well as facilitate inflation prenlictabihty.
This is the rationale for a policy of targeting on the
measures the turnover rate of the average diollar in
growth rate 0f money’ and why’ its effectiveness
Ni, that is, how many times a dollar was usedl in a dlependls upors the predictability of velocity..2a
transaction involving Y during the year.2’ Express-
ing nominal income as the prodluct of the price level, Assessing the preehctahihity of a variable involves
P, and real output, y, twd) separate evaluations: point forecasts and vari-
ability. The shorter the time period coassidlered, the
(2) Y = Ps’,
relatively more iissportant is the latter characteristic;
we obtain an edjuation fbr the growth rate of velocity, that is, while a short—russ fbrecast of a variable assay
rarely’ lie precise, if that variable eloes not fluctuate
wildly in a hishion out of keeping with its history,
ssenti all ‘‘, tls is is again F’riedxssan’s argiixsieist tls at tlse al sa His i —
then descrihissg it as predictable is sensible.
tinsis of us omse y is isnst an at p ni din is cit ails d~lisp i neal issri e, ‘‘The
selection [nsf mdi icy’‘s slehisit inns I is to ISe re gardlerl ass am] ens —
pi deal hypothesis asserting that a particulso’ defin itinsms will be 22
nm st n-n isve isi exit for a ~sairticnlair imm ipo se lie cam,mse the ns isgis i tni 1de N ott’ th at fir pns lie y sin mposes “e neenl tins t kisow lsrn’ci se I y’ sc Isv
Isasedl ois tlsat defi iii tiniis Isears 1 a inore cnsis sisten t airs ni regix air the gmnswth rate of velocity- is predictable; fir the purpnise nsf
mel astion to otbse r yariahl e1 s relevant for tlse pu i-pose thsasis dss fnsrissul ati isg an n5 flatini is pnslicy’ tIm mdi ugh c-n istmnsl nsf a us oisetarv
asl terisasti ye Inasgm iito des ns the saisse gei ieral classs - - , . It Osay aggregate, it is sufficient that it is pmedlictaisle,
well he tisast die speci He nsean i isg it is 01051 cssn Ye is ie ut tns aittasc:bs n F’nsr as 0mm’ nhc’ t,ai len! s taste us e ut, see MiI tnin Frienlosam , ‘‘A l’hse ci—
Ins tims, te miss ml lois c> cli lie rs for dl ifleremit peni nids, rnsnler ciiffere ut
retical F’ masiss ewnsrk for Ni ois claim>’ rkisaiy’ s is,’~fns itt-nc, I naf Pail itico I
i issti ti atinnsasl arran geisse is ts, or for ci if’ferent purposes ‘‘ Fricml- I’,d’noasalaq (Nharcbs/Apmii 11970). p~i. 193—235. Friedissais alsns
ii tails ansd S cli wasrtx, Mo tic’ mi i—i, St di tastid’s of the Caiito I St di ts’ 1. P
an-gi Se 5 that Osnisetan-v iiis icy is n nit rmsef’oI in n:ss iiiste r—cyclical
91. 1
policy lien’adnse of laigs 5 is its i nspac ts aim that, cnsis sn sin emit!y, it is
2 ‘TI SC reciprocal of velocity nseastires tlseaive rage iso I dliiig lserionl
issdire ii sd ~d if steasnl y or jsmd’nl ictable ; see isis Ans e rieais Fens’
nsf a dollar, how lisisg hetweeis flusal iiscnsisse traissaetissn s, ‘Fbi ii hissic As snciati mx Pm,s isis’ is tiasl AnIni i-c ss, - Tb e Rnsl e nsf Msi iset,u’y

lie ri nsd is’ge mixian Pnilin’y,’’ ,‘liitea’ac’ciii l’a’noniaaon’ Rn’i’in’n: (March 1968), pp 1—17,
555 is’ to the Friemlissais msotion of’ tempns mary aisnsde nsf 1
asun Ins ‘‘Niisisetary’ Psi1 icy’’ Iecti ire citedl its finstis ott’ 1
Pu rcls as ixsg P ’ car,

27
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF ST. LOtUS MAY 1982

Chort 1
~ncome, Money and Credit
Billiouts of Doflors Billiouts of Dollars
3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000
800 800
600 600

400 400

200 200

100 100
80 80

60 60

40 40
h959 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 801981

H AS RISING GRFI)IT SIGNIFIGANIU V markets by’ finsis, coissnismers’ -assnl the governuiesit,
~J ~ C s I) b ‘J Fr I %r R)’a’acbtcp plus trade crenhit extessdecl lietcc’een firms.24 On a
•BE”IA%rFI:Gc ?vIOrSFY 4\iJ INGONIF? seusi—lssg chart, constant growths rates graph as
straigist lines, and equal growth rates appear as
There are several was’s to assess the i]sspact of parallel lines. Its this fonssat, it is plain that frosss 1959
risissg credhit on the monev—isscossse link. Tisree ehif— to 1981 credit’s growth was the fastest nsf the aggre-
ferent procedures are used hsere: (1) a cosssidheratinsn gates, that CNP annl M2 have grnswn at roughly equal
of thse Ie’n’els esi’ GNP, nsnsssev’andl credit; (2) ass ex- rates, andl that all tlsree grecs’ sonsewlsat faster tisass
am issation nsf consumer deposit Isolelings, credit Ml. The crenhit magssitunle gre’s.c’ at ass average rate nsf
extesssions and purclsases; (3) observations of the 9.2 percesst per ~ear, wisile M2 grew at about tise
grniwths rates of Ml assd M2 velocities. saissc rate as GNP niuriisg the last two decades—8.3
First, we’ cass see whether the relatiossship be- 2m
Nastn’ th,st it is thin’ fussy <sf’cmn’nlit—i,n’,, n’xls’nsinmns—nnst thin’ stnc’k
tween sssoney anel iiscnsisse grnswths appears to hsave
nsf debit that is mn’lessust isn’mn’, Credit, ass nhsn-ussenh earlier, is
chsassgenl in re’e’esst years hiy simply hookissg at time dlata tmansasn-tinis—spn’n-ilin- ainnl cant nun’nliane tsnl theft traimsasn’linn mix’
diii inccsnsc, nsosses’ -,tisd credit presented us cisart I wfiin-h it is exteonienl, Evets if the hsmnsnissnsmy nails’ fmnsns a hire’
yinns cl-ed it hraax isan’ti on icc’mc’ sit hi seaji tel1 it] y atsenT ass cailIahn’iani
Chsart 1, usissg a sensi—log scale, depicts annual GNP, 1 for
aisisti scm n,i-enlit trans sast-tinsis, tim i-a ic cciii m ni lsn’ asisni tImer emen it n’s—
NIl annl M2 lsolnhissgs, aisd credit flows, witls the hast tn’nsinsti fair that traissan_-tiols, I_nlikn’ liadst lnnsmlc’y’ cxfianssinsn, tIm’
dhehssedl as the quasstitv nif fuisels raised in credit stock of past cxtn-nsions is, in itself, irrelevant,

28
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF ST. LOUIS MAY 1982

Chart 2
Ve’ocities of M~and M2
7.0

6.5

6.0

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1•01959 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 801981 1.0

pereesst asid 8.2 1iercesmt per year, respectively. In Time ratio of credit to isscdsussc, u-lmile persistently
contrast, Ml grew at a 5.2 percent rate. rising, prohahl~’understates time importance nil credit
hs explaining tine rise ofMI 1 velcicit The erenhit totai
.
In chart 2, the velocities of Nil and NI2 arc clis—
is aim isieadismghy low siild’e it represents quarterly
played. The approximate constaisc of tise M2 veloc-
balance simeet n’/aauugn’-s iii debt. If credit is extcnnlenl
ity is clearly evident iscre, as cveli as the persistent
audi repaid witbsism the period of nshiservatiosm (osme
rise nsf Ml velocity .~< ot so evinlcnt. ilowever, is the dluarter far time data iss chart 1), timere is no cisassge in
relatis-elv n:nstt-s’laat( rats~ofM 1 c’elocit grnswtis. Over
the credit lialance and, thus, no evidence that timis
time 1959—81 perininl, Nil velocity gresc’ at arottudi credit extension took place; smonethehess, suds cx—
3.2 percent. Indeed, except for a isoticeable showing tensiosss of erenhit cc’oukl have umediateel excisassges
in time late ‘60s, time s-elnicitv grniwtim rate of hiotis old1
and contributed tni spending and ecnsssoumic activity.
NIl and new Ni 1 has lieeus between 3 percent aisnh 4
1iercent since 195025 A secoimd way to assess time immpact nsf crenlit use is tni
hicus on time heimavior of innlivinluals annh fairs ii ies—
~~Iln’c-n-tstly-,linimert F, W’n-intraanlm, sn’snnsr ea’isnntnnit bar disc Jmnt ins particuiar, to exaisHne tiseir hold issgs nsf nlemannl
Ee-nsisamutin’ Cnsmissmmittee nsf time iS’ Cnaumgress, niasale a similar
pasiistium aaicttcrtasthie U amlf Street jaini’nol,OetssIier 14, 1981: “As and other cii eckahie nleposits as coumparecl to credit
as tasasttn’m nI’lasgic. nmffsbsnsmn- mini nsthn’r new hisaammeial devchns iissents ins useeliating coimsusmmcr purebsases. lalile I preseimts
1
n-a’s c-osmtnilsntn’ Ins iisflatinsn nasmhv if they s-nsumtmshiute to (lie matn’ au data nm cnsimsuismer deposit hold usgs credit exten—
,
iisn’ nsf a soon’ Vs ye incity - ilnswevi’m’, tIme y h ai yn’ ni it - S mice thin_-
n-air!>- 1950’s, tlsa’ rate nsr miss’ au i’d lB’s a’c’laaeitv Imas linen n~nitn’ s muss assd purchases ism time U.S. ecnsssoumy nlnring time
steady, 3 ,2’4 ycaadv,’ I 970s. By’ fkicusmsmg nsum time cousumsier sector, tlmree

29
C.) 11
C in

C
in

r
m
0
in
Table 1
Consumer Deposits, Credit, Expenditures and Deposit Velocities (amounts in billions of dollars)
Consumer Deposits and Credit Consumer Expenditures and Mediations Velocities
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) ( ) (8) (9) (10) (11) 12) ‘1

Total —4
Other otal consumer Personal Tot I Percent 5
Demand checkable checkable Consumer M2 credit consumption cash cash 6 1 6 3 7 3 6 4 c
Year deposits deposits deposits deposits extensions expenditures purchae purchases

1970 $ 536 $ 0.4 $ 54.0 $ 4555 187,1 $ 6341 $ 4470 705% 11,83 11.74 8.27 138
1971 586 05 591 532.3 2158 592.6 476,8 688 1 .82 1112 807 130
1972 654 0.6 660 609.8 2408 7670 5262 686 1173 11.62 797 126
1973 701 0.5 709 6546 2690 834.3 565.3 67.8 1 90 117 97 1.27
1974 73,3 09 74 2 6944 2694 914 1 644.7 70 5 12.47 12.32 8.69 1 32
1975 780 16 7a6 7962 280.7 10169 7362 724 1304 1278 925 128
1976 82.6 32 858 9212 318.2 11279 8097 71.8 1365 1315 9,44 2
1977 91.0 4.8 95.8 10348 3735 12545 881.0 702 1379 1309 920 .21
1978 97.4 78 105.2 11175 4242 14166 9924 701 1454 1 47 943 127
1979 992 17, 1169 12001 4658 15823 11165 706 1595 1354 955 132
1980 1024 74 1298 12862 449.3 17510 13017 743 1710 1349 10.0 1.36
1981 666 74,4 16 0 14008 477.2 19095 1432.3 741 2205 86 890 1.36

Note . (1) Gross IPC Con umer demand deposits ye rend figu e . Source (5) Consumer installment credit exten ion plus non installmen
Federal Reserve Bulletin Figure tor 1981 i preliminary con umer credit outstanding The in tallment figure is 12 time
(2) NOW and ATS accounts credit union share drafts and demand the Decembertotalforthatyear while the non in tallm nt igureis
depositsatmutualsavingsbanks ource Federal Reserve Board two time the December total (under the assumption of a six
month t rm to maturity st ucture of non~installmentcredit, on
(3) IPC consumer demand deposits plus other checkable deposits average). Source’ Federal Reserve Board
(4) M2 minu overnight urodollars minu overnigh RPs minus (6) xpre sed at annual rate . Source Department of Commerce
money market mutual funds minus currency minu demand de
po its plus IPC consumer demand deposit plus other heckable (7) Personal consumpfion expenditu es less total con ume credit
deposits Source ederal Re en,e Bulletin Col (6) Col (5)
(8) The ratio of total h purcha e to per onal con umption ex
penditures ICol ( ) Col (6)

0
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK CF ST. LOWS MAY1962

technical national income accounting and com- money demanded by households. On the other
parability problems are avoided. First, all personal hand, if we consider total checkables in 1981 or
consumption expenditures are final goods trans- assume a broader temporary-abode-of-purchasing-
actions and appear in GNP; in &ct, they are over 60 power definition, M2, then the ratios of consumer
percent of this measure. Hence, all the credit ex- expenditures to the consumer deposit holdings pro-
tensions to consumers are used for final goods vide contrary evidence. As shown in column 12 of
purchases. In contrast, commercial credit and trade the table, the ratio of consumer expenditures to the
credit may be financing intermediate goods. Second, sum of household demand deposits, saving and
a direct comparison of credit use and demand de- small time deposits, and money marketmutual funds
posit holdings for an identifiable set of buyers is varied comparatively little relative to the demand
made possible; hence, characterizations about the deposit and total checkables ratios. Thus, under the
relative use of credit and demand deposits in rela- broader definition, the quantity ofmoney demanded
tion to income are facilitated. Third, data on credit —at least the consumer portion—does not appear to
extensions are available so that a truer picture of have declined during the 1970s. In particular, 1980
credit utilization can be obtained than when using and 1981 do not appear to be qualitatively different
balance sheet changes in debt. than the earlier years.

The data in table 1 characterize the manner in The third manner ofassessing credit’s impact is to
which households have made their purchases and determine whether the trends in the income veloc-
held their deposits during the last 12 years; these ities of the monetary aggregates have changed
data are based on fourth quarter and December significantly in recent years. As we saw in the slopes
observations in each year. Clearly evident is the of Ml and M2 velocities in chart 2, monetary aggre-
recent substitution of non-bank checkable deposits gate velocities had strongtrends in their growth over
for demand deposits (colwnns 1 and 2),as well as the the two decades 1959-81, While on a quarter-to-
steady decline in holdings ofdemand deposits rela- quarter basis velocity growth rates exhibit signifi-
tive to total purchases (column 6) measured by their cant variability, chart 2 suggests that over longer
velocity (column 9). Conversely, the ratio of pur- periods velocity growth is fairly regular. This trend
chases to total consumer checkable deposits, the regularity is substantiatedin chart 3, which plots the
velocity oftotal checkable deposits (column 10), rose growth rates of Ml and M2 velocities. In this chart,
much more gradually and fell abruptly in 1981 to quarter-to-quarter (QQ), four-quarter moving aver-
about its level in 1970. age (4QMA) and 20-quarter moving average (Trend)
growth rates appear. While QQ is highly variable for
As the data indicate, the proportions ofconsumer both Ml and M2, the 4QMA for each has a markedly
transactions initially mediated by money and credit smaller amplitude; considering ± 4 percent bands,
(column 6) varied only slightly during the 1970s; the only one observation for Ml’s velocity growth and
share ofpurchases that were mediated by currency three observations for M2’s velocity growth lie
and demand deposits remained around 70 percent beyond them. Also, the trend for each strongly
(assuming a six-month term to maturity in non- underscores the apparent tendencies in chart 2; in
installment credit) over the decade. Thus, over this each case, Ml and M2 velocities have stable trends,
period ofrough constancy in the distribution of types especially when measured over periods longer than
of mediation, the ratio of consumer expenditures to a year. In particular, the charts do not reveal recent
demand deposit holdings by consumers (column 9) velocity growth to have been qualitatively different
increased by almost 45 percent Conversely, the than in earlier years.
ratio of purchases to total checkable deposits rose
only 15 percent through 1980 (column 10). More- This lack ofchange in Ml and M2 velocity growth
over, in 1981, demand deposits fell abruptly (column is even more apparent in table 2, which displays
1) and other checkable deposits rose even more velocity growth rates, their standard deviations, and
sharply (column 2) after the institution of NOW their ranges for 1961-81, for five-year subperiods,
accounts nationwide. As a result, the velocity oftotal and fin the year 1981; growth rates are computed for
checkables fell in 1981 to approximately its 1970 two observation frequencies: quarter-to-quarter
value. (QQ) and four-quarter moving average (4QMA).
If we assume a narrow or transactions medium Consider the behavior of Ml velocity computed
definition ofmoney, Ml, the observations over 1970- on aquarterlybasis. Over the entire 1961-81 period,
80 would be evidence of a decline in the quantity of it has had an average growth rate of 3.16 percent per

31
 ‘TI
(A)
rn
C a~. .30 v..~ a a- a
Ill

‘0 r
Ill
ci,
~ooIt m
I
tin —
C 11
—o
C
0 1.3 z
c~o.
0
t
mc (4~
-, 0 C!~
2 a r
C’ 0
UI C
(p
0•
o
0
(0 fl~
o —~
a’
0o
0’

0
~1

~1
p.,
-a
C’,,

a
b-a
U,

-4
a’

-4
CO

-4
‘a
00
0
‘a (0
00
— — —

&. Sb p., o p.~ ~ a’ Coo a p., 0 s~ a a- a, 0 P4~ (0

I P0
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF ST. LOUIS MAY 1982

Table 2
Annual Growth Rates of Ml and M2 Velocities During 1961-81
Observatten Ve!owty Growth at Annua’ Percentage Rates during
Aggrega a frequency 1961-81 1961 65 1966-70 1971 75 1976-80 1981
Ml 00 Mean 325 371 1.95 364 339 474
SD 3.52 262 302 364 349 913
Range 447, 13 90 118, 944 —4.06 7.05 336 900 —4.16 1002 448 1390

4QMA Mean 312 317 236 2.94 3.77 4.35

SD 1.58 179 152 116 151 139
Range 101 6.98 101 5.86 09, 515 70, 547 186 698 261,601

M2 00 Mean 17 59 68 28 SI 47
SD 405 262 354 413 487 803
Range 8.23 11 75 4 32 4.36 7 81 5.75 —8.23 626 6 09 11 75 7.00, 10.83

4QMA Mean .04 1 25 1 06 65 .60 2 06

SD 235 1.87 172 241 268 141
Range 5.32 631 5 32. 2.29 2.76 3 01 446, 3.96 3 84, 6 31 23 3 66

year. As was-apparent in chart 3, qllarter-to-(luarter In Summary, whether we look at Ml or M2, the

fluctuations can be significant; vet, over the two information (Iisp~aved in chart 3 and compiled in
decades, the standard deviation of its growth i’ate has table 2 conveys the same message: namely, the
remained about 3.00. \Vhile extrapolating the long— behavior of monetar aggregate velocities in 1981 is
run velocity growth rate of Ml to 1981 underesti— i~otqualitativdv different than over the preceding
mates the observed growth rate, the 4.74 percent rate 20-year penoci or an of the subpenocls. This is
is ~vel1 within one standard (leviation of either the clearest when considering the four—quarter moving
1976—80 mean or that of the hill 1961—81 period, and average growth rates. though the more vo]atiI ~
represents-a fluctuation that is comparatively snia]l quarter—to—quarter rates tell essentially the same
in terms of the range of observed growth rates during story. %hile velocity growth rates were higher in
either the suliperiod or the fi[II period as ~ho~vn iii 1981 than in preceding subpenocls during 1961—81,
chart 3. there is no evidence that credit use and financia’
innovations have severed the link between mofle-
For NIl, QQ and 4QMA have roughly the same
tarv aggregates ~wd the inflation rate,
average growth rates; f~rM2, the 4QMA growth rate
is relatively more volatile than the QQ growth rate.
Yet, in absolute terms the difference between QQ
and 4QMA is about equal for Ml and M2 for the
entire 1961—81 Period (—.13) ~md for each suhpeuiocl
except 1976-80 and 1981. For both Ml and M2, the Ni uch of the current debate over U.S. economic
variabilit (SI)) of 4QMA is naturally significantly policy has focused on the wisdom of targeting a
less than that of QQ. The standard deviations of monetary aggregate to control inflation. Some critics
veloc tv growth computed on a tour—quarter moving of such policies have alleged that financial innova-
average are about one—half of the quarterly version tions have 1~othmade money uncontrollable and
for MI and the base and between one—half and two— severed its predictable link with national i~uom~
thirds for M2. Moreover, the standard deviation for and prices. Others have argued that ii on—monetary
1981 is smaller than for the preceding subperiod. assets or liabilities ma~ have a closer link than
ihe implication is, as usual, that (lUarterlV monetary mone to income over the long run. This article has
statistics are a less useful guide to the longer—run focused on the predictable linkage issue by exam-
behavior of money than averages over longer ining the principa] function of money-and credit, the
periods. mediation of exchange. Since credit’s mediation

33
FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF ST. LOUIS MAY 1982

fiwetion depends crucially on the prec1ictable source strikingly in accord with the intentions of the
of monetary settlement, there is no theoretical sup- FOMC.26
port for assertions that the increasing use of credit
has severed money’s link to income, In terms of the Consequentlv there appears to he no reasonable
empirical evidence for the year 1981, both Ml and fbunclation—theoretjcal or empirical—for ~tb~lfldO1F~
ing the use of a monetary aggregate as the vehicle for
M2 velocities grew reasonably close to their trend
monetary policy. Unless or until velocity becomes
rates.This is grossly inconsistent with assertions that
more unprechetable 01’ fluctuates over ranges not
monetary policy is ineffective.
previously observed, the usefulness of monetary
While the controllability issue has not been ad- aggregates in controlling inflation and maintaining
dressed in this article, an analysis of the changes in economic stability will be undiminished.
monetary aggregates in relation to Federal Open 26
See Damel L. Thornton The FOMC in 1981: Monetary Corn
Market Committee (FOMC) directives during 1981 tro] na Cliatiiging Finaiicia~ Envuonineul. this Rcuicz,; (April
suggests that both Ml and M2 movements were 1982), pp. 3~22.

34