CHAPTER 11

Rotation of a Rigid Body about a

Fixed Axis

Major Points

1. The equations of rotational kinematics.

2. The definition of moment of inertia, which is a measure of resistance to
angular acceleration.
3. The rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body.
4. The definition of torque. The concept of a lever arm. Many rides at an amusement park
5. Newton's second law for rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis relates based on rotation about a fixed axis.
the net torque to the angular acceleration.

In previous chapters we were concerned only with translational motion. We now

broaden our interest to include the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis of
rotation. A rigid body is defined as an object that has fixed size and shape. In other
words, the relative positions of its constituent particles remain constant. Although
a perfectly rigid body does not exist, it is a useful idealization. By "fixed axis" we
mean that the axis must be fixed relative to the body and fixed in direction relative
to an inertial frame. When the axis of rotation is also fixed in position, for exam-
ple, by an axle, as in Fig. 1l.la, the body undergoes pure rotational motion: Ali
particles of the body move in circular paths centered on the axis of rotation. If the
axis is not fixed in positiorj, as is the case for a cylinder rolling down an incline
(Fig. 11.lb), then it passes through the center of mass. The discussion of general
rotation, in which both the position and the direction of the axis change, is quite
complex. The only such case we will -discuss is that of the gyroscope (spinning .I
top) in the next chapter.

11.1 ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS

Figure 11.2 shows a body rotating about a fixed axis at O. In a given time interval
all the particles on line OA move to corresponding positions on OB. Although the
particles of the body have different linear displacements, they all have the same
angular displacement. From the definition of a radian (arc length/radius) we know FIGURE 11.1 (a) The axis of rotation
is fixed in position and in direction. (b)
() = sir (1l.1) The axis is fixed only in direction.
212 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

The average angular velocity of the body for a finite time interval is defined as
flO Or - OJ
w =-=--- (II. 2)
av !J. t tr - t,

The unit of angular velocity is rad/s. The instantaneous angular velocity, w, tS

defined as

w = lim = dO (11.3)
.1hO !J.t dt
The angular velocity is the rate of change of the angular position 0 with respect to
time. We will see later that it is a vector quantity.
FIGURE 11.2 When a body rotates
about an axis fixed at 0, each particle Figure 11.3 shows a disk rotating about an axis perpendicular to its flat sur-
travels in a circular path. In radian face. The only unique direction that characterizes the rotational motion lies along
measure 0 = sir. The angular velocity the axis. We associate the (vector) angular velocity with the direction of the axis.
is defined to be w = dOldr. To be specific, we adopt a right-hand rule such that when the fingers of the right
hand curve in the sense of the rotation, the thumb points in the direction of w, as
w shown in Fig. 11.3. In situations that do not involve the full vector nature of

t
angular velocity, it is often convenient to refer to the sense of rotation instead of
the direction of the vector. On this basis a counterclockwise rotation, seen by
ep looking down the z axis in Fig. 11.3, may be taken as positive, and a clockwise
rotation as negative.
I The period T is the time for one revolution and the frequency f is the number
" of revolutions per second (rev/s). The relation between period and frequency is
f = 1IT. If the angular velocity is constant, the instantaneous and average values
are equal. In one revolution the body rotates through 217 rad, and so from Eq. 11.2
we have
217
W = T = 217f (11.4)
FIGURE 11.3 The direction of the
(vector) angular velocity w is given by Note that a frequency f= 1 rev/s corresponds to w = 217 rad/s. We may relate the
the right-hand rule. In this chapter only linear speed of a particle v = ds Idt to the angular velocity w by using Eq. 11.1.
the sense of rotation will be Since w = dOldt = (ds/dt)(llr), we have
considered.
v = wr (11.5)
Although all particles have the same angular velocity, their speeds increase lin-
early with distance from the axis of rotation.
When the angular velocity changes, the average angular acceleration is de-
fined as
/lw
Angular acceleration
tJ.t

and the instantaneous angular acceleration as

dw
a = di (11.6)

Angular acceleration is a vector measured in rad/s 2 • For rotation about a fixed

axis, all the particles of a rigid body have the same angular velocity and angular
acceleration. When w increases, a is in the same sense (direction) as w. Since
virtually all our discussions in this chapter will involve fixed axes, we will not be
concerned with the true vector nature of w or a.
When the angular acceleration is constant, we can find the change in angular
velocity from Eq. 11.6. We rewrite it in the form dw = adt and integrate:
 11.1 ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS 213

f w
Wo
dw = (t a dt
Jo
to find
w - Wo = at (11. 7)
Next we use this result in Eq. 11.3, dO = w dt = (wo + at)dt, and again integrate

f dO
6
60
= (r
Jo
W dt

to find Equations of rotational kinematics

(11.8)
Finally, we can eliminate t by substituting t = (w - wo)/a from Eq. 11.7 into Eq.
11.8. After some algebra, we find
w2 = w6 + 2a(0 - ( 0 ) (11.9)

These equations for rotational kinematics for constant angular acceleration are
identical in form to the equations of linear kinematics. Both sets of equations are
displayed in Table 11.1 to emphasize the analogies between the various quantities.

TABLE 11.1 EQUATIONS OF KINEMATICS

v = Vo + at w = Wo + at
x = Xo + vot + !at2 o = 00 + wot + !at2
v2 = v6 + 2a(x - xo) w2 = w6 + 2a(0 - ( 0)

A particle moving in a circular path at speed v has a centripetal acceleration

ar = v2/r. In terms of w (see Eq. 11.5),

(11.10)

If there is angular acceleration, the linear speed v of each particle also changes.
We can find the tangential (linear) acceleration at = dv/dt by taking the time
derivative of Eq. 11.5:
01.11)
The net linear acceleration is a = a r + at. As Fig. 11.4 shows, the two contribu-
tions are perpendicular, so the magnitude of the linear acceleration is
a = Ya r2 + a 2 t

Note that the terms "linear speed" and "linear acceleration" do not necessarily
mean that the particle is traveling in a straight line.

FIGURE 11.4 When a body undergoes angular acceleration, the linear acceleration of each particle
has radial and tangential components.
214 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

For future reference let us establish the following: The angular velocity of a
rotating body is the same relative to any point on it. Consider two points A and B
on a rotating body, as in Fig. 11.5. In a given time interval, relative to A, the line
AB rotates counterclockwise through the angle !i() to AB' (Fig. 11.5a). Relative to
B, the line BA turns counterclockwise through!i() to BA' (Fig. 11.5b). The angular
displacement, and hence also the angular velocity, is the same about A and B, or
(a) (b)
about any other point on the body.
FIGURE Il.S The angular velocity of
a body rotating about an axis fixed in
direction is the same about any point Rolling
on the body.
A common example of rotation is that of a ball or wheel rolling on a surface.
Figure 11.6 shows a wheel of radius R rolling without slipping. In one revolution it
covers a distance equal to its circumference and takes a time equal to one period
T. Thus, the speed of the center is V c = (2nR)/T = wR, where w is the angular
velocity of the wheel. From Eq. 11.5 this is equal to the tangential speed Vt of a
point on the rim relative to the center:
Vc = Vt = wR (11.12)
Rolling is a combination of translation of the center and rotation about the
center. The velocity of any point on the rim is the vector sum v = Vc + Vt. At the
top of the wheel these two velocities are in the same direction, so v = 2wR, as
shown in Fig. 11.7a. At the bottom, they are in opposite directions, so v = O.
Since the wheel does not slip, the point of contact with the surface is instanta-
neously at rest and the wheel momentarily rotates about this point: The particles
appear to describe circular paths with angular velocity w about P as the center, as
indicated in Fig. 11. 7b. The increase in speed with distance from the point of
contact is easily seen in the spokes of a bicycle wheel: The ends of the spokes near
the road are fairly distinct, whereas those at the top are blurred.

What do you notice about the front

wheel?

GG
FIGURE 1l.6 When a wheel of radius
(a)
P
(b)

FIGURE 1l.7 When a wheel rolls without slipping

R rolls without slipping at angular
the point of contact with the floor is instantaneously
velocity w, the speed of its center is
at rest and acts as an instantaneous center of
Vc = wR.
rotation.

EXAMPLE 11.1: A flywheel of radius 20 em starts from rest, Solution: (a) The tangential acceleration is constant and given
and has a constant angular acceleration of 60 rad/s 2 • Find: (a) by
the magnitude of the net linear acceleration of a point on the at = exr = (60 rad/s 2 )(0.2 m) = 12 m/s 2
rim after 0.15 s; (b) the number of revolutions completed in
0.25 s. In order to calculate the radial acceleration we first need to find
 11.2 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 215

the angular velocity at the given time. From Eq. 11.7 we have
W = Wo + at = 0 + (60 rad/s 2)(0.15 s) = 9 rad/s
Then using Eq. 11.l0, we have
ar = w 2r = (81 rad 2/s 2)(0.2 m) = 16.2 m/s 2
The magnitude of the net linear acceleration is
a = Va; + = 20.2 m/s 2
(b) From Eq. 11.9, FIGURE 11.8 The dot product of the position and velocity vectors
o = tat2 = rad/s 2)(0.25 S)2 = 1.88 rad of point B on the rim of a wheel is zero, that is, fB • VB = O.

This corresponds to (1.88 rad)(1 rev/21T rad) = 0.3 rev.

EXAMPLE 11.2: Show that the velocity of a point on the riIP Its velocity is
of a wheel that rolls without slipping is perpendicular to the line
joining it to the point of contact.
VB = Vc + VI = vi + (v cos Oi - v sin OJ)
The dot product fB • VB = O. (Check this.) Since neither rB nor VB
Solution: From Fig. 11.8 we see that the position vector of
is zero, we conclude that these vectors are perpendicular. This
point B with respect to the point of contact P is
confirms that the point of contact acts as an instantaneous cen-
fB = R sin Oi + (R + R cos O)j ter of rotation.

w
11.2 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA
Figure 11.9 shows a rigid body of arbitrary shape rotating about an axis fixed both
in position and in direction. The body consists of point particles of mass m; at
distances r; from the axis. Note that the r; are the perpendicular distances to the
axis, not the distances from an origin. The kinetic energy ofthe ith particle is K; =
!m;vf. Since all the particles have the same angular velocity Vi = wr;, we have K i =
!m;rfw2. The total kinetic energy
K = 2:.K; = t2:. m;rfw2
may be written in the form FIGURE 11.9 A rigid body rotating
(I I. 13) about a fixed axis. The kinetic energy
of the ith particle is K; = im;vf =
where tm ir fw 2 •

I = "Ln1;r; (11 .14) Moment of inertia

I is called the moment of inertia of the body about the given axis. For rotation
about a fixed axis, it may be taken to be a scalar. The value of I depends on the
location of the axis, that is, on how the mass of the body is distributed relative to
the axis. Thus, a body does not possess a unique moment of inertia; different axes
through the body are associated with different moments of inertia.
When K = tlw 2 is compared with K = tmv 2, we see that moment of inertia is
analogous to mass. That is, I plays the same role in rotational motion that m plays
in translational motion.
The moment of inertia of a body is a measure of its rotational inertia, that is,
its resistance to change in its angular velocity.
Figure 11.10 shows a cylinder, a disk, and a thin ring, all of the same mass. In
216 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

each case the axis of rotation is indicated. The radii of the disk and the ring are the
same. In the case of the cylinder, all its particles are close to the axis, so the ri are
I small. In comparison, the particles of the disk are spread out to larger distances
! I from the axis. Without any calculation we may conclude that lA < lB. Whereas the
mass of the disk is uniformly spread out, all the particles of the ring are at the
maximum possible distance from the axis. Consequently, lB < Ie.
To get a feel for the concept of moment of inertia, hold a hammer at the end of
i i i the handle with one hand. Using just your wrist, swing it back and forth as shown
ABC
in Fig. tt.lla. You will experience the resistance of the hammer to the angular
FIGURE 11.10 A cylinder, a disk, and acceleration needed to produce the given motion. The moment of inertia is large
a ring with the same mass. The since the majority of particles (at the head) are far from the axis (your wrist). You
moments of inertia about the central
axis depend on how the mass is will find it easier to repeat the motion when you hold the head of the hammer, as in
distributed relative to the axis: Ie > Fig. tl.llb. In this case the moment of inertia is small since the majority of
I B >I A• particles are close to the axis.

FIGURE 11.11 The moment of inertia of a hammer about an axis through the end of the handle, as
in (a), is larger than the moment of inertia about an axis through the head, as in (b).

EXAMPLE 11.3: Many molecules have a simple diatomic, EXAMPLE 11.4: Four point masses lie at the corners of a
dumbbell-like structure. Let us find the moments of inertia rectangle with sides of length 3 m and 4 m, as shown in Fig.
about four axes. We treat the bodies as point particles with 11.13. Find the moment of inertia about each of the diagonals.
masses m, = 3 kg and m2 = 5 kg. Take d l = 1 m and d2 = 2 min Take M = I kg.
Fig. 11.12.

B A c
I I I
eDeD
I I
cD
I
()''''. 4m

i i i , .. /
\\ /0-
. ,,
Ai ,
'»./'
,/

\
mlYdl i d2 m2
./.
i i j
i i I /' M 2M
,/'
FIGURE 11.12 If the spheres are treated as point particles, the
moment of inertia about axis D is zero. FIGURE 11.13 In finding the moment of inertia one must use the
perpendicular distance of each mass from the axis.

Solution:
Axis A: I A = mIdi + = (3 kg)(l m)2 + (5 kg)(2 m)2
Solution: For each mass we need its perpendicular distance
= 23 kg'm 2 from the axis. For each axis, two masses do not contribute to
Axis B: I B = m.(O) + m2(d l + d 2)2 = 45 kg'm 2 the moment of inertia. The other two are at the same distance
Axis C: Ie = ml(d, + d 2)2 + m2(O) = 27 kg'm 2 3 sin 53° = 2.4 m.
Axis D: I D = 0 I A = (4 kg)(2.4 m)2 + (2 kg)(2.4 m)2 = 34.6 kg'm 2
I D is zero because we treated the masses as point particles. I B = (l kg)(2.4 m)2 + (3 kg)(2.4 m)2 = 23.0 kg'm 2
 11.3 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF CONTINUOUS BODIES 217

Figure 11.14 shows a rigid body rotating with angular velocity w about an axis
that is located at a perpendicular distance h from the CM. From Eq. 10.8 we know
that the kinetic energy of the body has two terms, K = K CM + K rel • The first term,
K CM ' is the kinetic energy associated with the motion of the CM, and K rel is the
kinetic energy of motion relative to the CM. In Section 11.1 it was shown that the
angular velocity of a rotating body is the same about any point on it. In particular,
although the body is rotating about 0, the angular velocity about the CM is also w. FIGURE 11.14 The moment of inertia
Therefore, the total kinetic"energy of a body rotating about an axis fixed in direc- [ of a body rotating about an axis at 0
tion is is related to the moment of inertia [CM
about a parallel axis passing through
K = K CM + K rel the center of mass, [ = [CM + Mh 2 ,
where h is the distance between the
or parallel axes.
(11.15)
From Eq. 11.5, VCM = wh, and so K CM = The total kinetic energy
becomes K = + Mh 2)w 2. This may be expressed as K = where
1= I CM + Mh 2 (11.16) Parallel axis theorem
This relationship, called the parallel axis theorem, relates the moment of inertia I
about any axis to the moment of inertia I CM about a parallel axis through the CM.
This result is very helpful since it is often easier to evaluate the moment of inertia
about the CM.

11.3 MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF CONTINUOUS BODIES

When the distribution of mass of a system of particles is continuous, the discrete
sum I = "Lmirt is replaced by an integral. We have to sum the contributions of
infinitesimal mass elements dm shown in Fig. 11.15, each of which contributes
dI = r 2 dm to the moment of inertia. The mass element should be chosen such that
all the particle" on it are at the same perpendicular distance from the axis. The
moment of inertia of the whole body takes the form
1= Jr 2
dm (11.17)
FIGURE 11.15 The mass element dm
Keep in mind that here the quantity r is the perpendicular distance to an axis, not contributes d[ = r 2dm to the moment
the distance to an origin. To evaluate this integral, we must express m in terms of of inertia of the system, where r is the
r. The following examples illustrate how this is done. perpendicular distance to the axis.

EXAMPLE 11.5: Find the moment of inertia of a thin rod of inertia of the mass element that is at a distance x from the axis is
mass M and length L about an axis at one end and perpendicular dl = r 2 dm = X 2(A dx). For the entire rod the moment of inertia
to the rod, as shown in Fig. 11.16. is

cp dx
Since M = AL,
i Ie ML2
i x ,[ (Rod) lEND = -3- (ll.l8)
i
i
L .1 EXERCISE I. What is the moment of inertia of a thin rod about
an axis through its eM and perpendicular to the rod?
FIGURE 11.16 The rod rotate about an axi' through one end.
EXAMPLE 11.6 Find the moment of inertia of a circular disk
or solid cylinder of radius R about the following axes: (a)
Solution: The mass of an element of length dx is dm = A dx, through the center and perpendicular to the flat surface; (b) at
where A = M /L is the linear mass density. The moment of the rim and perpendicular to the flat surface.
218 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Solution: The sphere may be divided into disks perpendicular

to the given axis, as in Fig. 11.18. The disk at a distance x from
the center of the sphere has a radius r = (R2 - X 2)1/2 and a
thickness dx. If p = MIV is the volume mass density (mass per
unit volume), the mass of this elemental disk is dm = p dV =
p-rrr 2 dx, or
dm = p-rr(R2 - x 2)dx
From Eq. 11.19 the moment of inertia of this elemental disk is
(a) (b) dI = tdm r 2 = tp-rr(R2 - X 2)2 dx
FIGURE 11.17 (a) A disk or cylinder rotates about the central The total moment of inertia is
axis perpendicular to the flat surfaces. (b) A disk or cylinder
rotates about an axis at its rim.

Solution: (a) Figure 11.17 a shows that the appropriate mass = Ip-rr[R4 x - 2.R2 x 3 + lxs]R
2 3 S 0
element is a circular ring of radius r and width dr. Its area is
dA = 2-rrrdr and its mass is dm = adA, where a = MIA is the = fsp-rrRs
areal mass density. The moment of inertia of this element is The total mass of the sphere is M = so the moment of
dI = r 2 dm = 2-rrar 3 dr inertia may be written as
For the whole bouy, (Solid sphere) (11.20a)

I = 2-rra f: r3dr = t-rraR4

This is the moment of inertia of a solid sphere about an axis
through its center. In Problem 6 you are asked to show that the
moment of inertia of a thin spherical shell, of mass M and radius
The mass of the whole disk or cylinder is M = aA = a-rrR2, and
so R, about an axis through its center is
(Disk or solid (Spherical Shell) (11.20b)
(11.19)
cylinder)
(b) The evaluation of the moment of inertia about an axis at the
rim, as in Fig. 11.17 b, by integration is difficult. The parallel
axis theorem, Eq. 11.16, with h = R, provides the answer with
remarkable simplicity:
I rim = I eM + Mh 2 = tMR 2 + MR2 =

EXAMPLE 11.7:
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere of mass M
and radius R about a diameter. FIGURE 11.18 A uniform sphere rotating about a diameter.

11.4 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

INCLUDING ROTATION
The principle of conservation of mechanical energy may be applied to problems in
rigid body rotation. From Eq. 11.15, we know that the total kinetic energy of a
body that rotates about an axis fixed in direction is
K = + !ICMw 2
For a body that rolls without slipping, Eq. 11.12 shows that VCM = wR.

EXAMPLE 11.8: A solid sphere and a disk are released from Solution: If we set the gravitational potential energy Ug = 0 at
the same point on an incline, as shown in Fig. 11.19. Given that the bottom of the incline, the initial energy is purely potential,
they roll without slipping, which has the greater speed at the and the final energy is purely kinetic:
bottom? Ignore dissipative effects.
 11.5 TORQUE 219

E j = MgH spring unextended, find the speed of the block after it falls I m.
Treat the pulley as a disk, so I =
Er = + 4IcM w 2
When we set E r = E j and use VCM = wR, we find

= 2MgH k
M + I cM IR2

FIG URE 11.20 When the hanging weight falls, the rotational
kinetic energy of the pulley must be included.

Solution: Since the rim of the pulley moves at the same speed
as the block, the speed of the block and the angular velocity of
FIGURE II.l9 The rolling sphere has both translational and
rotational kinetic energy. the pulley are related by v = wR. When the block falls by a
distance x, its potential energy decreases (tiUg = -mgx); the
potential energy of the pring increase (tiUsp = + 4kx 2 ), and
both the block and the pulley gain kinetic energy (LlK = +
Since Isphere = and hsk = 4MR2, we find Vsphere = YlOgHI7 lJil). From the conservation of mechanical energy, LlK +
and Vdisk = Y 4gH13. Notice that the mass M and radius R do not LlU = 0, we have
appear in the final expressions for the speed. Since 1f a sphere
is faster than a disk. The object with the smaller moment of
inertia is faster; a lower fraction of its energy is rotational en- 4mv 2 + + 4kx 2 - mgx = 0
ergy.
t (m + ¥)v 2 + tkx2 - mgx = 0
EXAMPLE 11.9: A block of mass m = 4 kg is attached to a
spring (k = 32 N/m) by a rope that hangs over a pulley of mass Notice that R was not needed. Using the given values we find
M = 8 kg; see Fig. 11.20. If the system starts from rest with the v = 2.4 m/s.

11.5 TORQUE
We now turn our attention to rotational dynamics. When Newton's second law is
applied to the rotational motion of a body, the analysis is greatly simplified by the
introduction of a quantity called torque. As we will see, torque is the rotational
analog of force: Force causes linear acceleration; torque causes angular accelera-
tion.
In order to lift a stone by using a lever, as shown in Fig. 11.21, a force is FIGURl: 11.21 The effectiveness of
the force F in lifting the stone depends
required. The effectiveness of the force depends both on its direction and where it on its direction and its point of
is applied relative to the pivot point. The "turning ability" of a force about an axis application.
or pivot is called its to'que. Figure 11.22 shows two unequal weights hanging on
either side of a balanced rod. The forces act at distances '1 and '2 from the pivot.
Archimedes (ca. 250 B.C.) saw that the condition for the rod to be balanced is
'2/'1 = FJIF 2 , or

The product, F is the torque of the force F about the pivot. Clearly, the torque
increases linearly with distance from the pivot.
l
F)
l
F2
Leonardo da Vinci extended this concept of torque to cases in which the force FIGURE 11.22 The rod is balanced
does not act perpendicular to the lever. In Fig. 11.23 a force is used to turn a rod when r,F = rzFz .
1
220 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

F
t /F
...... 0\;7
/

,,// /
//
+'
V
/
/
/
/

FIGURE 11.23 The magnitude of the torque exerted by the force

F is T = rF sin 9 where 9 is the angle between the vectors rand
F. One can also use the expressions T = rlF, where r l is the
lever arm, or T = rFl , where F l is the component of F
perpendicular to r.

pivoted at one end. The component of the force parallel to the rod merely pulls at
the pivot, so only the perpendicular component contributes to the turning effect.
Thus, the torque is rF 1.' Da Vinci pointed out that one could also consider the
Lever arm force as acting at the effective distance r1., called the lever arm. The lever arm is
the perpendicular distance from the origin (pivot or axis) to the line of action of the
force-which is obtained by extending its arrow either forward or backward. The
torque is also r1.F. From the figure we see that r1. = r sin () and F 1. = F sin (), so the
two expressions, r1.F and rF1., are equivalent:
T = r = (11.21)

Torque The torque of a force F that acts at a distance r from the origin is defined to be
T = rF sin () (11.22)

where (J is the angle between the vectors rand F. The SI unit of torque is N·m.
Although this has the same dimensions as energy, these two concepts are unre-
lated. We will see in Chapter 12 that whereas energy is a scalar, torque is a vector.
Since this chapter is restricted to the special case of a rigid body rotating
about a fixed axis, we may postpone having to deal with the full vector nature of
torque. Instead, we specify its sense rather than its proper direction. We may
adopt the convention that a torque tending to produce a counterclockwise rotation
is positive, as indicated by the circular arc and plus sign in Fig. 11.23. In any case,
the choice must be consistent with the convention chosen for angular velocity.

EXAMPLE 11.10: Three forces, F I ,F2, and F 3, act on a rod at Figure 11.24b illustrates the use of T = , l.F for F I and 7 = ,Fl.
distances rl , 1'2, and r3 from the pivoted end, as shown in Fig. for F 2 and F 3 • In any problem, you may use whatever combina-
11.24a. Find the torque due to each force about the pivot. tion of the expressions for T you find convenient.
Solution: The sign convention for torque is indicated in Fig. 71 = - ' I F I sin (90° + 0) = - ' I FI cos ()
11.24a. The sign of each torque is determined by considering 72 = +'2F2 sin (180° - a) = +'2F2 sin a
which way the rod would rotate if the given force were the only 73 = +'3F3 sin (90° - cP) = +'3F3 cos cP
one acting. We may apply the expression 7 = rF sin () directly to
Fig. l1.24a. Notice, however, that the given angles are not EXERCISE 2. A horizontal force F4 acts toward the right at a
necessarily the angle () between rand F required in Eq. 11.22. distance '4 from the pivot. What is its torque?
 11.6 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS OF A RIGID BODY (FIXED AXIS) 221

(b)

FIGURE 11.24 (a) Three forces, F F 2 , and F J , acting on a rod at distances r1' r2' and rJ,
1
,

respectively. (b) The lever arm r has been used to find TI, whereas the components of F2 and FJ
perpendicular to the rod have been used to find T2 and TJ.

11.6 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS OF A RIGID BODY (FIXED AXIS)

Figure 11.25 shows a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis, where F i is the net
external force on the ith particle of mass mi' Any component of Fi parallel to the
axis is counteracted by the reaction of the supports. For the same reason any
radial component is also balanced. Only the component Fit, tangential to the
circular path, will accelerate the particle. We may relate the linear acceleration of
the particle to the angular acceleration of the body with Eq. 11.11, at = ar. Thus,
the second law, F i = mai, becomes

The torque on the particle about the axis is

FIGURE 11.25 The ith particle on a

When we add the torques on all the particles, we find rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is
acted on by a force F j • The radial
(Rigid body, fixed axis) T = fa (11.23) component and the component parallel
to the axis are counteracted by the
where T = LTi is the net external torque on the body and f = Lmirf is the moment supports of the axle. Only the
of inertia about the given axis. component Fit tangential to the motion
Equation 11.23 has the same form as F = Ma. Thus, torque is the rotational can produce angular acceleration.
analog of force: Torque causes angular acceleration and force causes linear accel-
eration. Notice, however, that Eq. 11.23 is not a vector equation. We assert
without proof that it is valid in two situations:
(i) The axis is fixed in position and direction.
(ii) The axis passes through the CM and is fixed in direction only. The equation,
TCM = fcMacM, is valid even if the CM is accelerating.

EXAMPLE 11.11: A flywheel of mass M = 2 kg and radius

R = 40 cm rotates freely at 600 rpm. Its moment of inertia is
!MR2. A brake applies a force F = 10 N radially inward at the
edge as shown in Fig. 11.26. If the coefficient of friction is ILk =
0.5, how many revolutions does the wheel make before coming
To find the number of revolutions, we need the angular dis-
to rest?
placement, which can be found from
Solution: We choose the initial sense of the angular velocity as
positive. The force offriction isJ = ILkF and its (counterclock-
w2 = w6 + 2atifJ
wise) torque is T = -JR. From T = la, we have Since 600 rev is equivalent to 600 x 27T rad, we see that Wo =
222 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

207T rad/s, and we have where we have used I = for a disk. Since the block and
the rim of the pulley have the same speed (the string does not
o= (207T rad/s)2 + 2( -12.5 rad/s 2)M
slip), we have v = wR and a = aR. Using this in (ii) we find
Thus, tif) = 167T 2 rad. The number of revolutions is (l67T 2 rad)(l
T = tMa (iii)
rev/27T rad) = 87T revolutions.
Adding (i) and (iii) leads to
mg
a = m + M/2
= 5 m/s 2 (iv)
where we have used g = 10 N /kg.
(a) To find w after 3 s, we use Eq. 11.7

w = Wo + at = 0 + = 30 rad/s

FIGURE 11.26 A wheel is slowed down by the application of (b) To find the speed of the block we use
force F. With the chosen positive sense, the frictional torque is
v2 = V5 + 2atiy = 0 + 2(5 m/s 2)(1.6 m)
negative.
Thus, v = 4 m/s.
EXERCISE 3. Repeat part (b) of Example 11.12 by using the
EXAMPLE 11.12: A disk-shaped pulley has mass M = 4 kg conservation of energy. Use g = 10 N /kg.
and radius R = 0.5 m. It rotates freely on a horizontal axis, as in
Fig. 11.27. A block of mass m = 2 kg hangs by a string that is
EXAMPLE 11.13: Figure 11.28 shows a sphere of mass M and
tightly wrapped around the pulley. (a) What is the angular ve-
radius R that rolls without slipping down an incline. Its moment
locity of the pulley 3 s after the block is released? (b) Find the
of inertia about a central axis is (a) Find the linear accel-
speed of the block after it has fallen 1.6 m. Assume the system eration of the CM. (b) What is the minimum coefficient offric-
starts at rest. tion required for the sphere to roll without slipping?

t
i
mg
-8
IIIg

FIGURE 11.28 A sphere rolls down an incline. Since the sphere

FIGURE 11.27 The acceleration of the block is determined by
F = rna. The angular acceleration of the pulley is determined by is not "driven," the force of friction is directed up the incline.
T = la.

Solution: Since the sphere is not "driven" by a chain or an axle

Solution: This problem may be tackled by using either dy- the force offriction must be directed backward, up the slope. If
namics or energy conservation. We illustrate the former. The there is no slipping, the point of contact is instantaneously at
coordinate axes and the sign convention for the torque and rest and so the friction is static. (We ignore the effects of rolling
angular velocity are indicated in Fig. 11.27. Since the string is friction. This is equivalent to assuming that there are no energy
tangential to the pulley, the torque on it due to the tension is T = losses.)
TR. The two forms of Newton's second law for the block and (a) We apply the second law in the form F EXT = MaCM to
the pulley yield the translational motion of the CM and TCM = IcMacM to the
rotational motion about the CM. The coordinate axes and the
Block (F = ma) mg - T = ma (i) sign convention for torque are indicated in the figure. The sub-
Pulley (T = la) TR = (ii) script CM is dropped for simplicity.
 11.6 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS OF A RIGID BODY (FIXED AXIS) 223

Mg sin (J - f = Ma (i) We substitute (i) into (iii) and N 2 = mg - N] from (ii) into (iii) to
fR = la (ii) find
Since the sphere rolls without slipping, the speed of the center (iv)
is U = wR, which means a = aR. Using this and I = in (ii)
leads to When N I = 0, the inner wheel has lost contact with the road.
f= (iii) From (iv) we see that this will occur when
When (i) and (iii) are added, we find 2 grD
Urnax = 2H
a = tg sin (J (iv)
For speeds greater than this, the car will tend to overturn. The
(b) Substituting (iv) into (iii) yields
equation for Urnax shows that stability improves as the width D
f= 9M g sin (J (v) increases and as the CM height H decreases. With some typical
values, such as r = 50 m, D = 1.5 m, and H = 0.5 m, we find
We use (v) to find the minimum coefficient of friction required
Urnax = 27.5 m/s or 100 km/h.
for the sphere to roll without slipping. By definition, f = p.,N
where N = Mg cos (J. Combining this with (v) we have p., =
tan (J. If the coefficient of static friction is less than this value, EXAMPLE 11.15: A uniform rod of length L and mass Mis
the sphere will slip as it rolls down the incline. pivoted freely at one end. (a) What is the angular acceleration of
EXERCISE 4. Use (iv) to find the speed of the sphere after it
the rod when it is at angle (J to the vertical? (b) What is the
falls a vertical distance H, starting from rest. tangential linear acceleration of the free end when the rod is
horizontal? The moment of inertia of a rod about one end is
jML2.
EXAMPLE 11.14: A car goes around an unbanked curve of
radius r at speed u. Find the critical speed at which it tends to
overturn.

FIGURE 11.30 The angular acceleration of the rod is produced

by the torque due to its weight.

Solution: Figure 11.30 shows the rod at an angle (J to the verti-

cal. If we take torques about the pivot we need not be con-
FIGURE 11.29 Forces acting on a car that is going around a cerned with the force due to the pivot. The torque due to the
curve. weight is mgL/2 sin (J, so the second law for the rotational
motion is
Solution: Figure 11.29 shows the forces on the car, the coordi-
nate axes, and the sign convention for torque. In general, the mgL sin (J = ML2 a
normal forces and the frictional forces will not be the same at 2 3
the inner and outer wheels. We assume the CM is at height H Thus,
and the wheels are a distance D apart. Since we want all four
wheels to stay on the road, the angular acceleration of the car 3g in ()
a = -=--:;:-::--
about its CM should be zero. That is, the car should be in _L
rotational equilibrium. We apply the two forms of the second
(b) When the rod is horizontal (J = TT/2 and a = 3g/2L. From
law to the uniform circular motion and to the rotation about the
Eq. 11.11 the tangential linear acceleration is
CM:
3g
mu 2 at = aL = 2
(I-Fx ) fl+f2=- (i)
r
(I-Fy) N I + N 2 - mg = 0 (ii) This is greater than the acceleration of an object in free-fall!
D EXERCISE 5. How could you demonstrate that the tip of the
(I-r) (f] + f2)H + (NI - N 2) "2 = 0 (iii)
pivoted rod has an acceleration greater than that in free-fall?
224 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

F 11.7 WORK AND POWER

Figure 11.31 shows a body rotating about a fixed axis at 0, normal to the page. It
is acted on by an external force F that has a radial component F r and a tangential
component Ft. In an infinitesimal time interval dt, the point of application of the
force moves in circular arc of length r de. The work done by the tangential
component is
dW = (Ft)(r de) = T de
FIGURE 11.31 A force F acts on a
rigid body and exerts a torque 'T = rP" since T = Ftr in this case. From the definition of instantaneous power, P = dWldt,
where P, is the component tangential to applied to the above equation we find
the motion. The work done by the
torque in an infinitesimal rotation P = TW (11.24)
through angle dO is dW = 'TdO.
which is analogous to P = Fv.
In order to derive the work-energy theorem for rotational motion, we first
express torque in a convenient form. Using the chain rule we have

= I dw = I dw de = I dw
T dt de dt de w

We next use this result in dW = Tde = Iwdw and integrate to find

Work-energy theorem for W = !Iw¥ - !Iwr (11.25)
rotational motion
The work done by a torque on a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis leads to a
change in its rotational kinetic energy.

EXAMPLE 11.16: A motor rotates a pulley of radius 25 cm at

20 rpm. A rope around the pulley lifts a 50-kg block, as shown
in Fig. 11.32. What is the power output of the motor?
Solution: The tension in the rope is equal to the weight since
there is no acceleration; thus, T = 500 N. The torque required
of the motor is simply T = TR = (500)(0.25) = 125 N·m. For the
power to be in watts, the angular velocity must be in rad/s. In
this case 20 rpm is equivalent to 271'/3 rad/s. The power required
is

P = TW = (125 N . m) (2; rad/s) = 260 W FIGURE 11.32 The motor must supply a torque TR to keep the
block rising at constant speed.

11.8 DYNAMICS OF ROLLING FRICTION

(Optional) slows down the wheel. From the rotational form of the second
law, TeM = ICMacM, we would write jR = lao But this torque
Figure 11.33 shows a wheel of mass M and radius R that is tends to increase the angular velocity and therefore to speed up
rolling without slipping on a horizontal surface. The forces on the wheel! This description is seriously flawed.
the wheel are usually drawn as shown, where f is the force of In fact, as we pointed out in Chapter 6, the wheel and the
rolling friction that causes the wheel to roll. According to surface are not perfectly rigid and therefore are deformed. The
F EXT = MaCM we would write f = Ma, where a is directed net force on the wheel due to the surface effectively acts at a
opposite to the velocity; that is, f is the retarding force that point ahead of the center and is directed backward. Its vertical
 11.9 VECTOR NATURE OF ANGULAR VELOCiTY (Optional) 225

-u

-u

FIG URE 11.33 The force of friction on a rolling (undriven) wheel

is backward. f_
fiGURE 11.35 The brakes are applied to a wheel. The torque
and horizontal components are Nand f, as drawn in Fig. 11.34, due to the brakes is in the same sense as that due to Nand
where N does not pass through the center. The torque due to f opposite to the torque due to friction.
tends to speed up the wheel, but it is counteracted by a larger
torque TN due to N (with an unknown lever arm). With the axes
and sign convention shown, the two forms of Newton's second on the wheel is one of static friction. The maximum value of fis
law are the maximum force of static friction fs(max)' If the brakes are
applied too hard, the wheel locks and then slides over the road.
f=Ma (i) In this case,jis the force of kinetic friction. Maximum braking
TN - fR = la (ii) action is obtained when the wheel is just on the verge of slip-
ping, but in practice this condition is difficult to achieve.
When the wheel is driven, as in Fig. 11.36, the torque due
to the axle T A is in the opposite sense to that of TN' Since the
bottom of the wheel is pushing backward against the road, the

-
force of friction is in the forward direction. From the two forms
I' of the second law,

FIG URE 1l.34 A rolling wheel is slowed down by the torque due
to the vertical force N, which effectively acts at a point ahead of
the center.

If there is no slipping then v = wR and so a = aR. Using this

and I = in (ii), one finds TN = R. That is, the torque due
to N is greater than the torque due to f. From the point of view
of dynamics, rolling friction is due to the combined effect off
and N. As was also pointed out in Chapter 6, rolling friction is -f
associated with the energy losses that accompany the deforma-
FIGURE 11.36 In a "driven" wheel, the torque due to the axle is
tion of the wheel.
opposite to the torques due to friction and the force N.
Now suppose that another torque acts on the wheel. This
happens when the wheel is driven, or when the brakes are
applied. In either case, the torque due to the additional force is
added to those of the forces f and N. However, the magnitude f= Ma; TA - TN - fR = la
and/or direction of the net frictional force changes. Again, if the wheel does not slip, the maximum value of f is
When the brakes are applied, as in Fig. 11.35, their torque, fs(max)'If the wheel is driven harder, the bottom of the wheel
TB, is in the same sense as TN and considerably greater. In order slips and the friction becomes kinetic.
to slow down the translational motion of a bicycle (say), the
frictional force must be directed rearward and is much larger
than for a freely rolling wheel. If the wheel keeps rolling, then
11.9 VECTOR NATURE OF
from the second law we have VELOCITY (Optional)
f= Ma; TB + TN - fR = la
To show that angular velocity, w = dO/dt, is a vector, we will
where M is the mass of the bicycle and I is the moment of consider infinitesimal angular displacements, dO. An angular
inertia of the wheel. If the wheel keeps rolling, the point of displacement is a quantity that has both magnitude and direc-
contact with the road is instantaneously at rest; hence, the force tion. The magnitude is measured in radians (say), and its direc-
226 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

z z

y y )'

x x x

x
y
x
Jl, y

z z z z

y y

FIGURE 11.37 A book is rotated through 90° about each of the x

J7-,
:r

FIGURE 11.38 The book is rotated through infinitesimal angles.

and z axes. The final orientation depends on the order in which The final orientation does not depend on the order of the
the rotations are performed. rotations.

tion may be specified relative to the x, y, and z axes with the That is, finite angular displacements do not obey the commuta-
right-hand rule. According to the right-hand rule, when the fin- tive property of vector addition and therefore are not vectors.
gers of the right hand curl in the sense of rotation, the thumb Now consider small rotations about the same axes. Figure
(held out as in hitch-hiking) indicates the direction. 11.38 suggests that in the limit of infinitesimal rotations, the
Consider a rotation of a book through a finite angle of -rr/2. final orientation of the book does not depend on the order in
The angle 01 involves a rotation about the z axis; (h is about the which the rotations occur. Thus,
x axis. Starting from a given initial orientation, Fig. 11.37 shows
that the final orientation of the book depends on whether the
dOl + dOz = dOz + dOl
rotation through 0 1 , or O2 , is performed first. One can express Infinitesimal rotations do obey the laws of vector addition and
this as therefore are vector quantities. Since the angular velocity is
defined as w = dOldt , where dt is a scalar quantity, w is also a
vector.

SUMMARY
The equations of rotational kinematics for constant angular acceleration are
w = Wo + at
(J = (Jo + wot -J- 1a t 2
w2 = -J- 2a((;J - (;Jo)

The moment of inertia of a system of discrete particles about a given axis is

/ = "Ln1;l'T
 QUESTIONS 227

where rj is the perpendicular distance to the axis. The moment of inertia is a

measure of the object's rotational inertia; its resistance to change in angular
velocity.
The kinetic energy of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is
K =
When a body rolls without slipping, the linear speed of its center is related to the
angular velocity about the center by V c = wR.
The total kinetic energy of a rigid body is the sum of its translational and
rotational kinetic energies:

where [eM is the moment of inertia about an axis through the eM.
The torque exerted by a force F that acts at a distance r from the origin is
T = rF sin e
= rFl- = r1- F
where e is the angle between the vectors rand F. The quantity F 1- is the compo-
nent of the force perpendicular to the vector r. The quantity r1-, called the lever
arm, is the perpendicular distance from the origin to the line of action of the force.
When a torque T acts on a rigid body that is free to rotate about afixed axis,
the angular acceleration is determined by Newton's second law for rotation:
(Fixed axis) T = la
where [ is the moment of inertia about the given axis.
When a torque T acts on a body rotating at angular velocity w the power
delivered is TABLE 11.2
Translation Rotation
P = TW
K=.!.mv
2
2
K=.!.[ar
2
Table 11.2 displays the similarities in the forms of the equations for translational F= rna T = lOt
and rotational motion. P = Fv P = TW

ANSWERS TO IN·CHAPTER EXERCISES

1. We merely change the limits on the integral: 3. The initial and final energies are
E j = rngH
_ fLl2 2 _ AL 3 _ MU
I - AX dx - 12 - 12
-Ll2
Er = !rnv2 + !/w2
2 2
=
2
M)
+ 4 v2
since M = AL
Equating these we find v = 4 m/s.
2. The angle between F4 and the rod is (J; thus, F41 = F4 sin (J
and 4. Using v2 = v& + with = Hlsin (J, we find v
YIOgH17. This is the same as the result in Example 11.5.
5. If a coin is placed at the end, it will lose contact with the rod.

QUESTIONS
1. True or false: A quick way of computing the moment of 2. (a) How can one tell the difference between a hard-boiled
inertia of a body is to consider its mass as being concen- egg and a raw egg by trying to spin them? (b) After they are
trated at the center of mass. spinning, explain what happens if each is stopped for an
228 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

instant and then released. converted to rotational motion of the crankshaft. There is a
3. A straight uniform rod tumbles from a vertical position on a large flywheel in the linkage between the crankshaft and the
frictionless surface. What is the path of the CM? transmission. What purpose does it serve?
4. The book in Fig. 11.39 has the same shape as this text. 11. About what axis is the moment of inertia of a person (a) the
About which axis is the moment of inertia (a) the largest; greatest? (b) the least? Are your answers subject to condi-
(b) the smallest? tions?
U. The angular velocity of a bicycle wheel points north while
its angular acceleration points south. (a) In which direction
is the bicycle moving? (b) Is it speeding up or slowing
down?
13. A spool of thread is pulled in opposite directions by equal
and opposite forces as shown in Fig. 11.41. Does the spool
----e-'---
B
move? If so, in which direction? (The surface is rough.)

./
:;j
/A
FIGURE 11.39 Question 4.

5. Two identical cans of concentrated orange juice are re-

leased at the top of an incline. One is frozen and the other
has defrosted. Which reaches the bottom first?
FIGURE 11.41 Question 13.
6. The spokes of wagon wheels sometimes appear to rotate
backward on film or on TV. Why is this? 14. A spool of thread is on a rough surface (see Fig. 11.42). The
7. The Volvo in Fig. 11.40 is going round the curve at high axle has radius r while the rim has radius R. Discuss the
speed. Is there anything unusual about the picture? If so, motion of the spool for the various directions in which the
what is happening? thread is pulled. (a) For what angle is there sliding but no
rolling? (b) What is the condition for the spool to wind up?

tI

FIGURE 11.42 Question 14.

15. A uniform rod is freely pivoted at one end. Consider its

FIGURE 11.40 Question 7. motion as it is released from a horizontal position. (a) Is
there kinetic energy associated with motion of the center of
8. Are the equations of rotational kinematics valid if () is mea- mass? (b) Is there kinetic energy relative to the center of
sured in degrees? If not, can they be modified? mass? (c) Can one use the formula for the total kinetic
9. Snow tires have a slightly greater diameter than summer energy? Explain why or why not.
tires. Is the reading of the speedometer affected? 16. What does the parallel axis theorem tell us about the mini-
10. The linear motion of the pistons in an automobile engine is mum moment of inertia of a body?

EXERCISES
the angular acceleration; (b) the number of revolutions
11.1 Rotational Kinematics
completed in 5 s; (c) the time needed to complete 2 revolu-
1. (I) A 12-in. (30-cm) diameter turntable starts from rest and tions; (d) the radial and tangential accelerations of a point
takes 2 s to reach its final rotation rate of 331 rpm. Find: (a) on the rim at 1 s. (e) Repeat (d) at 3 s.
 EXERCISES 229

2. (I) A 12-in. (30-cm) diameter LP rotates at 45 rpm and plays does the car move before stopping? There is no slipping and
for 20 min. Find: (a) the speed of a point at the beginning the acceleration is constant.
when r = 14.5 cm; (b) the speed of a point at the end when 15. (I) A car with tires of radius 25 cm comes to a stop from 100
r = 6.2 cm; (c) the radial velocity of the needle; (d) the kmlh in 50 m without any slipping of the tires. Find: (a) the
average width of the groove. angular acceleration of the wheels; (b) the number of revo-
3. (I) The earth spins in the same sense as it orbits around the lutions made while coming to rest.
sun. Find: (a) the earth's spin angular velocity about its 16. (II) A car with tires of radius 25 cm accelerates from rest to
internal axis; (b) its orbital angular velocity about the sun; 30 mls in 10 s. When the car's speed is 2 m/s find the linear
(c) the linear speed of points closest to and farthest from the acceleration of the top of the wheel relative to (a) the center
sun, measured relative to the sun. (Assume that the two of the wheel, (b) the road.
axes of rotation are parallel.)
17. (I) A wheel makes 40 revolutions in 5 s and rotates at 100
4. (I) Find the linear speed of the following points relative to rpm at the end of this period. What was the angular acceler-
the earth's center: (a) Quito, Ecuador (roughly) at the equa- ation-assumed to be constant?
tor; (b) New York City, at latitude 41°. Take the radius of
18. (I) A circular saw of diameter 18 cm starts from rest and
the earth to be 6370 km.
reaches 5300 rpm in 1.5 s. (a) What is its angular accelera-
5. (I) The angular position of a line on a disk of radius r = 6 cm tion? (b) What are the radial and tangential accelerations of
is given by () = 10 - 5t + 4t2 rad. Find: (a) the average a point on the rim at Is?
angular speed between I and 3 s; (b) the linear speed of a
19. (I) Find the magnitude of the linear acceleration of an astro-
point on the rim at 2 s; (c) the radial and tangential accelera-
naut in (a) a centrifuge of radius 15 m (Fig. 11.43a) that has
tions of a point on the rim at 2 s.
an angular velocity of 1.2 rad/s and an angular acceleration
6. (I) A particle moves in a circle of radius r with angular of 0.8 rad/s 2; (b) in a doughnut-shaped space station (Fig.
velocity wand angular acceleration 0'. Show that the total 11.43b) of radius 1.0 km that rotates at a constant 0.5 rpm.
linear acceleration is a = r(w 4 + 0'2) 1/2.
7. (I) At t = 0 a flywheel is rotating at 50 rpm. A motor gives it
a constant acceleration of 0.5 rad/s 2 until it reaches 100
rpm. The motor is then disconnected. How many revolu-
tions are completed at t = 20 s?
8. (I) A car with tires of radius 30 cm starts at rest and reaches
108 km/h in 10 s. (a) What is the angular acceleration of the
wheels? (b) How many revolutions do they make? (There is
no slipping.) (c) What is the radial acceleration relative to
the center of a point on the rim when the speed is 108 km/h?
9. (I) A bullet travels through the 60-cm barrel of a Winchester
rifle at 850 mls. A protrusion within the barrel follows a
spiral path. It cuts a groove in the bullet and forces it to
rotate. The "rifling" involves one turn in 25 em. What is
the rate of spin of the emerging bullet in rpm?
10. (I) A clock has a second hand of length 8 em. Find (a) the
angular speed, and (b) the linear speed of the tip.
11. (I) Magnetic tape moves at a constant 4.8 cm/s in a cas-
sette. What is the angular speed of the takeup spool when it
is (a) empty, with radius r = 0.75 em, and (b) full, with r =
I. 75 em? (c) What is the average angular acceleration with
a 86.4 m tape?
12. (I) The angular position of a rotating object is given by () =
2t - 5t2 + 2t4 rad. Find: (a) the angular acceleration at I s;
(b) the average angular acceleration between I and 2 s; (c)
the average angular speed between I and 2 s.
13. (I) The wheel of a car has a radius of 20 em. It initially
rotates at 120 rpm. In the next minute it makes 90 revolu-
tions. (a) What is angular acceleration? (b) How much
further does the car travel before coming to rest? There is
no slipping.
14. (I) A car has wheels of radius 25 em. The rate of rotation
drops from 1250 rpm to 500 rpm in 25 s. How much further FIGURE 11.43 Exercise 19.
230 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

20. (I) A wheel starts from rest and accelerates uniformly. As 27. (II) Find the moments of inertia of the following shapes,
the rate of rotation changes from 20 to 50 rpm the wheel made from the same thin wire, about a central axis perpen-
makes 40 revolutions. Find: (a) the angular acceleration; (b) dicular to the plane of the figure: (a) a circle of diameter 2a;
the number of revolutions completed by the time the wheel (b) a square of side 2a; (c) an equilateral triangle of side 2a.
reaches 20 rpm. The mass per unit length of the wire is A.
21. (I) The platter in a belt drive turntable is driven by a belt 28. (II) Repeat Exercise 27 with the same dimensions but now
that wraps around a hub, of radius 3 cm, below the platter take the masses to be identical. (Wires of different densities
and around the shaft of the motor. If the platter rotates at could be used.)
rpm and the motor rotates at 60 rpm, what is the re- 29. (II) Two solid spheres of mass m and radius R are stuck to
quired radius of the shaft? the ends of a thin rod of mass m and length 3R. Find the
11.2 and 11.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy; Moment of Inertia moment of inertia of the system about the axis at the mid-
point of the rod and perpendicular to it, as shown in Fig.
22. (I) Four particles in the xy plane have the following masses 11.46.
and coordinates: 1 kg at (3 m, 1 m); 2 kg at (- 2 m, 2 m); 3 kg 3R
at (l m, -1 m); and 4 kg at (-2 m, -1 m). Find the total
moment of inertia about (a) the x axis, (b) the y axis, and (c)
the z axis.
23. (I) Four particles with equal masses M are connected by
rods whose mass can be neglected. Find the moment of
inertia, about the indicated axis, of the following: (a) the
cross in Fig. 11.44a, (b) the square in Fig. 11.44b. FIGURE 11.46 Exercise 29.

30. (I) In a water molecule the distance between the oxygen

and hydrogen atoms is 9 x 10- 11 m and the masses of the
d atoms are mo = 16mH, where mH = 1.67 x 10- 27 kg. The
d angle between the two H-O bonds is lOse (see Fig. 11.47).
d
Find the moment of inertia of the molecule about (a) an axis
along the H-O bond, and (b) an axis through the 0 atom
parallel to the line joining the two H atoms.
Cal {bl

FIGCRE 11.44 Exercise 23.

24. (I) What is the moment of inertia of a thin ring of mass M

and radius R about an axis through its center and perpen-
dicular to the plane of the ring?
25. (I) Two particles with masses 2 and 5 kg are connected by a
light rod of length 2 m. Find the moment of inertia of the
system about an axis perpendicular to the rod and passing
through (a) the midpoint and (b) the center of mass.
26. (II) The wheel shown in Fig. 11.45 has a central hub of FIGURE 11.47 Exercise 30.
radius 2 m and a mass of 2 kg. Each of the four spokes is 4
m long and has a mass of 1 kg. The outer thin ring has a 31. (II) A can is a hollow cylinder of radius R and height h. Its
radius of 6 m and a mass of 2 kg. Find the moment of inertia ends are sealed and it has no seams (see Fig. 11.48). The
about an axis through the center perpendicular to the plane can is made from sheet metal of areal mass density (J kg/m 2 •
of the wheel. Treat the hub as a disk. What is its moment of inertia about the central axis of sym-
metry?

FIGURE 11.45 Exercise 26.

r I
i
i
,----T---..,
FIGURE 11.48 Exercise 31.
 EXERCISES 231

32. (II) A skater raises a leg at angle a to the vertical. By 38. (I) A large part of the energy supplied by gasoline to a car or
treating it as a straight rod of mass M and length L, as in bus is wasted during braking. Flywheels can store rota-
Fig. 11.49, find its moment of inertia about the vertical axis tional energy at such times, which can later be used to drive
passing through the top end. the vehicle. Figure 11.51 shows a flywheel-driven car. Sup-
pose a car is equipped with a IS-kg cylinder ofradius 0.2 m
that spins at 14,000 rpm. What is the kinetic energy of the
flywheel?

I
1
...... I
\.-------
FIGURE 11.49 Exercise 32.

33. (II) A uniform rod of mass M and length L is pivoted about

an axis perpendicular to the rod at a distance L/4 from one
end. Find the moment of inertia by (a) integration; (b) the
parallel axis theorem. (See In-Chapter Exercise 1.)
34. (II) Consider a planar body in the xy plane, as shown in Fig.
11.50. (a) Find the moment of inertia of a particle of mass m
at (x, y) about the x, y, and z axes, respectively. (b) Shuw FIGURE 11.51 Exercise 38.
that the moments of inertia of the body about each of the
axes are related by
I z = Ix + Iy 39. (II) Figure 11.52 shows a block of mass 4 kg suspended by a
rope that passes over a pulley of mass 2 kg and radius 5 em.
This is called the perpendicular axis theorem. The rope is connected to a spring whose stiffness constant
is 80 N/m. (a) If the block is released from rest, what is the
z maximum extension of the spring? (b) What is the speed of
the block after it has fallen 20 em? Treat the pulley as a
disk.
k

FIGURE 11.50 Exercise 34.

FIGURE 11.52 Exercise 39.

35. (I) Use the perpendicular axis theorem (see Exercise 34) to
find the moment of inertia of a thin ring of radius Rand 40. (I) What is the kinetic energy of the earth associated with
mass M about a diameter. its daily rotation? Since the earth is not a uniform sphere,
36. (II). Consider a uniform thin rod of mass M and length L. its moment of inertia is I = 0.33MR2.
Show by integration that the moment of inertia about an 41. (I) A solid sphere and a disk of the same mass and radius
axis at a distance h (>L/2) from the center and perpendicu- roll up an incline. Find the ratio the heights, h s /hD , to
lar to the rod is which they rise if, at the bottom, they have the same (a)
kinetic energy, (b) speed.
42. (I) The propellor on an aircraft engine has four vanes, each
of length 1.0 m and mass 10 kg. The engine rotates at 3000
11.4 Conservation of Energy rpm while the plane flies at a constant 200 km/h. What is the
37. (I) A uniform rod of length L and mass M is pivoted freely total kinetic energy of the propellor? Treat the vanes as
about a horizontal axis at one end. It falls from a vertical uniform rods.
position. What is the speed of the tip when the rod is hori- 43. (II) A thin disk of mass M and radius R can rotate freely
zontal? about a pivot on its rim, as in Fig. 11.53. It is released when
232 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

its center is at the level of the pivot. What is the speed of to a piston in a steam chamber, Fig. 11.56. The compressed
the lowest point of the disk when the center is vertically steam applies at force of lOS N to the piston. What is the
below the pivot? torque on the wheel when the rod is in the position shown?

FIGURE 11.53 Exercise 43.

44. (II) The pendulum of a grandfather clock consists of a uni-

form rod of mass 1.2 kg and length 60 cm. At its end is a
disk of radius 5 cm and mass 0.4 kg (see Fig. 11.54). It is FIGURE 11.56 Exercise 47.
released when the rod is 30° to the vertical. (a) What is the
moment of inertia about the axis at the top of the rod? (b)
What is the speed of the lowest point when the rod is verti- 48. (I) A cyclist exerts a vertical force of 120 N on a pedal rod
cal? of length 20 cm that is inclined at angle () to the horizontal,
as in Fig. 11.57. Find the torque about the axle for the
following values of (): (a) 0; (b) 30°; (c) 45°; (d) 60°.

FIGURE 11.54 Exercise 44.

FIGURE 11.57 Exercise 48.
45. (II). A car has four tires each of mass 25 kg and radius 30
cm. The mass of the car without tires is 103 kg. (a) What is
the total kinetic energy of the car and tires if the speed is 30
m/s? (b) How far along a 10° incline would the car roll (in 49. (I) A wheel, whose moment of inertia is 0.03 kg·m 2 , is
neutral) before coming to rest if the initial speed were 30 accelerated from rest to 20 rad/s in 5 s. When the external
m/s? Ignore frictional losses. Take I = 1/2 MR2. torque is removed, the wheel stops in I min. Find: (a) the
frictional torque; (b) the external torque.
11.6 and 11.7 Torque; Rotational Dynamics 50. (I) A torque of 40 N· m acts on a wheel of moment of inertia
46. (I) For each of the forces depicted in Fig. 11.55 find the 10 kg'm 2 for 5 s and then is removed. (a) What is the angular
torque about the pivot. Take F 1 = 10 N, F 2 = 15 N, F 3 = 8 acceleration of the wheel? (b) How many revolutions does
N, and L = 8 m. it make in 10 s if it starts at rest?
51. (I) A grindstone of radius 10 cm and moment of inertia 0.2
kg'm 2 rotates at 200 rpm. A tool is pressed against the rim
with force of 50 N along a radial direction. The coefficient
of kinetic friction is 0.6. (a) What is the power needed to
keep the stone rotating at a fixed rate? (b) If the drive is
removed, how long would it take for the stone to stop? (c)
How many revolutions does it make while slowing down?
52. (II) A flywheel initially rotating at 1200 rpm stops in 4 min
when only friction acts. If an additional torque of 300 N'm
FIGURE 11.55 Exercise 46. is applied, it stops in I min. (a) What is the moment of
inertia of the wheel? (b) What is the frictional torque?
47. (I) A wheel of a locomotive is driven by a rod that is con- 53. (I) A wheel starts from rest and rotates through 150 rad in 5
nected 50 cm from the center of the wheel. The rod is linked s. The net torque due to the motor and friction is constant
 EXERCISES 233

at 48 N ·m. When the motor is switched off, the wheel stops

in 12 s. Find the torque due to (a) friction, and (b) the
motor.
54. (I) A block of mass m = 2 kg hangs vertically from a fric-
tionless pulley of mass M = 4 kg and radius R = 15 cm.
Find: (a) the acceleration of the block; (b) the tension in the
rope; (c) the speed of the block after it has fallen 40 cm-
assuming it started at rest. Treat the pulley as a disk.
55. (II) A block of mass m = 2 kg can slide down a frictionless FIG URE 11.60 Exercise 57.
53° incline but it is connected to a pulley of mass M = 4 kg
and radius R = 0.5 m, as shown in Fig. 11.58. The pulley 58. (II) A lawn roller is a solid cylinder of mass M and radius R.
can be treated as a disk. Find: (a) the angular acceleration As shown in Fig. 11.61, it is pulled at its center by a hori-
of the pulley; (b) the speed of the block after it has slid 1 m, zontal force F and rolls without slipping on a horizontal
starting from rest. surface. Find: (a) the acceleration of the cylinder; (b) the
force of friction acting on it.

53'
- F

FIGURE 11.61 Exercise 58.

FIGURE 11.58 Exercise 55.
59. (II) A solid cylinder is released on an incline and rolls with-
56. (II) A solid cylinder of mass M and radius R unwinds on a out slipping. (a) Find the acceleration of its center of mass.
vertical string (see Fig. 11.59). (a) Use the energy approach (b) What is the minimum coefficient of friction needed to
to show that the speed of the spool after it falls a distance h prevent slipping?
starting from rest is V 4gh/3. (b) Use the result of part (a) to
60. (II) A meter stick of mass 40 g is pivoted at the 35-cm mark.
find the linear acceleration of the eM. (c) Use dynamics to
What is its angular acceleration when it is inclined at 20° to
find the linear acceleration of the spool. (d) What is the
the horizontal? Treat the stick as a thin rod.
tension? (e) With what force should the string be pulled to
have the spool spin but not fall? What is its angular acceler- 11.8 Work and Power
ation in this case?
61. (II) A turntable has a mass of 2 kg and a radius of 15 cm.
When the motor is switched off it takes 20 s to stop from an
initial 331 rpm. What is the power needed to maintain 331
rpm? Treat the turntable as a solid disk.
62. (I) A wheel whose moment of inertia is 45 kg· m2 is to be
accelerated from 20 to 100 rpm in 10 s. What is the average
power needed?
63. (I) A 15-kg bucket of water is being raised from a well at a
constant 20 cm/s. The rope wraps around a spindle of ra-
dius 3 cm. The spindle is turned by a handle of length 40 cm
(see Fig. 11.62). (a) What is the power required to raise the
bucket? (b) If the applied force is always perpendicular to
the handle, what is the force required?
FIGURE 11.59 Exercise 56.
64. (I) The liner Normandie (82,800 gross tons) was possibly
57. (II) The pulley in Fig. 11.60 consists of two disks of differ- the largest passenger ship ever built. Each of its four en-
ent diameters attached to the same shaft. The rope con- gines developed 40,000 hp at 225 rpm. What torque did
nected to the block of mass mj = 1 kg passes over a smooth each engine provide?
peg, while the block of mass m2 = 3 kg hangs vertically 65. (I) In November 1984, astronaut Joe Allen of the shuttle
from one disk. The moment of inertia of the pulley is 0.2 Discovery attached a device to the disabled Palaha B satel-
kg·m 2 ; rl = 5 cm and r2 = 10 cm. Find the tensions in the lite that was spinning at 2 rpm (see Fig. 11.63). The satellite
ropes and the accelerations of the blocks. was a solid cylinder of mass 7000 kg and had a radius of 80
234 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
67. (I) Three forces, F 1 = 5 N, F z = 2 N, and F 3 = 6.6 N, act on
a plane body as shown in Fig. 11.65. What is the torque due
to each force about an axis at O?

FIGURE 11.62 Exercise 63.

F2

FIGURE 11.65 Exercise 67.

68. (I) A light (massless) rod of length L = 1.2 m is freely

pivoted at one end. Two forces act as shown in Fig. 11.66.
What is the torque due to each force? Take F 1 = 12 N, F 2 =
4.8 N, ex = 300 , and () = 20 0 •

FIGURE 11.63 Exercise 65.

cm. He fired a 20-N jet tangential to the cylindrical surface

to halt the rotation. (a) What was the initial kinetic energy
of the satellite? (b) How long did it take to stop the spin-
ning? FIGURE 11.66 Exercise 68.
66. (I) In August 1985, astronauts William Fisher and James
Van Hoften of the shuttle Discovery made repairs to the
69. (I) A light (massless) rod of length L = 1.5 m is freely
Leasat 3 satellite (see Fig. 11.64). In order to stabilize it,
pivoted at one end. Three forces act as shown in Fig. 11.67.
prior to the firing of its rockets, Fisher pushed a handle at
The force F 3 acts at the midpoint. What is the torque due to
the rim to set it rotating and noted that it returned in 30 s.
each force? Take F, = 6.9 N, F 2 = 4 N, F3 = 2 N, () = 200
,
Treat the 7.6 x 1Q3_kg satellite as a solid cylinder of diame-
and ex = 30 0
•
ter 4.3 m and assume the force was exerted tangentially. (a)
How much work did Fisher do to rotate the structure? (b) If
his hands moved through 1.2 m, estimate the force he ap-
plied.

FIGURE IUi7 Exercise 69.

70. (II) A block of mass 1.2 kg is on a 30 incline for which J.tk =

0

0.11. The block is connected by a string that hangs over a

pulley to a vertical spring (k = 3.2 N/m); see Fig. 11.68. The
pulley is a disk of mass 0.8 kg and radius 0.14 m. If the
system starts at rest, what is the speed of the block after it
FIGURE 11.64 Exercise 66. slides 0.25 m along the incline?
 PROBLEMS 235

FIGURE 11.68 Exercise 70.

FIGURE 11.69 xerci es 71 and 72.

71. (II) Two blocks with masses mj = 1.2 kg and m2 = 1.8 kg

are connected by a string that hangs over a pulley of mass
1.6 kg and radius 0.12 m; see Fig. 11.69. The string does not
slip. Assuming that the system starts from rest with the 72. (II) Considering the system in the previous exercise, find:
spring at its natural length , use energy principles to find the (a) the linear acceleration of the blocks; (b) the speed of m2
speed of m2 after it has fallen by 0.4 m. Treat the pulley as a after it has fallen by 0.4 m. Note that the tensions on either
disk. side of the pulley are not the same.

PROBLEMS
1. (I) A disk of radius B has a concentric hole of radius A
drilled through its center. The mass of the doughnut is M.
Find its moment of inertia about the axis through the center
of the disk perpendicular to its plane.
2. (II) A marble of radius r rolls without slipping down an
incline and then up along a vertical circular track of radius
R, as shown in Fig. 11.70. What is the minimum height H
from which the ball must start so that it barely stays in
contact at the top of the circle? Assume r« Hand r« R.
FIGURE 11.71 Problem 4.

6. (I) (a) Show that the moment of inertia of a thin spherical

shell of mass M and radius R about a diameter is
(Hint: Break the shell into rings and use the angle to the
H axis as the variable.) (b) Use part (a) to find the moment of
R inertia of a solid sphere of mass M and radius R.
7. (I) A uniform disk of radius R has a hole of radius a drilled
through it, as in Fig. 11.72. The center of the hole is at a
FIGURE 11.70 Problem 2. distance b from the center of the original disk. What is the
moment of inertia of the disk about an axis through the
3. (II) A uniform rod of length L is held vertically on a friction- center perpendicular to its plane?
less floor. A very slight nudge causes it to fall. (a) What is
its angular velocity on landing? (b) Find the speeds of its
ends when it lands.
4. (II) Consider a very tall tower of height h at the equator,
(see Fig. 1I. 71). The top will have a greater linear speed
than the bottom. If the angular velocity of the earth is w,
show that a ball dropped from the top of the tower will not
land at the base. It will be deflected by a distance from the
base approximately given by wh(2h/g)ln. In which direction FIGURE 11.72 Problem 7.
(east or west) is the deflection? (This expression is not
exact because the direction of the force of gravity changes 8. (I) The angular acceleration of an object is given by a =
along the path.) 12t - 3t 2 rad/s 2 . The angular speed is 10 rad/s at t = 1 sand
5. (I) A uniform sphere of radius a has a concentric spherical the angular displacement is 5 rad at 2 s. Write expressions
cavity of radius b. Find the moment of inertia about a diam- for the angular speed and displacement as functions of
eter. The mass of the object is M. time.
236 CHAP. 11 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

9. (I) Find the moment of inertia of a hollow cone of mass M, sides of lengths a and b about a central axis perpendicular
height h and apex angle 2a about the central axis of symme- to its plane, as shown in Fig. 11.75. (The final result is not
try. (Hint: Use the distance from the apex along the surface restricted to a thin plate. Why not?)
as the variable.)
10. (I) At a given temperature the molecules in a gas have a CD
range of speeds which can be measured as follows. Sup- i

/ I
pose the molecules leave an oven at speed v. They pass I
through two disks which have slots in them. The slots are i
offset from each other by () degrees, as shown in Fig. 11.73. i
The disks rotate at N rpm and are separated by a distance
a i
D. Find an expression for the value of vat which the mole-
i
cules pass through both slits. FIGURE 11.75 Problem 13.

14. (I) The density of a sphere of radius R varies according to P

= Po(l - r/2R), where Po is the density at the center. (a)
What is its total mass M? (b) Show that its moment of
inertia about a central axis is 0.37 MR2. (See Problem 6.)
15. (I) Figure 11.76 shows a disk with eight evenly spaced
marks around its perimeter. It makes N rotations per sec-
ond and is illuminated by a strobe light that flashes fo times
per second. (a) What is the minimum value of N such that
the disk appears stationary? (b) What is the apparent mo-
tion of the disk if N is 5% higher than the value found in (a)?
(c) What is the apparent motion of the disk if N is 12.5%
lower than the value found in (a)?
FIGURE 11.73 Problem 10.

11. (II) A person assumes the posture shown in Fig. 11.74.

Estimate the moment of inertia about the central vertical
axis. Each part of the body is approximated by a simple
shape, the masses and dimensions of which are as follows:
Head: 5 kg A solid sphere of radius 8 cm
Arm: 4.5 kg A rod of length 70 cm
Leg: 12 kg A cylinder of radius 6 cm FIGURE 11.76 Problem 15.
Torso: 32 kg A rectangular cylinder of horizontal 16. (I) A bicycle has pedal rods of length 16 cm connected to a
dimensions a x b. Use I = M(a 2 + sprocketed disk of radius 10 cm. The bicycle wheels are 70
b2 )112 with a = 30 cm and b = 15 cm cm in diameter and the chain runs over a gear of radius 4
cm (see Fig. 11.77). The speed is constant. (a) How many
revolutions does the bicycle wheel make for each complete
revolution of the pedals? If a force of 100 N is applied
perpendicular to the pedal rod, what is (b) the torque on the
• sprocketed disk, (c) the tension in the upper portion of the
chain and (d) the torque on the rear bicycle wheel? If the
pedals are rotating at two revolutions per second, find (e)
• • the power delivered by the cyclist, (0 the speed of the
bicycle, and (g) the net force of friction due to the road.

FIGURE 11.74 Problem II.

You will have to use the parallel axis theorem in some

cases.
12. (I) A solid cylinder rolls without slipping down a plane
inclined at angle () to the horizontal. Find: (a) the accelera-
tion of the eM; (b) the minimum coefficient of friction re-
quired to prevent slipping.
13. (II) Use the perpendicular axis theorem (Exercise 34) and
what you know about the moments of inertia of a thin rod,
to find the moment of inertia of a thin rectangular plate with F1GLRE 11.77 Problem 16.