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Chapter 11【Rotation of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis】
Chapter 11【Rotation of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis】
Major Points
The average angular velocity of the body for a finite time interval is defined as
flO Or - OJ
w =-=--- (II. 2)
av !J. t tr - t,
w = lim = dO (11.3)
.1hO !J.t dt
The angular velocity is the rate of change of the angular position 0 with respect to
time. We will see later that it is a vector quantity.
FIGURE 11.2 When a body rotates
about an axis fixed at 0, each particle Figure 11.3 shows a disk rotating about an axis perpendicular to its flat sur-
travels in a circular path. In radian face. The only unique direction that characterizes the rotational motion lies along
measure 0 = sir. The angular velocity the axis. We associate the (vector) angular velocity with the direction of the axis.
is defined to be w = dOldr. To be specific, we adopt a right-hand rule such that when the fingers of the right
hand curve in the sense of the rotation, the thumb points in the direction of w, as
w shown in Fig. 11.3. In situations that do not involve the full vector nature of
t
angular velocity, it is often convenient to refer to the sense of rotation instead of
the direction of the vector. On this basis a counterclockwise rotation, seen by
ep looking down the z axis in Fig. 11.3, may be taken as positive, and a clockwise
rotation as negative.
I The period T is the time for one revolution and the frequency f is the number
" of revolutions per second (rev/s). The relation between period and frequency is
f = 1IT. If the angular velocity is constant, the instantaneous and average values
are equal. In one revolution the body rotates through 217 rad, and so from Eq. 11.2
we have
217
W = T = 217f (11.4)
FIGURE 11.3 The direction of the
(vector) angular velocity w is given by Note that a frequency f= 1 rev/s corresponds to w = 217 rad/s. We may relate the
the right-hand rule. In this chapter only linear speed of a particle v = ds Idt to the angular velocity w by using Eq. 11.1.
the sense of rotation will be Since w = dOldt = (ds/dt)(llr), we have
considered.
v = wr (11.5)
Although all particles have the same angular velocity, their speeds increase lin-
early with distance from the axis of rotation.
When the angular velocity changes, the average angular acceleration is de-
fined as
/lw
Angular acceleration
tJ.t
f w
Wo
dw = (t a dt
Jo
to find
w - Wo = at (11. 7)
Next we use this result in Eq. 11.3, dO = w dt = (wo + at)dt, and again integrate
f dO
6
60
= (r
Jo
W dt
These equations for rotational kinematics for constant angular acceleration are
identical in form to the equations of linear kinematics. Both sets of equations are
displayed in Table 11.1 to emphasize the analogies between the various quantities.
v = Vo + at w = Wo + at
x = Xo + vot + !at2 o = 00 + wot + !at2
v2 = v6 + 2a(x - xo) w2 = w6 + 2a(0 - ( 0)
(11.10)
If there is angular acceleration, the linear speed v of each particle also changes.
We can find the tangential (linear) acceleration at = dv/dt by taking the time
derivative of Eq. 11.5:
01.11)
The net linear acceleration is a = a r + at. As Fig. 11.4 shows, the two contribu-
tions are perpendicular, so the magnitude of the linear acceleration is
a = Ya r2 + a 2 t
Note that the terms "linear speed" and "linear acceleration" do not necessarily
mean that the particle is traveling in a straight line.
FIGURE 11.4 When a body undergoes angular acceleration, the linear acceleration of each particle
has radial and tangential components.
214 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
For future reference let us establish the following: The angular velocity of a
rotating body is the same relative to any point on it. Consider two points A and B
on a rotating body, as in Fig. 11.5. In a given time interval, relative to A, the line
AB rotates counterclockwise through the angle !i() to AB' (Fig. 11.5a). Relative to
B, the line BA turns counterclockwise through!i() to BA' (Fig. 11.5b). The angular
displacement, and hence also the angular velocity, is the same about A and B, or
(a) (b)
about any other point on the body.
FIGURE Il.S The angular velocity of
a body rotating about an axis fixed in
direction is the same about any point Rolling
on the body.
A common example of rotation is that of a ball or wheel rolling on a surface.
Figure 11.6 shows a wheel of radius R rolling without slipping. In one revolution it
covers a distance equal to its circumference and takes a time equal to one period
T. Thus, the speed of the center is V c = (2nR)/T = wR, where w is the angular
velocity of the wheel. From Eq. 11.5 this is equal to the tangential speed Vt of a
point on the rim relative to the center:
Vc = Vt = wR (11.12)
Rolling is a combination of translation of the center and rotation about the
center. The velocity of any point on the rim is the vector sum v = Vc + Vt. At the
top of the wheel these two velocities are in the same direction, so v = 2wR, as
shown in Fig. 11.7a. At the bottom, they are in opposite directions, so v = O.
Since the wheel does not slip, the point of contact with the surface is instanta-
neously at rest and the wheel momentarily rotates about this point: The particles
appear to describe circular paths with angular velocity w about P as the center, as
indicated in Fig. 11. 7b. The increase in speed with distance from the point of
contact is easily seen in the spokes of a bicycle wheel: The ends of the spokes near
the road are fairly distinct, whereas those at the top are blurred.
GG
FIGURE 1l.6 When a wheel of radius
(a)
P
(b)
EXAMPLE 11.1: A flywheel of radius 20 em starts from rest, Solution: (a) The tangential acceleration is constant and given
and has a constant angular acceleration of 60 rad/s 2 • Find: (a) by
the magnitude of the net linear acceleration of a point on the at = exr = (60 rad/s 2 )(0.2 m) = 12 m/s 2
rim after 0.15 s; (b) the number of revolutions completed in
0.25 s. In order to calculate the radial acceleration we first need to find
11.2 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 215
the angular velocity at the given time. From Eq. 11.7 we have
W = Wo + at = 0 + (60 rad/s 2)(0.15 s) = 9 rad/s
Then using Eq. 11.l0, we have
ar = w 2r = (81 rad 2/s 2)(0.2 m) = 16.2 m/s 2
The magnitude of the net linear acceleration is
a = Va; + = 20.2 m/s 2
(b) From Eq. 11.9, FIGURE 11.8 The dot product of the position and velocity vectors
o = tat2 = rad/s 2)(0.25 S)2 = 1.88 rad of point B on the rim of a wheel is zero, that is, fB • VB = O.
EXAMPLE 11.2: Show that the velocity of a point on the riIP Its velocity is
of a wheel that rolls without slipping is perpendicular to the line
joining it to the point of contact.
VB = Vc + VI = vi + (v cos Oi - v sin OJ)
The dot product fB • VB = O. (Check this.) Since neither rB nor VB
Solution: From Fig. 11.8 we see that the position vector of
is zero, we conclude that these vectors are perpendicular. This
point B with respect to the point of contact P is
confirms that the point of contact acts as an instantaneous cen-
fB = R sin Oi + (R + R cos O)j ter of rotation.
w
11.2 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA
Figure 11.9 shows a rigid body of arbitrary shape rotating about an axis fixed both
in position and in direction. The body consists of point particles of mass m; at
distances r; from the axis. Note that the r; are the perpendicular distances to the
axis, not the distances from an origin. The kinetic energy ofthe ith particle is K; =
!m;vf. Since all the particles have the same angular velocity Vi = wr;, we have K i =
!m;rfw2. The total kinetic energy
K = 2:.K; = t2:. m;rfw2
may be written in the form FIGURE 11.9 A rigid body rotating
(I I. 13) about a fixed axis. The kinetic energy
of the ith particle is K; = im;vf =
where tm ir fw 2 •
each case the axis of rotation is indicated. The radii of the disk and the ring are the
same. In the case of the cylinder, all its particles are close to the axis, so the ri are
I small. In comparison, the particles of the disk are spread out to larger distances
! I from the axis. Without any calculation we may conclude that lA < lB. Whereas the
mass of the disk is uniformly spread out, all the particles of the ring are at the
maximum possible distance from the axis. Consequently, lB < Ie.
To get a feel for the concept of moment of inertia, hold a hammer at the end of
i i i the handle with one hand. Using just your wrist, swing it back and forth as shown
ABC
in Fig. tt.lla. You will experience the resistance of the hammer to the angular
FIGURE 11.10 A cylinder, a disk, and acceleration needed to produce the given motion. The moment of inertia is large
a ring with the same mass. The since the majority of particles (at the head) are far from the axis (your wrist). You
moments of inertia about the central
axis depend on how the mass is will find it easier to repeat the motion when you hold the head of the hammer, as in
distributed relative to the axis: Ie > Fig. tl.llb. In this case the moment of inertia is small since the majority of
I B >I A• particles are close to the axis.
FIGURE 11.11 The moment of inertia of a hammer about an axis through the end of the handle, as
in (a), is larger than the moment of inertia about an axis through the head, as in (b).
EXAMPLE 11.3: Many molecules have a simple diatomic, EXAMPLE 11.4: Four point masses lie at the corners of a
dumbbell-like structure. Let us find the moments of inertia rectangle with sides of length 3 m and 4 m, as shown in Fig.
about four axes. We treat the bodies as point particles with 11.13. Find the moment of inertia about each of the diagonals.
masses m, = 3 kg and m2 = 5 kg. Take d l = 1 m and d2 = 2 min Take M = I kg.
Fig. 11.12.
B A c
I I I
eDeD
I I
cD
I
()''''. 4m
i i i , .. /
\\ /0-
. ,,
Ai ,
'»./'
,/
\
mlYdl i d2 m2
./.
i i j
i i I /' M 2M
,/'
FIGURE 11.12 If the spheres are treated as point particles, the
moment of inertia about axis D is zero. FIGURE 11.13 In finding the moment of inertia one must use the
perpendicular distance of each mass from the axis.
Solution:
Axis A: I A = mIdi + = (3 kg)(l m)2 + (5 kg)(2 m)2
Solution: For each mass we need its perpendicular distance
= 23 kg'm 2 from the axis. For each axis, two masses do not contribute to
Axis B: I B = m.(O) + m2(d l + d 2)2 = 45 kg'm 2 the moment of inertia. The other two are at the same distance
Axis C: Ie = ml(d, + d 2)2 + m2(O) = 27 kg'm 2 3 sin 53° = 2.4 m.
Axis D: I D = 0 I A = (4 kg)(2.4 m)2 + (2 kg)(2.4 m)2 = 34.6 kg'm 2
I D is zero because we treated the masses as point particles. I B = (l kg)(2.4 m)2 + (3 kg)(2.4 m)2 = 23.0 kg'm 2
11.3 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF CONTINUOUS BODIES 217
Figure 11.14 shows a rigid body rotating with angular velocity w about an axis
that is located at a perpendicular distance h from the CM. From Eq. 10.8 we know
that the kinetic energy of the body has two terms, K = K CM + K rel • The first term,
K CM ' is the kinetic energy associated with the motion of the CM, and K rel is the
kinetic energy of motion relative to the CM. In Section 11.1 it was shown that the
angular velocity of a rotating body is the same about any point on it. In particular,
although the body is rotating about 0, the angular velocity about the CM is also w. FIGURE 11.14 The moment of inertia
Therefore, the total kinetic"energy of a body rotating about an axis fixed in direc- [ of a body rotating about an axis at 0
tion is is related to the moment of inertia [CM
about a parallel axis passing through
K = K CM + K rel the center of mass, [ = [CM + Mh 2 ,
where h is the distance between the
or parallel axes.
(11.15)
From Eq. 11.5, VCM = wh, and so K CM = The total kinetic energy
becomes K = + Mh 2)w 2. This may be expressed as K = where
1= I CM + Mh 2 (11.16) Parallel axis theorem
This relationship, called the parallel axis theorem, relates the moment of inertia I
about any axis to the moment of inertia I CM about a parallel axis through the CM.
This result is very helpful since it is often easier to evaluate the moment of inertia
about the CM.
EXAMPLE 11.5: Find the moment of inertia of a thin rod of inertia of the mass element that is at a distance x from the axis is
mass M and length L about an axis at one end and perpendicular dl = r 2 dm = X 2(A dx). For the entire rod the moment of inertia
to the rod, as shown in Fig. 11.16. is
cp dx
Since M = AL,
i Ie ML2
i x ,[ (Rod) lEND = -3- (ll.l8)
i
i
L .1 EXERCISE I. What is the moment of inertia of a thin rod about
an axis through its eM and perpendicular to the rod?
FIGURE 11.16 The rod rotate about an axi' through one end.
EXAMPLE 11.6 Find the moment of inertia of a circular disk
or solid cylinder of radius R about the following axes: (a)
Solution: The mass of an element of length dx is dm = A dx, through the center and perpendicular to the flat surface; (b) at
where A = M /L is the linear mass density. The moment of the rim and perpendicular to the flat surface.
218 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
Solution: (a) Figure 11.17 a shows that the appropriate mass = Ip-rr[R4 x - 2.R2 x 3 + lxs]R
2 3 S 0
element is a circular ring of radius r and width dr. Its area is
dA = 2-rrrdr and its mass is dm = adA, where a = MIA is the = fsp-rrRs
areal mass density. The moment of inertia of this element is The total mass of the sphere is M = so the moment of
dI = r 2 dm = 2-rrar 3 dr inertia may be written as
For the whole bouy, (Solid sphere) (11.20a)
EXAMPLE 11.7:
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere of mass M
and radius R about a diameter. FIGURE 11.18 A uniform sphere rotating about a diameter.
EXAMPLE 11.8: A solid sphere and a disk are released from Solution: If we set the gravitational potential energy Ug = 0 at
the same point on an incline, as shown in Fig. 11.19. Given that the bottom of the incline, the initial energy is purely potential,
they roll without slipping, which has the greater speed at the and the final energy is purely kinetic:
bottom? Ignore dissipative effects.
11.5 TORQUE 219
E j = MgH spring unextended, find the speed of the block after it falls I m.
Treat the pulley as a disk, so I =
Er = + 4IcM w 2
When we set E r = E j and use VCM = wR, we find
= 2MgH k
M + I cM IR2
FIG URE 11.20 When the hanging weight falls, the rotational
kinetic energy of the pulley must be included.
Solution: Since the rim of the pulley moves at the same speed
as the block, the speed of the block and the angular velocity of
FIGURE II.l9 The rolling sphere has both translational and
rotational kinetic energy. the pulley are related by v = wR. When the block falls by a
distance x, its potential energy decreases (tiUg = -mgx); the
potential energy of the pring increase (tiUsp = + 4kx 2 ), and
both the block and the pulley gain kinetic energy (LlK = +
Since Isphere = and hsk = 4MR2, we find Vsphere = YlOgHI7 lJil). From the conservation of mechanical energy, LlK +
and Vdisk = Y 4gH13. Notice that the mass M and radius R do not LlU = 0, we have
appear in the final expressions for the speed. Since 1f a sphere
is faster than a disk. The object with the smaller moment of
inertia is faster; a lower fraction of its energy is rotational en- 4mv 2 + + 4kx 2 - mgx = 0
ergy.
t (m + ¥)v 2 + tkx2 - mgx = 0
EXAMPLE 11.9: A block of mass m = 4 kg is attached to a
spring (k = 32 N/m) by a rope that hangs over a pulley of mass Notice that R was not needed. Using the given values we find
M = 8 kg; see Fig. 11.20. If the system starts from rest with the v = 2.4 m/s.
11.5 TORQUE
We now turn our attention to rotational dynamics. When Newton's second law is
applied to the rotational motion of a body, the analysis is greatly simplified by the
introduction of a quantity called torque. As we will see, torque is the rotational
analog of force: Force causes linear acceleration; torque causes angular accelera-
tion.
In order to lift a stone by using a lever, as shown in Fig. 11.21, a force is FIGURl: 11.21 The effectiveness of
the force F in lifting the stone depends
required. The effectiveness of the force depends both on its direction and where it on its direction and its point of
is applied relative to the pivot point. The "turning ability" of a force about an axis application.
or pivot is called its to'que. Figure 11.22 shows two unequal weights hanging on
either side of a balanced rod. The forces act at distances '1 and '2 from the pivot.
Archimedes (ca. 250 B.C.) saw that the condition for the rod to be balanced is
'2/'1 = FJIF 2 , or
The product, F is the torque of the force F about the pivot. Clearly, the torque
increases linearly with distance from the pivot.
l
F)
l
F2
Leonardo da Vinci extended this concept of torque to cases in which the force FIGURE 11.22 The rod is balanced
does not act perpendicular to the lever. In Fig. 11.23 a force is used to turn a rod when r,F = rzFz .
1
220 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
F
t /F
...... 0\;7
/
,,// /
//
+'
V
/
/
/
/
pivoted at one end. The component of the force parallel to the rod merely pulls at
the pivot, so only the perpendicular component contributes to the turning effect.
Thus, the torque is rF 1.' Da Vinci pointed out that one could also consider the
Lever arm force as acting at the effective distance r1., called the lever arm. The lever arm is
the perpendicular distance from the origin (pivot or axis) to the line of action of the
force-which is obtained by extending its arrow either forward or backward. The
torque is also r1.F. From the figure we see that r1. = r sin () and F 1. = F sin (), so the
two expressions, r1.F and rF1., are equivalent:
T = r = (11.21)
Torque The torque of a force F that acts at a distance r from the origin is defined to be
T = rF sin () (11.22)
where (J is the angle between the vectors rand F. The SI unit of torque is N·m.
Although this has the same dimensions as energy, these two concepts are unre-
lated. We will see in Chapter 12 that whereas energy is a scalar, torque is a vector.
Since this chapter is restricted to the special case of a rigid body rotating
about a fixed axis, we may postpone having to deal with the full vector nature of
torque. Instead, we specify its sense rather than its proper direction. We may
adopt the convention that a torque tending to produce a counterclockwise rotation
is positive, as indicated by the circular arc and plus sign in Fig. 11.23. In any case,
the choice must be consistent with the convention chosen for angular velocity.
EXAMPLE 11.10: Three forces, F I ,F2, and F 3, act on a rod at Figure 11.24b illustrates the use of T = , l.F for F I and 7 = ,Fl.
distances rl , 1'2, and r3 from the pivoted end, as shown in Fig. for F 2 and F 3 • In any problem, you may use whatever combina-
11.24a. Find the torque due to each force about the pivot. tion of the expressions for T you find convenient.
Solution: The sign convention for torque is indicated in Fig. 71 = - ' I F I sin (90° + 0) = - ' I FI cos ()
11.24a. The sign of each torque is determined by considering 72 = +'2F2 sin (180° - a) = +'2F2 sin a
which way the rod would rotate if the given force were the only 73 = +'3F3 sin (90° - cP) = +'3F3 cos cP
one acting. We may apply the expression 7 = rF sin () directly to
Fig. l1.24a. Notice, however, that the given angles are not EXERCISE 2. A horizontal force F4 acts toward the right at a
necessarily the angle () between rand F required in Eq. 11.22. distance '4 from the pivot. What is its torque?
11.6 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS OF A RIGID BODY (FIXED AXIS) 221
(b)
FIGURE 11.24 (a) Three forces, F F 2 , and F J , acting on a rod at distances r1' r2' and rJ,
1
,
respectively. (b) The lever arm r has been used to find TI, whereas the components of F2 and FJ
perpendicular to the rod have been used to find T2 and TJ.
207T rad/s, and we have where we have used I = for a disk. Since the block and
the rim of the pulley have the same speed (the string does not
o= (207T rad/s)2 + 2( -12.5 rad/s 2)M
slip), we have v = wR and a = aR. Using this in (ii) we find
Thus, tif) = 167T 2 rad. The number of revolutions is (l67T 2 rad)(l
T = tMa (iii)
rev/27T rad) = 87T revolutions.
Adding (i) and (iii) leads to
mg
a = m + M/2
= 5 m/s 2 (iv)
where we have used g = 10 N /kg.
(a) To find w after 3 s, we use Eq. 11.7
w = Wo + at = 0 + = 30 rad/s
FIGURE 11.26 A wheel is slowed down by the application of (b) To find the speed of the block we use
force F. With the chosen positive sense, the frictional torque is
v2 = V5 + 2atiy = 0 + 2(5 m/s 2)(1.6 m)
negative.
Thus, v = 4 m/s.
EXERCISE 3. Repeat part (b) of Example 11.12 by using the
EXAMPLE 11.12: A disk-shaped pulley has mass M = 4 kg conservation of energy. Use g = 10 N /kg.
and radius R = 0.5 m. It rotates freely on a horizontal axis, as in
Fig. 11.27. A block of mass m = 2 kg hangs by a string that is
EXAMPLE 11.13: Figure 11.28 shows a sphere of mass M and
tightly wrapped around the pulley. (a) What is the angular ve-
radius R that rolls without slipping down an incline. Its moment
locity of the pulley 3 s after the block is released? (b) Find the
of inertia about a central axis is (a) Find the linear accel-
speed of the block after it has fallen 1.6 m. Assume the system eration of the CM. (b) What is the minimum coefficient offric-
starts at rest. tion required for the sphere to roll without slipping?
t
i
mg
-8
IIIg
Mg sin (J - f = Ma (i) We substitute (i) into (iii) and N 2 = mg - N] from (ii) into (iii) to
fR = la (ii) find
Since the sphere rolls without slipping, the speed of the center (iv)
is U = wR, which means a = aR. Using this and I = in (ii)
leads to When N I = 0, the inner wheel has lost contact with the road.
f= (iii) From (iv) we see that this will occur when
When (i) and (iii) are added, we find 2 grD
Urnax = 2H
a = tg sin (J (iv)
For speeds greater than this, the car will tend to overturn. The
(b) Substituting (iv) into (iii) yields
equation for Urnax shows that stability improves as the width D
f= 9M g sin (J (v) increases and as the CM height H decreases. With some typical
values, such as r = 50 m, D = 1.5 m, and H = 0.5 m, we find
We use (v) to find the minimum coefficient of friction required
Urnax = 27.5 m/s or 100 km/h.
for the sphere to roll without slipping. By definition, f = p.,N
where N = Mg cos (J. Combining this with (v) we have p., =
tan (J. If the coefficient of static friction is less than this value, EXAMPLE 11.15: A uniform rod of length L and mass Mis
the sphere will slip as it rolls down the incline. pivoted freely at one end. (a) What is the angular acceleration of
EXERCISE 4. Use (iv) to find the speed of the sphere after it
the rod when it is at angle (J to the vertical? (b) What is the
falls a vertical distance H, starting from rest. tangential linear acceleration of the free end when the rod is
horizontal? The moment of inertia of a rod about one end is
jML2.
EXAMPLE 11.14: A car goes around an unbanked curve of
radius r at speed u. Find the critical speed at which it tends to
overturn.
= I dw = I dw de = I dw
T dt de dt de w
P = TW = (125 N . m) (2; rad/s) = 260 W FIGURE 11.32 The motor must supply a torque TR to keep the
block rising at constant speed.
-u
-u
-
force of friction is in the forward direction. From the two forms
I' of the second law,
FIG URE 1l.34 A rolling wheel is slowed down by the torque due
to the vertical force N, which effectively acts at a point ahead of
the center.
z z
y y )'
x x x
x
y
x
Jl, y
z z z z
y y
tion may be specified relative to the x, y, and z axes with the That is, finite angular displacements do not obey the commuta-
right-hand rule. According to the right-hand rule, when the fin- tive property of vector addition and therefore are not vectors.
gers of the right hand curl in the sense of rotation, the thumb Now consider small rotations about the same axes. Figure
(held out as in hitch-hiking) indicates the direction. 11.38 suggests that in the limit of infinitesimal rotations, the
Consider a rotation of a book through a finite angle of -rr/2. final orientation of the book does not depend on the order in
The angle 01 involves a rotation about the z axis; (h is about the which the rotations occur. Thus,
x axis. Starting from a given initial orientation, Fig. 11.37 shows
that the final orientation of the book depends on whether the
dOl + dOz = dOz + dOl
rotation through 0 1 , or O2 , is performed first. One can express Infinitesimal rotations do obey the laws of vector addition and
this as therefore are vector quantities. Since the angular velocity is
defined as w = dOldt , where dt is a scalar quantity, w is also a
vector.
SUMMARY
The equations of rotational kinematics for constant angular acceleration are
w = Wo + at
(J = (Jo + wot -J- 1a t 2
w2 = -J- 2a((;J - (;Jo)
where [eM is the moment of inertia about an axis through the eM.
The torque exerted by a force F that acts at a distance r from the origin is
T = rF sin e
= rFl- = r1- F
where e is the angle between the vectors rand F. The quantity F 1- is the compo-
nent of the force perpendicular to the vector r. The quantity r1-, called the lever
arm, is the perpendicular distance from the origin to the line of action of the force.
When a torque T acts on a rigid body that is free to rotate about afixed axis,
the angular acceleration is determined by Newton's second law for rotation:
(Fixed axis) T = la
where [ is the moment of inertia about the given axis.
When a torque T acts on a body rotating at angular velocity w the power
delivered is TABLE 11.2
Translation Rotation
P = TW
K=.!.mv
2
2
K=.!.[ar
2
Table 11.2 displays the similarities in the forms of the equations for translational F= rna T = lOt
and rotational motion. P = Fv P = TW
QUESTIONS
1. True or false: A quick way of computing the moment of 2. (a) How can one tell the difference between a hard-boiled
inertia of a body is to consider its mass as being concen- egg and a raw egg by trying to spin them? (b) After they are
trated at the center of mass. spinning, explain what happens if each is stopped for an
228 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
instant and then released. converted to rotational motion of the crankshaft. There is a
3. A straight uniform rod tumbles from a vertical position on a large flywheel in the linkage between the crankshaft and the
frictionless surface. What is the path of the CM? transmission. What purpose does it serve?
4. The book in Fig. 11.39 has the same shape as this text. 11. About what axis is the moment of inertia of a person (a) the
About which axis is the moment of inertia (a) the largest; greatest? (b) the least? Are your answers subject to condi-
(b) the smallest? tions?
U. The angular velocity of a bicycle wheel points north while
its angular acceleration points south. (a) In which direction
is the bicycle moving? (b) Is it speeding up or slowing
down?
13. A spool of thread is pulled in opposite directions by equal
and opposite forces as shown in Fig. 11.41. Does the spool
----e-'---
B
move? If so, in which direction? (The surface is rough.)
./
:;j
/A
FIGURE 11.39 Question 4.
tI
EXERCISES
the angular acceleration; (b) the number of revolutions
11.1 Rotational Kinematics
completed in 5 s; (c) the time needed to complete 2 revolu-
1. (I) A 12-in. (30-cm) diameter turntable starts from rest and tions; (d) the radial and tangential accelerations of a point
takes 2 s to reach its final rotation rate of 331 rpm. Find: (a) on the rim at 1 s. (e) Repeat (d) at 3 s.
EXERCISES 229
2. (I) A 12-in. (30-cm) diameter LP rotates at 45 rpm and plays does the car move before stopping? There is no slipping and
for 20 min. Find: (a) the speed of a point at the beginning the acceleration is constant.
when r = 14.5 cm; (b) the speed of a point at the end when 15. (I) A car with tires of radius 25 cm comes to a stop from 100
r = 6.2 cm; (c) the radial velocity of the needle; (d) the kmlh in 50 m without any slipping of the tires. Find: (a) the
average width of the groove. angular acceleration of the wheels; (b) the number of revo-
3. (I) The earth spins in the same sense as it orbits around the lutions made while coming to rest.
sun. Find: (a) the earth's spin angular velocity about its 16. (II) A car with tires of radius 25 cm accelerates from rest to
internal axis; (b) its orbital angular velocity about the sun; 30 mls in 10 s. When the car's speed is 2 m/s find the linear
(c) the linear speed of points closest to and farthest from the acceleration of the top of the wheel relative to (a) the center
sun, measured relative to the sun. (Assume that the two of the wheel, (b) the road.
axes of rotation are parallel.)
17. (I) A wheel makes 40 revolutions in 5 s and rotates at 100
4. (I) Find the linear speed of the following points relative to rpm at the end of this period. What was the angular acceler-
the earth's center: (a) Quito, Ecuador (roughly) at the equa- ation-assumed to be constant?
tor; (b) New York City, at latitude 41°. Take the radius of
18. (I) A circular saw of diameter 18 cm starts from rest and
the earth to be 6370 km.
reaches 5300 rpm in 1.5 s. (a) What is its angular accelera-
5. (I) The angular position of a line on a disk of radius r = 6 cm tion? (b) What are the radial and tangential accelerations of
is given by () = 10 - 5t + 4t2 rad. Find: (a) the average a point on the rim at Is?
angular speed between I and 3 s; (b) the linear speed of a
19. (I) Find the magnitude of the linear acceleration of an astro-
point on the rim at 2 s; (c) the radial and tangential accelera-
naut in (a) a centrifuge of radius 15 m (Fig. 11.43a) that has
tions of a point on the rim at 2 s.
an angular velocity of 1.2 rad/s and an angular acceleration
6. (I) A particle moves in a circle of radius r with angular of 0.8 rad/s 2; (b) in a doughnut-shaped space station (Fig.
velocity wand angular acceleration 0'. Show that the total 11.43b) of radius 1.0 km that rotates at a constant 0.5 rpm.
linear acceleration is a = r(w 4 + 0'2) 1/2.
7. (I) At t = 0 a flywheel is rotating at 50 rpm. A motor gives it
a constant acceleration of 0.5 rad/s 2 until it reaches 100
rpm. The motor is then disconnected. How many revolu-
tions are completed at t = 20 s?
8. (I) A car with tires of radius 30 cm starts at rest and reaches
108 km/h in 10 s. (a) What is the angular acceleration of the
wheels? (b) How many revolutions do they make? (There is
no slipping.) (c) What is the radial acceleration relative to
the center of a point on the rim when the speed is 108 km/h?
9. (I) A bullet travels through the 60-cm barrel of a Winchester
rifle at 850 mls. A protrusion within the barrel follows a
spiral path. It cuts a groove in the bullet and forces it to
rotate. The "rifling" involves one turn in 25 em. What is
the rate of spin of the emerging bullet in rpm?
10. (I) A clock has a second hand of length 8 em. Find (a) the
angular speed, and (b) the linear speed of the tip.
11. (I) Magnetic tape moves at a constant 4.8 cm/s in a cas-
sette. What is the angular speed of the takeup spool when it
is (a) empty, with radius r = 0.75 em, and (b) full, with r =
I. 75 em? (c) What is the average angular acceleration with
a 86.4 m tape?
12. (I) The angular position of a rotating object is given by () =
2t - 5t2 + 2t4 rad. Find: (a) the angular acceleration at I s;
(b) the average angular acceleration between I and 2 s; (c)
the average angular speed between I and 2 s.
13. (I) The wheel of a car has a radius of 20 em. It initially
rotates at 120 rpm. In the next minute it makes 90 revolu-
tions. (a) What is angular acceleration? (b) How much
further does the car travel before coming to rest? There is
no slipping.
14. (I) A car has wheels of radius 25 em. The rate of rotation
drops from 1250 rpm to 500 rpm in 25 s. How much further FIGURE 11.43 Exercise 19.
230 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
20. (I) A wheel starts from rest and accelerates uniformly. As 27. (II) Find the moments of inertia of the following shapes,
the rate of rotation changes from 20 to 50 rpm the wheel made from the same thin wire, about a central axis perpen-
makes 40 revolutions. Find: (a) the angular acceleration; (b) dicular to the plane of the figure: (a) a circle of diameter 2a;
the number of revolutions completed by the time the wheel (b) a square of side 2a; (c) an equilateral triangle of side 2a.
reaches 20 rpm. The mass per unit length of the wire is A.
21. (I) The platter in a belt drive turntable is driven by a belt 28. (II) Repeat Exercise 27 with the same dimensions but now
that wraps around a hub, of radius 3 cm, below the platter take the masses to be identical. (Wires of different densities
and around the shaft of the motor. If the platter rotates at could be used.)
rpm and the motor rotates at 60 rpm, what is the re- 29. (II) Two solid spheres of mass m and radius R are stuck to
quired radius of the shaft? the ends of a thin rod of mass m and length 3R. Find the
11.2 and 11.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy; Moment of Inertia moment of inertia of the system about the axis at the mid-
point of the rod and perpendicular to it, as shown in Fig.
22. (I) Four particles in the xy plane have the following masses 11.46.
and coordinates: 1 kg at (3 m, 1 m); 2 kg at (- 2 m, 2 m); 3 kg 3R
at (l m, -1 m); and 4 kg at (-2 m, -1 m). Find the total
moment of inertia about (a) the x axis, (b) the y axis, and (c)
the z axis.
23. (I) Four particles with equal masses M are connected by
rods whose mass can be neglected. Find the moment of
inertia, about the indicated axis, of the following: (a) the
cross in Fig. 11.44a, (b) the square in Fig. 11.44b. FIGURE 11.46 Exercise 29.
32. (II) A skater raises a leg at angle a to the vertical. By 38. (I) A large part of the energy supplied by gasoline to a car or
treating it as a straight rod of mass M and length L, as in bus is wasted during braking. Flywheels can store rota-
Fig. 11.49, find its moment of inertia about the vertical axis tional energy at such times, which can later be used to drive
passing through the top end. the vehicle. Figure 11.51 shows a flywheel-driven car. Sup-
pose a car is equipped with a IS-kg cylinder ofradius 0.2 m
that spins at 14,000 rpm. What is the kinetic energy of the
flywheel?
I
1
...... I
\.-------
FIGURE 11.49 Exercise 32.
35. (I) Use the perpendicular axis theorem (see Exercise 34) to
find the moment of inertia of a thin ring of radius Rand 40. (I) What is the kinetic energy of the earth associated with
mass M about a diameter. its daily rotation? Since the earth is not a uniform sphere,
36. (II). Consider a uniform thin rod of mass M and length L. its moment of inertia is I = 0.33MR2.
Show by integration that the moment of inertia about an 41. (I) A solid sphere and a disk of the same mass and radius
axis at a distance h (>L/2) from the center and perpendicu- roll up an incline. Find the ratio the heights, h s /hD , to
lar to the rod is which they rise if, at the bottom, they have the same (a)
kinetic energy, (b) speed.
42. (I) The propellor on an aircraft engine has four vanes, each
of length 1.0 m and mass 10 kg. The engine rotates at 3000
11.4 Conservation of Energy rpm while the plane flies at a constant 200 km/h. What is the
37. (I) A uniform rod of length L and mass M is pivoted freely total kinetic energy of the propellor? Treat the vanes as
about a horizontal axis at one end. It falls from a vertical uniform rods.
position. What is the speed of the tip when the rod is hori- 43. (II) A thin disk of mass M and radius R can rotate freely
zontal? about a pivot on its rim, as in Fig. 11.53. It is released when
232 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
its center is at the level of the pivot. What is the speed of to a piston in a steam chamber, Fig. 11.56. The compressed
the lowest point of the disk when the center is vertically steam applies at force of lOS N to the piston. What is the
below the pivot? torque on the wheel when the rod is in the position shown?
53'
- F
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
67. (I) Three forces, F 1 = 5 N, F z = 2 N, and F 3 = 6.6 N, act on
a plane body as shown in Fig. 11.65. What is the torque due
to each force about an axis at O?
F2
PROBLEMS
1. (I) A disk of radius B has a concentric hole of radius A
drilled through its center. The mass of the doughnut is M.
Find its moment of inertia about the axis through the center
of the disk perpendicular to its plane.
2. (II) A marble of radius r rolls without slipping down an
incline and then up along a vertical circular track of radius
R, as shown in Fig. 11.70. What is the minimum height H
from which the ball must start so that it barely stays in
contact at the top of the circle? Assume r« Hand r« R.
FIGURE 11.71 Problem 4.
9. (I) Find the moment of inertia of a hollow cone of mass M, sides of lengths a and b about a central axis perpendicular
height h and apex angle 2a about the central axis of symme- to its plane, as shown in Fig. 11.75. (The final result is not
try. (Hint: Use the distance from the apex along the surface restricted to a thin plate. Why not?)
as the variable.)
10. (I) At a given temperature the molecules in a gas have a CD
range of speeds which can be measured as follows. Sup- i
/ I
pose the molecules leave an oven at speed v. They pass I
through two disks which have slots in them. The slots are i
offset from each other by () degrees, as shown in Fig. 11.73. i
The disks rotate at N rpm and are separated by a distance
a i
D. Find an expression for the value of vat which the mole-
i
cules pass through both slits. FIGURE 11.75 Problem 13.