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Syllabus
Syllabus
Objective
This paper attempts to introduce to the students the various methods of conducting a social
science research, the procedure to formulation of a problem, its design, the various techniques
of data collection, data analysis and to prepare the research report
UNIT – I: INTRODUCTION
Social Science Research – Objectives, Scope and Need for Social Science Research –
Research in Public Administration.
Textbook
1. Saravanavel P :Research Methodology, Kitab Mahal, New Delhi 1991.
Reference Books
1. David E McNabb – Research Methods in Public Administration and Non – Profit
Management, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2013,.
2. Gerald J.Miller Hand book of Research Methods in Public Administration
Kaifeng Yang New Yark-2007.
3. Kothari C.R Research Methodology-Methods and Techniques. New Age
International Publishers, New Delhi 2004
4. Sam Daniel P and Aroma G.Sam, Research Methodology, Gyan Publishing
House, 2011.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
People constituting a society are the makers of history as well as the products that are the
result of history. In a modern society, howsoever we may try we cannot escape history. It
forms an integral part of life. It affects our day-to-day living at all times. In taking a decision
in daily life, we often base it on our past experiences. History, “as commonly understood,
may refer to events themselves or the record of events”. She further adds, “History may be
interpreted very broadly, to include nature as well as man. There is a history of the process of
evolution, as Darwin made clear, but in general usage history refers to the study of man and
what happened to him”. History is” the past experience of mankind. More exactly, history is
the memory of that past experience as it has been preserved, largely in written records”. Thus,
it is the product of historians’ work in reconstructing the flow of events derived from the
sources of information putting it into a narrative account.
Historical Research
Definitions Historical research is “the systematic collection and objective evaluation of data
related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of
those events which may help to explain present events and anticipate future events”.
According to Isaac and Michael, historical research involves reconstructing “the past
systematically and objectively by collecting, evaluating, verifying, and synthesizing evidence
to establish facts and reach defensible conclusions, often in relation to particular hypotheses”.
“True historical research, or historiography, is concerned with analyzing and interpreting the
meanings of historical events. It is the process by which a researcher is able to reach a
conclusion as to probable truth of an event in the past by studying objects available for
observation in the present”. It may be considered, “as a scholarly attempt to discover what
has happened”. Historical research is “the process of systematically examining past events to
give an account of what has happened in the past”. The above definitions are certainly useful
ones. Gay points out the role of hypotheses. Isaac and Michael emphasise the establishing of
facts systematically and objectively. Goldhor uses the term ‘true historical research’ and
refers to probable truth of an event in the past. Mouly gives a very simple definition, stressing
on ‘a scholarly attempt’. Thus, we may conclude from above that true historical research is a
process of reconstructing the past through systematically and objectively collecting,
evaluating, verifying and synthesising evidence relating to the past events to establish facts
and defensible conclusions, often in relation to particular hypotheses (if appropriate), to
arrive at a scholarly account of what happened in the past. 2.2.2 What is not Historical
Research? True historical research must be distinguished from chronology. Chronology is
defined as “simply the setting down of events in the order of their occurrence, a process
similar to the older concept of historical research”. Chronology of events is merely a first step
in the process of historical research, providing data or material for latter steps. A description
of past events is not considered historical research. It serves as background for the researcher.
It can be starting point for him. A mere collection of facts including their description, does
not constitute historical research. Facts can serve as a base. Facts have to be related and a
total picture drawn, to become meaningful and contiguous one. What Constitutes Historical
Research? “True historical research, or historiography, is concerned with analyzing and
interpreting the meaning of historical events. It is a process by which a researcher is able to
reach a conclusion as to the probable truth of an event in the past studying objects available
for observation in the present“.
Data collection
In exploratory research, the process of the research varies according to the finding of new
data or insight. Also referred to as interpretative research or grounded theory approach, the
outcomes of this research provide answers to questions like what, how and why.
If you are investigating a crime scene, an autopsy will be performed on the dead body to
answer how he/she was killed. Questions like, was he in a gang? Fighting over a business
deal? or very rich? Will answer the question of why he was killed.
With this information, the investigator can arrive at a hypothesis.
Once the data has been collected, the researcher will continue the investigation through
descriptive methods. This process uses qualitative data.
Analytical Research
Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking skills and the
evaluation of facts and information relative to the research being conducted. A variety of
people including students, doctors and psychologists use analytical research during studies to
find the most relevant information. From analytical research, a person finds out critical
details to add new ideas to the material being produced.
Research of any type is a method to discover information. Within analytical research articles,
data and other important facts that pertain to a project is compiled; after the information is
collected and evaluated, the sources are used to prove a hypothesis or support an idea. Using
critical thinking skills (a method of thinking that involves identifying a claim or assumption
and deciding if it is true or false) a person is able to effectively pull out small details to form
greater assumptions about the material.
Some researchers conduct analytical research to find supporting evidence to current research
being done in order to make the work more reliable. Other researchers conduct analytical
research to form new ideas about the topic being studied. Analytical research is conducted in
a variety of ways including literary research, public opinion, scientific trials and Meta-
analysis.
Define the
need of
analysis
Interpret
Collect Data
the data
Clean
Analyse the through
data unnecessary
data
Empirical Research
Empirical research is research using empirical evidence. It is also a way of gaining
knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. Empiricism values
some research more than other kinds. Empirical evidence can be analyzed quantitatively or
qualitatively.
For instance, a study is being conducted to determine if working from home helps in reducing
stress from highly-demanding jobs. An experiment is conducted using two groups of
employees, one working at their homes, the other working at the office. Each group was
observed. The outcomes derived from this research will provide empirical evidence if
working from home does help reduce stress or not.
Step 4: Defining the research design, methodology, and data collection techniques
Before proceeding with the study, the researcher must establish an appropriate approach for
the research. He or she must organize experiments to gather data that will allow him or her to
frame the hypothesis.
The researcher should also decide whether he or she will use a nonexperimental or
experimental technique to perform the study. Likewise, the type of research design will
depend on the type of study being conducted.
Finally, the researcher must determine the parameters that will influence the validity of the
research design. Data gathering must be performed by selecting suitable samples based on the
research question. After gathering the empirical data, the analysis follows.
The outcomes of this step determine if the hypothesis is supported or rejected. This is why
data analysis is considered as one of the most crucial steps in any research undertaking.
Aside from including the typical parts from the introduction and literature view, up to the
methods, analysis, and conclusions, the researcher should also make recommendations for
further research on his or her topic.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Empirical Research
Advantages
Since the time of the ancient Greeks, empirical research had been providing the world with
numerous benefits. The following are a few of them:
Empirical research is used to validate previous research findings and frameworks.
It assumes a critical role in enhancing internal validity.
The degree of control is high, which enables the researcher to manage numerous
variables.
It allows a researcher to comprehend the progressive changes that can occur, and
thus enables him to modify an approach when needed.
Being based on facts and experience makes a research project more authentic and
competent.
Disadvantages
Despite the many benefits it brings, empirical research is far from being perfect. The
following are some of its drawbacks:
Being evidence-based, data collection is a common problem especially when the
research involves different sources and multiple methods.
It can be time-consuming, especially for longitudinal research.
Requesting permission to perform certain methods can be difficult, especially when a
study involves human subjects.
Conducting research in multiple locations can be very expensive.
The propensity of even seasoned researchers to incorrectly interpret the statistical
significance
What is fact?
According to Goode and Hatt, fact is ‘an empirically verifiable observation’. Thus, facts are
those situations or circumstances concerning which there does not seem to be valid room for
disagreement.
Characteristics of Facts:
1. A fact refers to something actually happened. Example: it is a fact that British left India
in August 15 1947.
2. It can be subjected to empirical scrutiny:
3. Its existence cannot be denied: because it refers to is and not ought or nought smacking
of some preferential orientation. (example: man’s desire for power)
4. A fact is an objective reality:
Value
Values judgments constitute a large share of social science data. For example the study of
socialization is nothing but the study of the gradual acquisition of values by child and the
comparative historical surveys measure changes in values within a cultural system.
Characteristics:
1. Values are Preferences: The central position of value judgments in social sciences lies in
the fact that value judgments are merely formalized expressions of sentiments and
emotions derived from culture and impelling men to action. Thus a value is
a preference, positive or negative.
2. Values are in the Ought To form: It follows from the above that values cannot be
treated as facts, for they are related to the ‘ought’ and ‘nought’ of things. For example,
“all people should take part in the management of public affairs so as to make their
democratic system successful”, is a matter of value judgment. A moralist may say that
man should always be guided by the idea of ‘good life’; a metaphysicist may say that ‘a
man should inform his activity by the principle of self-imposed categorical imperative
of duty. A value is an ought-form premise in contrast to an is-form statement. A study
of values in all possible forms is called ‘axiology’ wherein focus on epistemological and
metaphysical aspects of values is characteristically noticeable.
3. Values are not absolute: it could vary from people to people and person to person.
4. Values are Relational: when we make a value judgment, we are not saying something
about ourselves. The terms which we use to make value judgments, according to this
analysis, do not designate any property of the objects of which they are predicted; rather
they are actually relational concept; they expose a relationship between the speaker and
the objects of which he is speaking.
5. Based on Speculation
6. Values are all bout Right and Wrong not True or False
Role of Value:
It is indispensible in human society: Values enter the cultural framework within which
all socio-political analysis takes place. And this cultural framework is a necessary
condition for social analysis, therefore, cannot be placed in abeyance.
Helpful for Social Planning and Policy Making
Values Supplement Facts
Values guide behavior
As both facts and values stand in a poll opposite, the dichotomy of facts and values cannot be
denied. To resolve this dichotomy ‘scientific value relativism’ was developed, in which facts
and values should not be studied in absolute sense, rather they should be studied in relative
terms. Thus, what we need is not value rejection but value neutralization, a sensitivity to
rather than ignoring of values.
Objectivity
Why there is problem of objectivity in social research? Or is a value free social research is
possible?
Objectivity simply refers to a state of being objective where ob i.e. not influenced by personal
feeling or opinion.
Thus, objectivity can be defined as ability to see and accept facts as they are and not to be
influenced by mere appearance or by prevalent notion or by one’s own wishes.
Need of objectivity in social research has been emphasized by all important sociologist.
For example: Durkheim: Social Fact must be treated as things and all preconceived notion
about the social facts must be abandoned.
Redcliff Brown: the social scientist must abandon the ethnocentric or egocentric biases in
research.
However Gunnar Myrdal viewed: the total objectivity is an illusion, which can never be
achieved. Because all research is always guided by certain “viewpoints”, and viewpoints
involves subjectivity.
References
1. https://www.okhistory.org/historycenter/forms/oknhd/eightsteps.pdf
2. http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/11202/1/Unit-2.pdf
3. https://www.formpl.us/blog/exploratory-
research#:~:text=Exploratory%20research%20is%20the%20process,lead%20to%20a
%20conclusive%20result.
4. https://maharanaias.wordpress.com/fact-value-and-objectivity/