Sanitary Engineering Lec.: November 2015

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Sanitary Engineering Lec.
Chapter · November 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2260.1042
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5. POPULATION FORECASTING
Design of water supply and sanitation scheme is based on the projected population of a
particular city, estimated for the design period. Any underestimated value will make system
inadequate for the purpose intended; similarly overestimated value will make it costly.
Changes in the population of the city over the years occur, and the system should be designed
taking into account of the population at the end of the design period.
Factors affecting changes in population are:

 increase due to births
 decrease due to deaths
 increase/ decrease due to migration
 increase due to annexation.
The present and past population record for the city can be obtained from the census
population records. After collecting these population figures, the population at the end of
design period is predicted using various methods as suitable for that city considering the
growth pattern followed by the city.
5.1 ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD
This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable development. If it is used for
small, average or comparatively new cities, it will give lower population estimate than actual
value. In this method the average increase in population per decade is calculated from the
past census reports. This increase is added to the present population to find out the population
of the next decade. Thus, it is assumed that the population is increasing at constant rate.
Hence, dP/dt = C i.e., rate of change of population with respect to time is constant.
Therefore, Population after nth decade will be Pn= P + n.C (1)

Where, Pn is the population after ‘n’ decades and ‘P’ is present population.
NPTEL IIT Kharagpur Web Courses

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Example: 1
Predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041 from the following population data.
Year 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Population 8,58,545 10,15,672 12,01,553 16,91,538 20,77,820 25,85,862
Solution
Year Population Increment

1961 858545 -
1971 1015672 157127
1981 1201553 185881
1991 1691538 489985
2001 2077820 386282
2011 2585862 508042
Average increment = 345463
Population forecast for year 2021 is, P2021 = 2585862 + 345463 x 1 = 2931325
Similarly, P2031 = 2585862 + 345463 x 2 = 3276788
P2041 = 2585862 + 345463 x 3 = 3622251
5.2 GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD

(OR GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION METHOD)
In this method the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is assumed to
remain constant. Geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment in
population. Since this method gives higher values and hence should be applied for a new
industrial town at the beginning of development for only few decades. The population at the
end of nth decade ‘Pn’ can be estimated as:
Pn = P (1+ IG/100) n (2)
Where, IG = geometric mean (%)
P = Present population
N = no. of decades.
Example: 2

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Considering data given in example 1 predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041
using geometrical progression method.
Solution
Year Population Increment Geometrical increase
Rate of growth
1961 858545 -
1971 1015672 157127 (157127/858545)
= 0.18
1981 1201553 185881 (185881/1015672)
= 0.18
1991 1691538 489985 (489985/1201553)
= 0.40
2001 2077820 386282 (386282/1691538)
= 0.23
2011 2585862 508042 (508042/2077820)
= 0.24
Geometric mean IG = (0.18 x 0.18 x 0.40 x 0.23 x 0.24)1/5

= 0.235 i.e., 23.5%
Population in year 2021 is, P2021 = 2585862 x (1+ 0.235)1 = 3193540
Similarly for year 2031 and 2041 can be calculated by,
P2031 = 2585862 x (1+ 0.235)2 = 3944021
P2041 = 2585862 x (1+ 0.235)3 = 4870866
5.3 INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

This method is modification of arithmetical increase method and it is suitable for an average
size town under normal condition where the growth rate is found to be in increasing order.
While adopting this method the increase in increment is considered for calculating future
population. The incremental increase is determined for each decade from the past population
and the average value is added to the present population along with the average rate of
increase.
Hence, population after nth decade is Pn = P+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}.Y (3)
th
Where, Pn = Population after n decade
X = Average increase
Y = Incremental increase

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Example: 3
Considering data given in example 1 predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041
using incremental increase method.
Solution
Year Population Increase (X) Incremental increase (Y)
1961 858545 - -
1971 1015672 157127 -
1981 1201553 185881 +28754
1991 1691538 489985 +304104
2001 2077820 386282 -103703
2011 2585862 508042 +121760
Total 1727317 350915
Average 345463 87729
Population in year 2021 is, P2021 = 2585862 + (345463 x 1) + {(1 (1+1))/2} x 87729
= 3019054
For year 2031 P2031 = 2585862 + (345463 x 2) + {(2 (2+1)/2)} x 87729
= 3539975
P2041 = 2585862 + (345463 x 3) + {(3 (3+1)/2)} x 87729
= 4148625
5.4 GRAPHICAL METHOD
In this method, the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to a suitable scale on
graph (Figure 5.1). The population curve is smoothly extended for getting future population.
This extension should be done carefully and it requires proper experience and judgment. The
best way of applying this method is to extend the curve by comparing with population curve
of some other similar cities having the similar growth condition.

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Figure 5.1 Graphical method of population forecasting
5.5 COMPARATIVE GRAPHICAL METHOD
In this method the census populations of cities already developed under similar conditions are
plotted. The curve of past population of the city under consideration is plotted on the same
graph. The curve is extended carefully by comparing with the population curve of some
similar cities having the similar condition of growth. The advantage of this method is that the
future population can be predicted from the present population even in the absence of some
of the past census report. The use of this method is explained by a suitable example given
below.
Example: 4
The populations of a new city X given for decades 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 were 32,000;
38,000; 43,000 and 50,000, respectively. The cities A, B, C and D were developed in similar
conditions as that of city X. It is required to estimate the population of the city X in the years
2010 and 2020. The population of cities A, B, C and D of different decades were given
below:
(i) City A: 50,000; 62,000; 72,000 and 87,000 in 1960, 1972, 1980 and 1990,
respectively.
(ii) City B: 50,000; 58,000; 69,000 and 76,000 in 1962, 1970, 1981 and 1988,
respectively.
(iii) City C: 50,000; 56,500; 64,000 and 70,000 in 1964, 1970, 1980 and 1988,
respectively.

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(iv) City D: 50,000; 54,000; 58,000 and 62,000 in 1961, 1973, 1982 and 1989,
respectively.
Population curves for the cities A, B, C, D and X are plotted (Figure 5.2). Then an average
mean curve is also plotted by dotted line as shown in the figure. The population curve X is
extended beyond 50,000 matching with the dotted mean curve. From the curve, the
populations obtained for city X are 58,000 and 68,000 in year 2010 and 2020.
100
A
Population in thousand
80 B
C
60 D
X
40
20
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
Population curve
Figure 5.2 Comparative graph method
5.6 MASTER PLAN METHOD
The big and metropolitan cities are generally not developed in haphazard manner, but are
planned and regulated by local bodies according to master plan. The master plan is prepared
for next 25 to 30 years for the city. According to the master plan the city is divided into
various zones such as residence, commerce and industry. The population densities are fixed
for various zones in the master plan. From this population density total water demand and
wastewater generation for that zone can be worked out. By this method it is very easy to
access precisely the design population.
5.7 LOGISTIC CURVE METHOD
This method is used when the growth rate of population due to births, deaths and migrations
takes place under normal situation and it is not subjected to any extraordinary changes like
epidemic, war, earth quake or any natural disaster, etc., and the population follows the growth

Fire Hydrant Requirements
Needed Fire Flow Formula
To estimate the amount of water required to fight a fire in an individual, non-sprinklered
building, ISO uses the formula:
NFFi = (Ci)(Oi)[1.0 + (X + P)i]
Where
NFFi = the needed fire flow in gallons per minute (gpm)
Ci = a factor related to the type of construction and effective area
Oi= a factor related to the type of occupancy
X= a factor related to the exposure hazard of adjacent buildings
P = a factor related to the communication hazard with adjacent buildings
To calculate the NFF of a building, you will need to determine the predominant type
(class) of construction, size (effective area) of the building, predominant type (class) of
occupancy, exposure to the property, and the factor for communication to another
building.
Here is the step-by-step process:
Step 1. Determine the predominant construction type and the associated factor (F).
Step 2. Determine the effective area (A).
Step 3. Calculate the construction factor (C).
Step 4. Round the construction factor (C) to the nearest 250 gpm.
Step 5. Determine the predominant occupancy type and the associated factor (O).
Step 6. If there is exposure buildings, determine the exposure factor by identifying the
construction type and length-height value of the exposure building, construction type of the
facing wall of the subject building and the distance (in feet) to the exposure building. Also make
note of any openings and protection of those openings in the wall facing the subject building (the
building the needed fire flow is being calculated on). The factor related to the exposure building
is (X).
Step 7. If there is communication with adjacent buildings, determine communication factor by
identifying the combustibility of the passageway, whether the passageway is open or enclosed,
the length, and a description of any protection provided in the passageway openings. The factor
related to the communications between buildings is (P).
Step 8. Substitute the values for the factors in the formula NFFi = (Ci)(Oi)[1.0 + (X + P)i] to
determine the needed fire flow.
** if NFFi less than 2500 gpm rounds NFFi to the nearest 250 gpm
** if NFFi greater than 2500 gpm rounds NFFi to the nearest 500 gpm
Note: (1)
The NFF for commercial occupancies and residential occupancies (such as apartment buildings,
lodgings and rooming houses, board and care facilities, hotels, motels and dormitories).
The minimum NFF is 1,000 gpm at 20 psi for duration of 2 hours.
Note: (2)
The NFF for a 1- or 2-family dwelling
The minimum NFF is 500 gpm at 20 psi for a duration of 1 hour.
Note: (4)
The value of C shall not exceed
8,000 gpm for Construction Class 1 and 2
6,000 gpm for Construction Class 3, 4, 5, and 6
6,000 gpm for a 1-story building of any class of construction.
ISO rounds the calculated value of C to the nearest 250 gpm.
Construction Factor (C)
To determine the portion of the NFF attributed to the construction and area of the
selected building, ISO uses the formula: C = 18F (A)0.5
Where
A= effective area
F = coefficient related to the class of construction:
= 1.5 for Construction Class 1 (Frame)
= 1.0 for Construction Class 2 (Joisted-masonry)
= 0.8 for Construction Class 3 (Non-Combustible)
= 0.8 for Construction Class 4 (Masonry Non-Combustible)
= 0.6 for Construction Class 5 (Modified Fire Resistive)
= 0.6 for Construction Class 6 (Fire Resistive)
Occupancy Factor (O)
The factors below reflect the influence of the occupancy in the subject building on the
needed fire flow:
Occupancy Combustibility Class Occupancy Factor (O)
C-1 (Noncombustible) 0.75
C-2 (Limited Combustibility) 0.85
C-3 (Combustible) 1.0
C-4 (Free Burning) 1.15
C-5 (Rapid Burning or Flash Burning) 1.25
Exposure and Communication Factor (X + P)i
The factors developed in this item reflect the influence of adjoining and connected
buildings on the needed fire flow. An exposure building has a wall 40 feet or less from a
wall of the subject building. A communicating building has a passageway to the subject
building.
ISO develops a value for the exposure factor and communication factor (X+P) for each
side of the building. The side that generates the largest (X+P) factor should be used in the
NFF formula.
The value of (X+P) is limited to maximum value of 0.60.
Table 330A (1) for X
Table 330B for P
Table 330A(1)
EDITION 06-2014 - 17 - COPYRIGHT  Insurance Services Office, Inc., 2014

Table 330A(2)

Table 330A(3)

Table 330B

Table 330B (cont)
Note: When a party wall has communicating openings protected by a single automatic or self-closing
Class A fire door, it qualifies as a division wall for reduction of area.
Note: Where communications are protected by a recognized water curtain, the value of P is 0.

Aqueducts and Water Pipes
- Conveyance and distribution :

 Water, whether it be drawn from surface or ground suppliers, must be conveyed to
the community and distributed to the users.
 Conveyance from the source to the point of treatment may be provided by
aqueducts, pipelines, or open channels, but once the water has been treated it is
distributed in pressurized closed conduits.
- Aqueducts:
 The term aqueduct usually refers to conduits constructed of masonry and built at
the hydraulic gradient.
 Such structures are operated at atmospheric pressure, and unless the available
hydraulic gradient is very large, tend to be larger and more expensive than pipelines
operated under pressure.
 Possibility of construction with locally available materials, longer life than metal
conduits, and lower loss of hydraulic capacity with age.
 Likelihood of interference with local drainage.
 Pipelines:
 Pipelines are commonly constructed of reinforced concrete, asbestos cement, ductile
iron, steel, or plastic ( PVC – polyvinyl chloride, UPVC- un-plasticized polyvinyl
chloride, GRP-glass reinforced plastic pipe), and are located below the ground surface
only so far as is necessary to protect them against freezing and surface loads and to
avoid other subsurface structures. In locations in which the ground ( and pipe )
elevations vary by very large amounts, high pressures at low points may be avoided by
breaking the hydraulic gradient with overflows or auxiliary reservoir or by installing
special pressure –reducing valves.
 At low points in the system, valved blowoff branches or hydrants are provided to drain
the line and permit removal of sediment.
 High points in the line should be kept below the hydraulic grade line, since negative
pressure at such locations will lead to accumulation of gases which eventually may
block the flow. High points should be provided with vacuum and air relief valves to
admit air when the line is being emptied and to release air from which is initially in the
line or which accumulates during use.
 Figure show standard pipe bedding conditions
 Various Types of Pipes :
The pipes are available in several types and sizes. They may be classified into three groups
according to the material used in their manufacturing.
 Metallic pipes: the pipes such as Cast Iron - CI Pipes, Ductile pipes, Steel pipes and GI
Pipes.
 Cement Pipes: the pipes such as Cement Pipes, Asbestos cement (AC) pipes, cement
concrete pipes.
·Plastic Pipes: the pipes such as PVC – polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene pipe, UPVC- un-
plasticized polyvinyl chloride, GRP-glass fiber reinforced thermosetting resin pipe,
Polythene Pipes (low density)
The following factors should be considered in selection of pipes.
 Strength of pipe
 Water carrying capacity
 Life and durability of pipe
 Expenditure on transportation
 Jointing process, maintenance and repairs.
Module 3 – Unit 2 Piping Components and Fittings
1.0 Pipe Fittings

Key Learning Points
 Identify the basic pipe fittings used for pipe and tube systems
 Identify the function of each fitting and any special installation
techniques if applicable
1.1 Introduction to Pipe Fittings

Fittings are used in pipe and plumbing systems to connect straight pipe or
tubing sections, to adapt to different sizes or shapes, to branch or re-direct the
piping system and if necessary to provide a jointing method if 2 dissimiliar
piping materials are used in the one system. Fittings for pipe and tubing are
most often made from the same base material as the pipe or tubing being
connected, e.g., stainless steel, steel, copper or plastic. However, any material
that is allowed by code may be used, but must be compatible with the other
materials in the system, the fluids being transported, and the temperatures and
pressures inside and outside of the system. For example, brass-bodied fittings
are common in otherwise copper piping and plumbing systems. The
photographs below show some common fittings that are used in piping
systems.
Screwed stainless steel and butt weld mild steel fittings
Pipe Fitting Phase 2 Revision 2.0 September 2014
3
Module 3 – Unit 2 Piping Components and Fittings
3.0 Valves for Piping Systems

Key Learning Points
 Identify the need for valves in piping systems
 Identify different types of valves used in piping systems
 Identify applications for the different types of valves
3.1 Valves for Piping Systems

Fluids and gassed do not just flow freely through piping systems. They must be
regulated and at certain points stopped. There are a number of different types
of valves used in piping systems, the most common types of stop valves being :
 Ball valve
 Butterfly valve
 Globe valve
 Check valves
 Diaphragm valve
 Process control valves
 Safety Relief valves
Valves may be operated manually, either by a hand wheel, or a lever or
operated automatically by a pneumatic actuator or electrical drive motor.
Complex control systems will use feedback from an instrument to control
these types of valves to regulate pressure, temperature or flowrate depending
on the control parameters required.
3.2 Ball Valve

A ball valve is a valve with a spherical centre which controls the flow through
it. The sphere has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when the port is
in line with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed,
the hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. The
handle or lever is also inline with the port through the sphere which allows the
operator to know whether the valve is opened or closed.
Manual Ball valve
Pipe Fitting Phase 2 Revision 2.0 September 2014
11
Classification of Water Pumps
Water pumps can be divided into two types: Displacement and Dynamic.
Positive displacement pumps can be of reciprocating and rotary type. In either case liquid
is displaced from the low pressure suction side to the high pressure discharge side (the
term positive refers to the direction of flow displacement related to the pressure gradient).
The geometry of the pump is changed periodically and determines the flow in both supply
and delivery system. In a positive displacement pump there is no direct communication
between the suction and discharge circuit. As a rule, a positive displacement pump is self-
priming.
Piston Pumps
A reciprocating piston pump basically consists of a piston, two valves and suction and a
delivery pipe. In the traditional piston pump the upper valve is usually situated in the
piston and known as the piston valve; the lower valve is called the foot valve. If the upper
valve is not integrated in the piston, the pump is usually called a plunger pump.
Centrifugal (Roto Dynamic) pumps
These pumps are based on the principle of imparting kinetic energy to the water. In these
pumps water enters axially and is discharged by the rotor into a discharge pipe. They have
an impeller which rotates in a casing of a special shape. The impeller vanes accelerate the
water, which is thrown out by the centrifugal force. The shape of the casing is designed to
effectively build up a high pressure at the pump outlet. In Figure below, a single stage of a
centrifugal pump is shown. This type of pumps are typically driven by an electric motor or
combustion engine and installed above ground level.
Each impeller together with its casing is called a stage. If more pressure is needed than can
be created by a single stage, several stages can be mounted in series on a common shaft to
form a multi-stage pump , Pump operation may be modeled by a system of affinity laws
that show a relationship between rpm, flow rate, and power. Understanding these basic
relationships, shown below, is very important in considering the performance of a
pumping system.
Where Q= Water discharge, H =Total head, P= the power, D=the impeller diameter and
N=the speed of pump (rpm). , Htotal=hd+hfd+hs+hfs
The Water power can be determined as follow P= g.H.Q (kW) Where g= Gravity
Accelerator
Because the pump and motor cannot be work in 100% efficiency, the power needed to
operate can be calculated as =P/ (ep*et*em)
Where ep= Pump efficiency, et= Transportation efficiency and em= Motor efficiency
Ex1:- calculate the power needed to operate a centrifuge pump in kW if you know the
discharge is 0.25 m3/s and the total head is 30 m, overall efficiency of system is 0.7.
Ex2:- estimate the changes in pump performance for example 1 above resulting from a
change in
1- Pump speed from 1000 rpm to 1500 rpm.
2- Diameter of impeller from 0.3 m to 0.4 m.
Section Lift
Section Lift (hs) is the allowable deference between water level and the centerline
of the pump
hs = (10.33 *A.P/760)-(hf+hv+hvapor)
where:-
hf= head losses due to friction and fitting (m)
hv= head losses due to velocity (m)
hvapor= water vapor pressure (m)
A.P= atmospheric pressure (mm Hg)
EX:- ------------------------------
Operating Head and Discharge in Pumps

To find the optimum operating head and discharge we need to estimate the total
head at drift side from the below equation
H= hstatic +hf +hv
Where:-
hf = f l Q2 /2 g d A2
hv = Q2 / 2gA2
the we draw the total head vs disgorge on normal scale paper then draw the pump
characteristics curve and fined the optimum Q and H.
Ex:----------------------------
Water Treatment Plants
General layout
Water Intake
Types of Intakes
1- Riever Intake
 Direct Intake
 In direct Intake
2- Cannel Intake
3- Reservoir Intake
Components of intake
1- Coerce screen
2- Cylindrical or bell mouth Strainer
3- Raw water gravity pipe
4- Sluice gate or Sluice valve
5- Intake well or Suction well
6- Foot valve
7- Suction pipe of law lift pump
8- Backwash pipe
Design Criteria of intake components
1- Strainers
 Velocity through the openings (0.15-0.3 m/s)
 Opening diameters (6-12 mm)
 Total area = 2 * effective area where effective area= the sum of
total opening areas
2- Raw water gravity pipe
The velocity throw the pipe (0.6-1.5 m/s) (at low level of water
not less than 0.6 m/s and at high level of water not exceed 1.5
m/s)
3- Intake well
 Two wells at lest
 Detention time 20 min or it is enough for maintenance.
 The bed of it 1.5 m below low water level or 1m below riverbed
4- Suction pipe of law lift pump
The velocity throws the pipe (0.6-1.5 m/s)
5- Backwash pipe
 The velocity through the pipe not less than 3 m/s
 Qbackwash=(1/3) Qin
 Treated water should be used for washing.
Ex:- water treatment plant treated 5 m3/min, design a- cylindrical strainer
b- intake well if you know that high water level 2 m below ground and low
water level 3 m below ground level , and c- backwash pipe.
Coagulation and Flocculation
All waters, especially surface waters, contain both dissolved and suspended
particles. Coagulation and flocculation processes are used to separate the
suspended solids portion from the water, The suspended particles vary
considerably in source, composition charge, particle size, shape, and density.
COAGULATION
The first step destabilizes the particle’s charges. Coagulants with charges
opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the water to neutralize the
negative charges on dispersed non-settable solids such as clay and color-
producing organic substances, A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse
the coagulant and promote particle collisions is needed to achieve good
coagulation. Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but insufficient mixing
will leave this step incomplete. Coagulants should be added where sufficient
mixing will occur. Proper contact time in the rapid-mix chamber is typically 30
sec to 2 minutes.
FLOCCULATION
Following the first step of coagulation, a second process called flocculation
occurs. Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from
submicroscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles. The microflocs are
brought into contact with each other through the process of slow mixing. Once
the floc has reached it optimum size and strength, the water is ready for the
sedimentation process. Design contact times for flocculation range from 15 or
20 minutes to about 1 hour or more.
CONVENTIONAL PLANTS
Conventional plant designs separate the coagulation, or rapid-mix, stage from
the flocculation, or slow-mix, stage. Normally this is followed by a
sedimentation stage
COMBINATION UNITS
Some designs incorporate coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation within a
single unit
COAGULANT SELECTION
The choice of coagulant chemical depends upon the nature of the suspended
solid to be removed, the raw water conditions, the facility design, and the cost
of the amount of chemical necessary to produce the desired result.
Final selection of the coagulant (or coagulants) should be made following
thorough jar testing and plant scale evaluation. Considerations must be given to
required effluent quality,.
Inorganic Coagulants
Inorganic coagulants such as aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly
used. When added to the water, they furnish highly charged ions to neutralize
the suspended particles.
Inorganic Coagulant Reactions
Common coagulant chemicals used are alum, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride,
ferrous sulfate, and sodium aluminates. The first four will lower the alkalinity
and pH of the solution while the sodium aluminates will add alkalinity and raise
the pH. The reactions of each follow:
ALUM
A12(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 ========= 2 Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6 CO2
Aluminum + Calcium ========= Aluminum + Calcium + Carbon
Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide
(Already in the water to treat)
FERRIC SULFATE
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 ========= 2 Fe(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6 CO2
Ferric + Calcium ========= Ferric + Calcium + Carbon
(present in the water to treat)
FERRIC CHLORIDE
2 Fe Cl3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 =========2 Fe(OH)3 + 3CaCl2 + 6CO2
Ferric + Calcium ========= Ferric + Calcium + Carbon
Chloride Bicarbonate Hydroxide Chloride Dioxide
FERROUS SULFATE
FeS04 + Ca(HCO3)2 ========= Fe(OH)2 + CaS04 + 2CO2
Ferrous + Calcium ========= Ferrous + Calcium + Carbon
POLYMERS
Polymers--long-chained, high-molecular-weight, organic chemicals--are
becoming more widely used, especially as coagulant aids together with the
regular inorganic coagulants. Anionic (negatively charged) polymers are often
used with metal coagulants. Low-to-medium weight positively charged
(cationic) polymers may be used alone or in combination with the aluminum
and iron type coagulants to attract the suspended solids and neutralize their
surface charge.
Polymers are effective over a wider pH range than inorganic coagulants. They
can be applied at lower doses, and they do not consume alkalinity. They
produce smaller volumes of more concentrated, rapidly settling floc.
DESIGN OF RAPID MIXING (COAGULATION) UNITS
Rapid mixing unit provide
1- Complete mixing of the coagulant and raw water.
2- Destabilization of colloidal particle
3- Early stages of floc formation
Types of Rapid Mixing Units
1- Hydraulic mixing units
2- Mechanically mixing units
Design Criteria:
G for rapid mix = 700-1000 sec-1
t (detention time) for rapid mixing = 20-60 sec
P =μG2V , P= power(watt) , V= volume of tank (max 8 m3)
It may be single compartment or double compartment
→ Single compartment basins are usually circular or square in plan view
Liquid depth = 1-1.25 x (basin diameter or width)
→ Small baffles are desirable to minimize vortexing.
Impellers Type
EX:- A square rapid-mixing basin, with a depth of water equal to 1.25 times the
width, is to be designed for a flow of 7570 m3/d. The velocity gradient is to be
790 sec-1, the detention time is 40 seconds, dose of Alum is 35mg/l and dynamic
viscosity of water is 0.0013 N-s/m2, Determine:
1- The basin dimensions
2- The power required
3- Quantity of Alum used per day.
Flocculation
¾Agitation is provided by:

− Mechanical agitation (most common) OR
− Pneumatic agitation
¾Mechanical agitation is provided using:
− Paddle wheels (most common)
− Turbines
− Propellers
11
Flocculation
¾Complete flocculation depends on:
− The relative ease and rate of by which the small microfloc
aggregate into large floc particles
− Number of particle collisions
¾OR in other words, it depends on:
− Floc characteristics
− G (if G is too high, large floc will not be formed)
− GT (gives indication on the number of collisions)
¾Fragile flocs require low G values (<5/sec)
¾High-strength flocs require high G values
(≈10/sec)
12
Flocculation Basins
¾Designed to provide tapered flocculation
[decreasing G values (high 50 to low 20 to lower
10/sec)]
¾Horizontal and vertical shafts are used to mount
the paddle wheel
¾Flocculation basins are composed of minimum 3
compartments to:
− Minimize short circuiting
− Facilitate tapered flocculation
High Low Lower

G G G
13
Flocculation Basins
¾For cross-flow, tapered flocculation can be

provided by:
− Varying the paddle size
− Varying the number of paddles
− Varying the diameter of the paddle wheels
− Varying the rotational speed of the various shafts
¾For axial-flow, tapered flocculation can be
provided by:
− Varying the paddle size
− Varying the number of paddles
14
Baffled Basins or
P = ρ*g*h/t = G2*μ
Where, t = detention time in sec, P= power in watt/m3
Ex:- flow throw baffled basin is 12 m3/min , the head losses throw the basin is 1
m and the detention time is 40 min
Estimate G and GT
Ex:- Estimate the power required to rotate the paddle at 5 rpm , G and GT for a
rectangular flocculater tank have 4 horizontal cross flow shafts each one carry
4 paddles 30 cm * 7.5 m if you know that ,Q= 60000 m3/day, Tank dimensions
are 6*8*25 m.
The distance between shaft and paddle center is 2.8 m., Cd= 1.8
Viscosity of water 1.002*10-2 N.s/m2, and velocity of paddle equal to 63% from
final velocity.
SEDIMENTATION
Some basic definitions will aid in understanding the basic concept and aim
of sedimentation.
Sedimentation , also known as settling, may be defined as the removal of
solid particles from a suspension by settling under gravity.
Clarification is a similar term, which usually refers specifically to the
function of a sedimentation tank in removing suspended matter from the
water to give a clarified effluent. In a broader sense, clarification could
include flotation and filtration.
Thickening in sedimentation tanks is the process whereby the settled
impurities are concentrated and compacted on the floor of the tank and in the
sludge-collecting hoppers.
Concentrated impurities withdrawn from the bottom of sedimentation tanks
are called sludge, while material that floats to the top of the tank is called
scum.
In water treatment, sedimentation is commonly used to remove impurities
that have been rendered settleable by coagulation and flocculation, as when
removing turbidity and color. Precipitates formed in processes such as water
softening by chemical precipitation are also removed by sedimentation.
Classification of settling behavior
Several cases of settling behavior may be distinguished on the basis of the
nature of the particles to be removed and their concentration.
Common classifications of settling behavior are:
Class I - Unlimited settling of discrete particles
Class II - Settling of dilute suspensions of flocculent particles
Class III - Hindered settling and zone settling
Class IV - Compression settling (compaction).
The general conclusion, that Vs depends on a particular diameter, particle
density and, under some conditions, also on fluid viscosity and hence on
temperature, is important in understanding sedimentation behavior.
Furthermore, in practical sedimentation tanks, the terminal settling velocity
is quickly reached, so, for non-flocculent particles and uniform fluid flow
the settling velocity is constant throughout the settling time. This fact can be
usefully applied to a study of settling in an ideal sedimentation tank to
provide an important design principle for sedimentation processes.
Idealized representations of three common types of sedimentation tanks are
shown in Fig 2.5: (a) rectangular horizontal flow, (b) circular radial flow.
The ideal rectangular horizontal flow sedimentation tank is considered
divided into four zones (Fig 2.5a)
a Inlet zone - in which momentum is dissipated and flow is established in
a uniform forward direction
b Settling zone - where quiescent settling is assumed to occur as the
water flows towards the outlet
c Outlet zone - in which the flow converges upwards to the decanting
weirs or launders
d Sludge zone - where settled material collects and is moved towards
sludge hoppers for withdrawal. It is assumed that once a particle
reaches the sludge zone it is effectively removed from the flow.
The critical particle in the settling zone of an ideal rectangular sedimentation
tank, for design purposes, will be one that enters at the top of the settling
zone, at point A, and settles with a velocity just sufficient to reach the sludge
zone at the outlet end of the tank, at point B. The velocity components of
such a particle are Vh in the horizontal direction and Vs, the terminal settling
velocity, in the vertical direction.
From the geometry of the tank it is apparent that the time required for the
particle to settle, to, is given by
H
to = = L/vs
Vp
but, since Vs = Q/WH, then Vs = Q/WL, where Q is the rate of flow, and L,
W and H are the length, width and depth of the tank, respectively. Since the
surface area of the tank, A, is WL, then
Vs = Q/A
According to this relationship, the slowest-settling particles, which could be

expected to be completely removed in an ideal sedimentation tank would
have a settling velocity of Q/A. Hence this parameter, which is called the
surface loading rate or overflow rate, is a fundamental parameter governing
sedimentation tank performance.
This relationship also implies that sedimentation efficiency is independent of
tank depth - a condition that holds true only if the forward velocity is low
enough to ensure that the settled material is not scoured and re-suspended
from the tank floor.
A similar analysis of an ideal circular radial flow sedimentation tank is
summarized in Fig 2.5b from which it is seen that the same relationship, V s
= Q/A, is obtained.
Figure 2.5 Definition for ideal settling in sedimentation tanks
(a) rectangular horizontal flow tank,
(b) circular radial flow tank,
(c) upflow tank
Design of sedimentation tanks

Sedimentation theory, predicts that, in the case of ideal settling, the main
design parameter to be considered is surface loading rate, Q/A, because it
represents the critical particle settling velocity for complete removal.
Practical Class II settling likewise requires that adequate depth, H, or
detention time, t, be provided in order to allow flocculation to take place.
Uniform flow distribution cannot always be assumed in practice owing to
density currents, inadequate dissipation of momentum at the tank inlet and
drawdown effects at the effluent weirs. As a result of all these effects,
surface loadings and detention times derived from theory should be
multiplied by a suitable safety factor, typically 1.7 to 2.5, for practical
design.
These considerations apply to all three types of tank commonly used for
Class II sedimentation, namely rectangular horizontal flow tanks, circular
radial flow tanks and square up flow tanks.
In the case of Class III sedimentation, it was also shown that the surface
loading rate is the major parameter to be considered in design. Most of the
following development of theory therefore applies to the design of both
Class II and Class III sedimentation tanks.
The design of sedimentation tanks for a given flow rate Q, involves the
selection of the surface loading rate, Q/A, from which the required tank
surface area may be calculated, and either tank depth, H, or detention time, t.
The relationships between the various parameters concerned can be
expressed as shown below.
For Q in m3/h and A in m2, the particle settling velocity, Vp (m/h) is given
by
Vp = Q/A [2.8]
Detention time (hours) is
AH
Q
, where H is depth (m) [2.9]
The forward velocity must also be considered in rectangular tanks, as
excessive velocity may result in the scouring and re-suspension of settled
sludge. This requirement influences the choice of length-to-width ratio for
such tanks.
Forward velocity, Vh (m/h), is given by
Vh = Q , where W is width of tank (m)
WH
or,
Vh = Lt , where L is length of tank [2.10]
Where L = length of tank (m)
t = detention time (hours)
Weir loading rate, Q/Lw, is important in rectangular tanks. A single weir
across the end of these tanks is considered too short to prevent the influence
of the approach current generated by the weir from extending upstream into
the settling zone, with possible disruption of the flow pattern through the
tank. The length of the weir can be doubled by placing a collection trough
in the tank at the surface just before the end of the tank so that the water can
flow into the trough from both sides. If this is still insufficient for larger
tanks, the weir length can be increased by providing multiple suspended
weir troughs, designed to limit the maximum weir loading rate to about 12
m3/m.h (4 - 8 more typical). In circular radial flow tanks, the weir loading
rate on a single perimeter weir, is usually within the normal range of values,
so that suspended weirs are not necessary for small circular tanks. The
water then runs over the weir into a collection trough all along the whole
perimeter of the tank. From there, it would run into one or more pipes or
channels to take the water to the sand filters. In larger radial tanks, the
trough is placed within the tank, a little distance from the outer edge. It is
placed at such a depth as to then make both sides of the trough overflow
weirs into the trough. This almost doubles the length of the weir compared
with a single, peripheral weir.
Inlets should be designed to dissipate the momentum and accurately
distribute the incoming flow in such a way as to establish the required flow
pattern in the tank.
Horizontal flow sedimentation tanks
Some practical design data are provided for based on practical experiences.
Various features must be incorporated into the design to obtain an efficient
sedimentation process. The inlet to the tank must provide uniform
distribution of flow across the tank. If more than one tank exists, the inlet
must provide equal flow to each tank. Baffle walls are often placed at the
inlet to distribute even flow, by use of 100-200 mm diameter holes evenly
spaced across the width of the wall. Table 2.1 lists typical values.
Parameter Design value
Surface loading rate (m3/m2.d) 20-60

Mean horizontal velocity (m/min) 0.15-0.90
Water depth (m) 3-5
Detention time (min) 120-240
Weir loading rate (m3/m-d) 100-200
L:W 3-6 (typical= 4)
Table 2.1 Horizontal flow sedimentation tanks

Example 1
Design a sedimentation tank for a flow (Q) of 1000 m3/d. Determine the
dimensions of the tank and the outflow weir length. Assume suitable design
criteria.
Solution
Assume an overflow rate (OFR) of 20 m3/m2.d as a typical value.
Area = Q = 1000 = 50 m2
OFR 20
Assuming a detention time (DT) of 2 h,
2
Volume = Q x DT = 1000 x 24 = 83.3 m3
V 83.3
Depth = A
= = 1.7 m
50
If width (W) to length (L) ratio is 1:3, then
A = 3W2 = 50
W = 4.1 m
L = 3W = 12.3 m
Assuming a weir loading rate (WLR) of 160 m3/m.d,
Q 1000
Minimum weir length = = = 6.3 m
WLR 160
In order to accommodate this required weir length, a double trough at the
end of the tank would suffice, having a length of 8m.
Example 2
Design a coagulation sedimentation tank with a continuous flow for treating
water for a population of 45,000 persons with an average daily consumption
of 135 L/person. Assume a surface loading rate of 0.9 m3m-2h-1 and that the
weir loading rate is within acceptable limits.
Solution
Average consumption = 135 x 45,000 = 6,075,000 L/d.
Allow 1.8 times for maximum daily consumption:
Maximum daily consumption = 1.8 x 6,075,000 = 10,935m3/d.
Therefore, required surface area of the tank = (10,935/24)/0.9 = 506 m2.
Assume minimum depth of tank = 3.5 m.
Therefore, (settling) volume of the tank = 506 x 3.5 = 1772 m3.
Assume a length to width ratio of the tank of 3.5:1. Therefore the width
would be
= 506/3.5w2 m = 12m
Therefore, length of tank = 3.5 x 12 = 42 m.
Assuming a bottom slope of 1 in 60.
Depth of the deep end (at the influent end) = 3.5 + (1/60) x 42 = 4.2 m.
A floc chamber should be provided, at the entry to the tank, the capacity of
which is assumed to be 1/16 of the settling chamber, i.e. = 1772/16
= 110.8 m3.
If the depth of floc chamber is 2.5 m, then
the area of the floc chamber = 110.8/2.5 = 44.3 m2.
The flocculation chamber also has a width equal to the sedimentation
chamber, ie 12m. Therefore, length of floc chamber = 45.562/12  3.8m.
It should be considered to add this length to the settling tank as it would
otherwise reduce the settling volume by 3.8/42 = 9%. However, considering
that we have already provided amply for maximum flow conditions, we
could still fit the flocculation unit within the tank.
The overall removal of particles from a discrete suspension in a
horizontal flow sedimentation basin can be estimated from the suspension
settling velocity distribution curve, as illustrated in Fig 4.2. In addition to
Ex:- estimate the overall settling efficiency for a desecrate settling

particles analyses for the data given below if you know that the
data collected from 2 m depth and the SOR is 0.03 m/sec
Then find the change in removal efficiency If we doubled the

surface area of the basin
Clarifflocculator
Flocculation tank depth (2-5) m, the detention time 20-60 min
Clarification tank depth (1-1.6 m deeper than flocculation tank or (3-7
m), the detention time 2- 4 hr
Ex:- for a flow of 12000 m3/day. Design a clarifflocculator unit, and

check the SOR
Rapid Sand Filter
The enclosure tank is usually smaller in size and is therefore placed under a
roof. The tank is generally rectangular in plan,constructed either in masonary or of
concrete,coated with water proof material.The depth of tank may vary between2.5 to
3.5m.Each unit may have a surface area of 20 to 50 m2 .They are arranged in series.The
length to width ratio is normally kept between 1.25 to 1.35.In addition to the underdrainage
system, the tanks also have C.I or R.C.C troughs spanning across the length or width of the
walls for the distribution of water to be filtered during normal operation, and for collection of
water during cleaning operation.During normal filtration operation the trough remain
submerged. figure(i) shows the details.
Design steps followed in the programme:
a. Rate of filtration assumed between 3000-5000 l/ m2 .h

b. Quantity of filtered water required per hour is calculated
c. Filter area is calculated
d. Length to breadth ratio is taken as 1.3
e. If area comes out to be greater than 50m2 no. of filter units goes on
increasing according to the area
f. Back wash
Time 3-10 min ( 5 min)
Q 25-37 m3/m2.h
Air pressure 1-1.5 bar
Water pressure 1-2 bar
g. Free board 0.6 m
h. Total depth (sand and gravel) 1-1.2 m
Figure(i)
2
ESTIMATION OF SAND DEPTH
The depth of sand bed should be such that the flocs do not break through the
sand bed .Normally the depth of sand varies from 60 to 90 cm .figure (ii) shows
sand layer and gravel layer in a filter
Base material:
The filter sand media is supported on base material consisting of graded gravel
layers. The gravel should be free from clay, dire, vegetables and organic matter
and should be hard, durable and round. Its total depth varies from 45 to 60 cm
and is normally laid in the following layers:
LAYER DEPTH GRADE SIZE
Top most layer 15 cm 2mm to 6mm
Intermediate layer 15 cm 6mm to 12mm
Intermediate layer 15 cm 12mm to 20mm
Bottom layer 15 cm 20mm to 50mm
Design of underdrainage system :
The under drainage system serves the following purposes-

1. Collects the filtered water uniformly over the gravel bed
2. Provides uniform distribution of backwash water without disturbing or upsetting the gravel
bed and filter media.
There are many types of underdrainage systems ,but in this programme

Perforated pipe system has been designed.Also the pipe and the strainer system has been
discussed in the following page. This system consists of a main header with several pipe
laterals on both sides. In this, head differences over the bed are minimized by keeping
velocities in the pipe and conduit within proper range and using orifices of proper sizes,
number and spacing. The laterals are placed at distances of 15 to 30cm centres.The laterals
have perforations on the under side with 6 to 12mm openings, which make an angle of 30o
with the vertical. Placing openings on the underside requires supporting the laterals on
concrete blocks 4cm above filter bottom. This system requires about 700 litres of water per
minute per m2of filter area for back washing.Figure(iv) in next page shows the view of rapid
gravity filter with the underdrainage system.
General rules considered in the underdrainage system:

1. ratio of length to diameter of laterals should not exceed 60.Spacing of laterals should
be between 150 to 300mm
2. Diameter of perforation in the laterals should be between 5 to 12mm.
3. spacing of perforation varies from 80mm to 200mm.
4. Ratio of total area of perforations in the underdrainage system to the total cross
sectional area of laterals should not exceed 0.5 to 0.25 (2 if opining D=12 mm ,4 if opining D=5 mm)
5. Ratio of total area of perforations in the underdrainage system to the entire filter area
may be as low as 0.002 to 0.003
6. Area of manifold should be preferably 1.5 to 2 times total area of laterals to minimize
frictional losses and to give best distribution
Steps considered for design - in the programme:

1. Area of perforation taken as 0.003 times the total filter area
2. 12 mm dia. Perforations are considered in our design
3. area of laterals is taken as 2 times the area of perforations
4. Area of manifold taken as 2 times the area of laterals
5. diameter of the manifold is found out
6. Considering a spacing of 15cm in the laterals number of laterals is found out
7. Length of each lateral is found outnumber of perforations in each lateral is found out
8. Check :Ratio of length of lateral to diameter of lateral should be less than 60
12
WASH WATER TROUGHS:
Wash water troughs are provided at the top of filter to collect back wash water after it
emerges from the sand bed and to conduct it to the wash water gullet or drain.They are C.I. or
R.C.C troughs spanning across the width or length of the tanks. The bottom of the trough is
kept above the top of the expanded sand to prevent possibility of loss of sand during
backwashing .At the same time the upper edge of the trough should be placed sufficiently
near to the surface of sand so that a large quantity of dirty water is not left in the filter after
completion of washing .The trough should be large enough to carry all the water delivered to
it with F.B. of 6 to 8 cm. Any submergence of the gutter will reduce the efficiency of the
wash. The bottom of the trough is kept at least 5cm above the top level of sand .The spacing
of wash water troughs is kept between 1.5 to 2 cm.figure(iii) shows the arrangement of wash
water trough in rapid filters.
DESIGN OF WSH WATER TROUGH :

Spacing of troughs = width of trough / number of trough
Discharge per trough = total discharge/ number of troughs
Water depth (y) at upper end is given by
Q= 1.376*b*y3/2
Depth of trough = free board + water depth
Figure(iii) Arrangement of wash water trough
10
Public Water Supply 469
chloramines are respectively 51.5, 85.9, and 120.4. Therefore, the chlo-
ramines contain 1.38, 1.65, and 1.85 g of available chlorine per gram of
chloramine, respectively.
The pH of the water is the most important factor on the formation of
chloramine species. In general, monochloramine is formed at pH above
7. The optimum pH for producing monochloramine is approximately 8.4.
When the molar ratio of chlorine to ammonia

is greater than 1.0, there is a reduction of chlorine and oxidation of
Breakpoint chlorination.
ammonia. A substantially complete oxidation—reduction process occurs

in ideal conditions by a 2:1 ratio and results in the disappearance of all
ammonium ions with excess free chlorine residual. This is called the
breakpoint phenomenon. As shown in Fig. 5.11, chlorine reacts with
easily oxidized constituents, such as iron, hydrogen sulﬁde, and some
organic matter. It then continues to oxidize ammonia to form chlo-
ramines and chloroorganic compound below a Cl2:NH1 4 ratio of 5.0
(which is around the peak). The destruction of chloramines and chloroor-
ganic compounds are between the ratio of 5.0 and 7.6. The ratio at 7.6
is the breakpoint. All chloramines and other compounds are virtually
oxidized. Further addition of chlorine becomes free available chlorine,
HOCl, and OCl⫺. At this region, it is called breakpoint chlorination.
The breakpoint chlorination can be used as a means of ammonia
nitrogen removal from waters and wastewaters. The reaction is:
2NH3 ⫹ 3HOCl ↔ N2 ↑ ⫹ 3H⫹ ⫹ 3Cl⫺ ⫹ 3H2O (5.165)
or 2NH3 ⫹ 3Cl2 ↔ N2 ↑ ⫹ 6HCl (5.166)
NH3 ⫹ 4Cl2 ⫹ 3H2O ↔ NO⫺

3 ⫹ 8Cl ⫹ 9H
⫺ ⫹
(5.167)
Figure 5.11 Theoretical drawing of breakpoint chlorination curve.

CHAPTER 8
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
 Distribution system is a network of pipelines that distribute water to the consumers.

 They are designed to adequately satisfy the water requirement for a combination of
o Domestic
o Commercial
o Industrial
o Fire fighting purposes.
 A good distribution system should satisfy the followings:
o Adequate water pressure at the consumer's taps for a specific rate of flow (i.e,
pressures should be great enough to adequately meet consumer needs).
o Pressures should be great enough to adequately meet fire fighting needs.
o At the same time, pressures should not be excessive because development of the
pressure head brings important cost consideration and as pressure increases
leakages increases too.
 Note: In tower buildings, it is often necessary to provide booster pumps to
elevate the water to upper floors.
o Purity of distributed water should be maintained. This requires distribution
system to be completely water-tight.
o Maintenance of the distribution system should be easy and economical.
o Water should remain available during breakdown periods of pipeline. System of
distribution should not such that if one pipe bursts, it puts a large area without
water. If a particular pipe length is under repair and has been shut down, the
water to the population living in the down-stream side of this pipeline should be
available from other pipeline.
o During repairs, it should not cause any obstruction to traffic. In other words, the
pipelines should not be laid under highways, carriage ways but below foot paths.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
A. Branching pattern with dead end.

B. Grid pattern
C. Grid pattern with loop.
A. Branching Pattern with Dead End
Reservoir
Sub-main
Sub-main
Branches
Main (trunk) line

 Similar to the branching of a tree.
 It consists of
o Main (trunk) line
o Sub-mains
o Branches
 Main line is the main source of water supply. There is no water distribution to
consumers from trunk line.
 Sub-mains are connected to the main line and they are along the main roads.
 Branches are connected to the sub-mains and they are along the streets.
 Lastly service connections are given to the consumers from branches.
Advantages:
 It is a very simple method of water distribution. Calculations are easy and simple to do.
 The required dimensions of the pipes are economical.
 This method requires comparatively less number of cut-off valves.
However, it is not usually favored in modern water works practice for the following
disadvantages.
Disadvantages:
 The area receiving water from a pipe under repair is without water until the work is
completed.
 In this system, there are large number of dead ends where water does not circulate but
remains static. Sediments accumulate due to stagnation of the dead end and bacterial
growth may occur at these points. To overcome this problem drain valves are provided
at dead ends and stagnant water is drained out by periodically opening these valves but
a large amount of water is wasted.
 It is difficult to maintain chlorine residual at the dead ends of the pipe.
 Water available for fire-fighting will be limited since it is being supplied by only one
water main.
 The pressure at the end of the line may become undesirably low as additional areas are
connected to the water supply system. This problem is common in many less-developed
countries.
B. Grid Pattern
Reservoir
Main line
 In grid pattern, all the pipes are interconnected with no dead-ends. In such a system,
water can reach any point from more than one direction.
Advantages:
 Since water in the supply system is free to flow in more than one direction, stagnation
does not occur as readily as in the branching pattern.
 In case of repair or break down in a pipe, the area connected to that pipe will continue to
receive water, as water will flow to that area from the other side.
 Water reaches all points with minimum head loss.
 At the time of fires, by manipulating the cut-off valves, plenty of water supply may be
diverted and concentrated for fire-fighting.
Disadvantages:
 Cost of pipe laying is more because relatively more length of pipes is required.
 More number of valves are required.
 The calculation of pipe sizes are more complicated.
C. Grid Pattern with Loops
Loops are provided in a grid pattern to improve water pressure in portions of a city
(industrial, business and commercial areas).
Loops should be strategically located so that as the city develops the water pressure should
be sustained.
The advantages and disadvantages of this pattern are the same as those of the grid pattern.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
 Diameter ≥ 80 mm.
For pipes with fire hydrants ≥ 100 mm.
 Velocity > 0.6 m/sec.
Common range is 1.0 - 1.5 m/sec.
If velocity < 0.6 m/sec (due to minimum diameter limit) then drain valve is used on
that pipe.
 Minimum pressure at the top of the highest floor of a building is about 5m.
According to İller Bankası Regulation:
Population ≤ 50000 then (P/δ)min =20 m.

52 PIPE NETWORK ANALYSIS
Hardy Cross Method

Analysis of a pipe network is essential to understand or evaluate a
pipe network system. In a branched pipe network, the pipe discharges
are unique and can be obtained simply by applying discharge
continuity equations at all the nodes. However, in case of a looped
pipe network, the number of pipes is too large to find the pipe
discharges by merely applying discharge continuity equations at
nodes. The analysis of looped network is carried out by using
additional equations found from the fact that while traversing along a
loop, as one reaches at the starting node, the net head loss is zero. The
analysis of looped network is involved, as the loop equations are
nonlinear in discharge. Hardy Cross (1885–1951), who was professor
of civil engineering at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign,
presented in 1936 a method for the analysis of looped pipe network
with specified inflow and outflows (Fair et al., 1981). The method is
based on the following basic equations of continuity of flow and head
loss that should be satisfied:
1. The sum of inflow and outflow at a node should be equal:
∑Qi = qj for all nodes j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , jL, (3:13)

Where Qi is the discharge in pipe i meeting at node (junction) j and qj
is nodal withdrawal at node j.
2. The algebraic sum of the head loss in a loop must be equal to zero:
∑ KiQi│Qi│ = 0 for all loops k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , kL, (3:14)

Loop k
3.7. ANALYSIS OF LOOPED NETWORKS 53
where
8fi Li
Ki ¼ , (3:15)
p2 gD5i
where i ¼ pipe link number to be summed up in the loop k.
In general, it is not possible to satisfy Eq. (3.14) with the initially assumed pipe dis-
charges satisfying nodal continuity equation. The discharges are modified so that
Eq. (3.14) becomes closer to zero in comparison with initially assumed discharges.
The modified pipe discharges are determined by applying a correction DQk to the
initially assumed pipe flows. Thus,
X
Ki (Qi þ DQk )j(Qi þ DQk )j ¼ 0: (3:16)
loop k
Expanding Eq. (3.16) and neglecting second power of DQk and simplifying Eq. (3.16),
the following equation is obtained:
P
Ki Qi jQi j
loop k
D Qk ¼ P : (3:17)
2 Ki jQi j
loop k
Knowing DQk, the corrections are applied as
Qi new ¼ Qi old þ DQk for all k: (3:18)
The overall procedure for the looped network analysis can be summarized in the follow-
ing steps:
1. Number all the nodes and pipe links. Also number the loops. For clarity, pipe
numbers are circled and the loop numbers are put in square brackets.
2. Adopt a sign convention that a pipe discharge is positive if it flows from a lower
node number to a higher node number, otherwise negative.
3. Apply nodal continuity equation at all the nodes to obtain pipe discharges.
Starting from nodes having two pipes with unknown discharges, assume an arbi-
trary discharge (say 0.1 m3/s) in one of the pipes and apply continuity equation
(3.13) to obtain discharge in the other pipe. Repeat the procedure until all the
pipe flows are known. If there exist more than two pipes having unknown dis-
charges, assume arbitrary discharges in all the pipes except one and apply con-
tinuity equation to get discharge in the other pipe. The total number of pipes
having arbitrary discharges should be equal to the total number of primary
loops in the network.
4. Assume friction factors fi ¼ 0.02 in all pipe links and compute corresponding Ki
using Eq. (3.15). However, fi can be calculated iteratively using Eq. (2.6a).
5. Assume loop pipe flow sign convention to apply loop discharge corrections;
generally, clockwise flows positive and counterclockwise flows negative are
considered.
6. Calculate DQk for the existing pipe flows and apply pipe corrections
algebraically.
7. Apply the similar procedure in all the loops of a pipe network.
Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the discharge corrections in all the loops are relatively very
small.
Example 3.3. A single looped network as shown in Fig. 3.10 has to be analyzed by the
Hardy Cross method for given inflow and outflow discharges. The pipe diameters D and
lengths L are shown in the figure. Use Darcy – Weisbach head loss – discharge relation-
ship assuming a constant friction factor f ¼ 0.02.
Solution
Step 1: The pipes, nodes, and loop are numbered as shown in Fig. 3.10.
Step 2: Adopt the following sign conventions:
A positive pipe discharge flows from a lower node to a higher node.
Inflow into a node is positive withdrawal negative.
In the summation process of Eq. (3.13), a positive sign is used if the discharge in
the pipe is out of the node under consideration. Otherwise, a negative sign will be
Figure 3.10. Single looped network.

attached to the discharge. For example in Fig. 3.10 at node 2, the flow in pipe 1 is
toward node 2, thus the Q1 at node 2 will be negative while applying Eq. (3.13).
Step 3: Apply continuity equation to obtain pipe discharges. Scanning the figure
for node 1, the discharges in pipes 1 and 4 are unknown. The nodal inflow
q1 is 0.6 m3/s and nodal outflow q3 ¼ 20.6 m3/s. The q2 and q3 are zero.
Assume an arbitrary flow of 0.1 m3/s in pipe 1 (Q1 ¼ 0.1 m3/s), meaning
thereby that the flow in pipe 1 is from node 1 to node 2. The discharge in
pipe Q4 can be calculated by applying continuity equation at node 1 as
Q1 þ Q4 ¼ q1 or Q4 ¼ q1 Q1 , hence Q4 ¼ 0:6 0:1 ¼ 0:5 m3=s:
The discharge in pipe 4 is positive meaning thereby that the flow will be from
node 1 to node 4 (toward higher numbering node).
Also applying continuity equation at node 2:
Q1 þ Q2 ¼ q2 or Q2 ¼ q2 þ Q1 , hence Q2 ¼ 0 þ 0:1 ¼ 0:1 m3=s:
Similarly applying continuity equation at node 3, flows in pipe Q3 ¼ 20.5 m3/s

can be calculated. The pipe flow directions for the initial flows are shown in
the figure.
Step 4: For assumed pipe friction factors fi ¼ 0.02, the calculated K values as
K ¼ 8f L=p2 gD5 for all the pipes are given in the Fig. 3.10.
Step 5: Adopted clockwise flows in pipes positive and counterclockwise flows
negative.
Step 6: The discharge correction for the initially assumed pipe discharges can be
calculated as follows:
Iteration 1
Corrected Flow
Flow in Pipe Q K KQjQj 2KjQj Q ¼ Q þ DQ
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
1 0.10 6528.93 65.29 1305.79 0.30
2 0.10 4352.62 43.53 870.52 0.30
3 20.50 6528.93 21632.23 6528.93 20.30
4 20.50 4352.62 21088.15 4352.62 20.30
Total 22611.57 13,057.85
DQ 2(22611.57/13,057) ¼ 0.20 m3/s
Repeat the process again for the revised pipe discharges as the discharge correction
is quite large in comparison to pipe flows:
Iteration 2
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
1 0.30 6528.93 587.60 3917.36 0.30
2 0.30 4352.62 391.74 2611.57 0.30
3 20.30 6528.93 2587.60 3917.36 20.30
4 20.30 4352.62 2391.74 2611.57 20.30
Total 0.00 13,057.85
DQ ¼2 (0/13,057) ¼ 0.00 m3/s
As the discharge correction DQ ¼ 0, the final discharges are
Q1 ¼ 0.3 m3/s
Q2 ¼ 0.3 m3/s
Q3 ¼ 0.3 m3/s
Q4 ¼ 0.3 m3/s.
Example 3.4. The pipe network of two loops as shown in Fig. 3.11 has to be analyzed
by the Hardy Cross method for pipe flows for given pipe lengths L and pipe diameters D.
The nodal inflow at node 1 and nodal outflow at node 3 are shown in the figure. Assume
a constant friction factor f ¼ 0.02.
Solution. Applying steps 1 – 7, the looped network analysis can be conducted as illus-
trated in this example. The K values for Darcy – Weisbach head loss – discharge relation-
ship are also given in Fig. 3.11.
To obtain initial pipe discharges applying nodal continuity equation, the arbitrary
pipe discharges equal to the total number of loops are assumed. The total number of
Figure 3.11. Looped network.

loops in a network can be obtained from the following geometric relationship:

Total number of loops ¼ Total number of pipes Total number of nodes þ 1
Moreover, in this example there are five pipes and four nodes. One can apply nodal con-
tinuity equation at three nodes (total number of nodes 2 1) only as, on the outcome of
the other nodal continuity equations, the nodal continuity at the fourth node (last node)
automatically gets satisfied. In this example there are five unknown pipe discharges, and
to obtain pipe discharges there are three known nodal continuity equations and two loop
head-loss equations.
To apply continuity equation for initial pipe discharges, the discharges in pipes 1
and 5 equal to 0.1 m3/s are assumed. The obtained discharges are
Q1 ¼ 0.1 m3/s (flow from node 1 to node 2)

The discharge correction DQ is applied in one loop at a time until the DQ is very
small in all the loops. DQ in Loop 1 (loop pipes 3, 4, and 5) and corrected pipe
discharges are given in the following table:
Loop 1: Iteration 1
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
3 20.40 49,576.12 27932.18 39,660.89 20.25
4 20.40 4352.36 2696.38 3481.89 20.25
5 0.10 59,491.34 594.91 11,898.27 0.25
Total 28033.64 55,041.05
DQ 0.15 m3/s
Thus the discharge correction DQ in loop 1 is 0.15 m3/s. The discharges in loop
pipes are corrected as shown in the above table. Applying the same methodology for
calculating DQ for Loop 2:
Loop 2: Iteration 1
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
1 0.10 6528.54 65.29 1305.71 0.19
2 0.10 33,050.74 330.51 6610.15 0.19
5 20.25 59,491.34 23598.93 29,264.66 20.16
Total 23203.14 37,180.52
DQ 0.09 m3/s
The process of discharge correction is in repeated until the DQ value is very small as
shown in the following tables:
Loop 1: Iteration 2
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
3 20.25 49,576.12 23098.51 24,788.06 20.21
4 20.25 4352.36 2272.02 2176.18 20.21
5 0.16 59,491.34 1522.98 19,037.23 0.20
Total 21847.55 46,001.47
DQ 0.04 m3/s
Loop 2: Iteration 2
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
1 0.19 6528.54 226.23 2430.59 0.21
2 0.19 33,050.74 1145.28 12,304.85 0.21
5 20.20 59,491.34 22383.53 23,815.92 20.17
Total 21012.02 38,551.36
DQ 0.03 m3/s
Loop 1: Iteration 3
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
3 20.210 49,576.12 22182.92 20,805.82 20.197
4 20.210 4352.36 2191.64 1826.57 20.197
5 0.174 59,491.34 1799.33 20,692.47 0.187
Total 2575.23 43,324.86
DQ 0.01 m3/s
Loop 2: Iteration 3
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
1 0.212 6528.54 294.53 2773.35 0.220
2 0.212 33,050.74 1491.07 14,040.10 0.220
5 20.187 59,491.34 22084.55 22,272.21 20.180
Total 2298.95 39,085.67
DQ 0.008 m3/s
Loop 1: Iteration 4
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
3 20.197 49,576.12 21915.41 19,489.36 20.193
4 20.197 4352.36 2168.16 1711.00 20.193
5 0.180 59,491.34 1917.68 21,362.18 0.183
Total 2165.89 42,562.54
DQ 0.004 m3/s
Loop 2: Iteration 4
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
1 0.220 6528.54 316.13 2873.22 0.222
2 0.220 33,050.74 1600.39 14,545.68 0.222
5 20.183 59,491.34 22001.85 21,825.91 20.181
Total 285.33 39,244.81
DQ 0.002 m3/s
Loop 1: Iteration 5
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
3 20.193 49,576.12 21840.21 19,102.92 20.192
4 20.193 4352.36 2161.55 1677.07 20.192
5 0.181 59,491.34 1954.67 21,567.21 0.182
Total 247.09 42,347.21
DQ 0.001 m3/s
Loop 2: Iteration 5
Corrected Flow
Pipe (m3/s) (s2/m5) (m) (s/m2) (m3/s)
1 0.222 6528.54 322.40 2901.61 0.223
2 0.222 33,050.74 1632.17 14,689.40 0.223
5 -0.182 59,491.34 21978.73 21,699.52 20.182
Total 224.15 39,290.53
DQ 0.001 m3/s
The discharge corrections in the loops are very small after five
iterations, thus the final pipe discharges in the looped pipe network in
Fig. 3.11 are
Q1 = 0.223 m3/s
Q2 = 0.223 m3/s
Q3 = 0.192 m3/s
Q4 = 0.192 m3/s
Q5 = 0.182 m3/s
Wastewater Treatment Facilities
576 Chapter 6
Figure 6.3 Flow chart for wastewater treatment processes.
devices (grinders, cutters, and shredders), flow equalization, grit cham-

bers, preaeration tanks, and (possibly) chlorination. The quality of waste-
water is not substantially improved by preliminary treatment.
13.2 Primary treatment systems

The object of primary treatment is to reduce the flow velocity of the
wastewater sufficiently to permit suspended solids to settle, i.e. to
Wastewater Engineering 577
remove settleable materials. Floating materials are also removed by

skimming. Thus, a primary treatment device may be called a settling
tank (or basin). Due to variations in design and operation, settling tanks
can be divided into four groups: plain sedimentation with mechanical
sludge removal, two story tanks (Imhoff tank, and several patented
units), upflow clarifiers with mechanical sludge removal, and septic
tanks. When chemicals are applied, other auxiliary units are needed.
Auxiliary units such as chemical feeders, mixing devices, and floccula-
tors (New York State Department of Health, 1950) and sludge (biosolids)
management (treatment and dispose of) are required if there is no fur-
ther treatment.
The physical process of sedimentation in settling tanks removes
approximately 50% to 70% of total suspended solids from the wastewater.
The BOD5 removal efficiency by primary system is 25% to 35%. When
certain coagulants are applied in settling tanks, much of the colloidal as
well as the settleable solids, or a total of 80% to 90% of TSS, is removed.
Approximately 10% of the phosphorus corresponding insoluble is nor-
mally removed by primary settling. During the primary treatment
process, biological activity in the wastewater is negligible.
Primary clarification is achieved commonly in large sedimentation
basins under relatively quiescent conditions. The settled solids are
then collected by mechanical scrapers into a hopper and pumped to a
sludge treatment unit. Fats, oils, greases and other floating matter
are skimmed off from the basin surface. The settling basin effluent is
discharged over weirs into a collection conduit for further treatment,
or to a discharging outfall.
In many cases, especially in developing countries, primary treatment
is adequate to permit the wastewater effluent discharge, due to proper
receiving water conditions or to the economic situation. Unfortunately,
many wastewaters are untreated and discharged in many countries. If
primary systems only are used, solids management and disinfection
processes should be included.
13.3 Secondary treatment systems

After primary treatment the wastewater still contains organic matter
in suspended, colloidal, and dissolved states. This matter should be
removed before discharging to receiving waters, to avoid interfering
with subsequent downstream users.
Secondary treatment is used to remove the soluble and colloidal
organic matter which remains after primary treatment. Although the
removal of those materials can be effected by physicochemical means
providing further removal of suspended solids, secondary treatment is
commonly referred to as the biological process.
582 Chapter 6
Figure 6.4 Profile for wastewater flowing through a bar screen.
with a discharge coefficient. Referring to Fig. 6.4, Bernoulli’s equation

can be used to estimate the headloss through bar racks:
v2 V2
h1 1 5 h2 1 (6.28)
2g 2g
1 ⌬h
and
V 2 2 v2
h 5 h1 2 h2 5 (6.29)
2gC 2
where h1 ⫽ upstream depth of water, m or ft

h2 ⫽ downstream depth of water, m or ft
h ⫽ headloss, m or ft
V ⫽ flow velocity through the bar rack, m/s or ft/s
v ⫽ approach velocity in upstream channel, m/s or ft/s
g ⫽ acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2
The headloss is usually incorporated into a discharge coefficient C; a typ-

ical value of C ⫽ 0.84, thus C 2 ⫽ 0.7. Equation (6.29) becomes (for bar racks)
1 V 2 2 v2 (6.30)
h5 a b
0.7 2g
Kirschmer (1926) proposed the following equation to describe the head-

loss through racks:
w 4/3 v2
H 5 Ba b sin u (6.31)
b 2g
where H ⫽ headloss, m
w ⫽ maximum width of the bar facing the flow, m
b ⫽ minimum clear spacing of bars, m
v ⫽ velocity of flow approaching the rack, m/s
g ⫽ gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2

u ⫽ angle of the rack to the horizontal
B ⫽ bar shape factor, as follows
Bar type B
Sharp-edged rectangular 2.42

Rectangular with semicircular face 1.83
Circular 1.79
Rectangular with semicircular upstream and
downstream faces 1.67
Tear shape 0.76
The maximum allowable headloss for a rack is about 0.60 to 0.70 m.

Racks should be cleaned when headloss is more than the allowable
values.
Example 1: Compute the velocity through a rack when the approach veloc-
ity is 0.60 m/s (2 ft/s) and the measured headloss is 38 mm (0.15 in)
solution: Using Eq. (6.30)
V 2 2 v2
h5
0.7s2gd
V 2 2 s0.6 m/sd2
0.038 m 5
0.7s2 3 9.81 m/sd2
V 2 5 0.882
V 5 0.94 m/s
5 3.08 ft/s
Example 2: Design a coarse screen and calculate the headloss through the
rack, using the following information:
Peak design wet weather flow ⫽ 0.631 m3/s (10,000 gal/min)

Velocity through rack at peak wet weather flow ⫽ 0.90 m/s (3 ft/s)
Velocity through rack at maximum design dry weather flow ⫽ 0.6 m/s (2 ft/s)
u ⫽ 60⬚, with a mechanical cleaning device
Upstream depth of wastewater ⫽ 1.12 m (3.67 ft)
solution:
Step 1. Calculate bar spacing and dimensions

608 Chapter 6
sludge is then removed by mechanical scrapers, or pumped. The float-

able substances on the tank surface are removed by a surface skimmer
device. The effluent flows to the secondary treatment units or is dis-
charged off (not in the United States and some countries).
The primary sedimentation tank is where the flow velocity of the
wastewater is reduced by plain sedimentation. The process commonly
removes particles with a settling rate of 0.3 to 0.6 mm/s (0.7 to 1.4 in/min).
In some cases, chemicals may be added. The benefits of primary sedimen-
tation are reduced suspended solids content, equalization of sidestream
flow, and BOD removal. The overflow rate of the primary sedimentation
tanks ranges from 24.5 to 49 m3/(m2 ⭈ d) (600 to 1200 gal/(d ⭈ ft2)). The
detention time in the tank is usually 1 to 3 h (typically 2 h). Primary
tanks (or primary clarifiers) should remove 90% to 95% of settleable
solids, 50% to 60% of total suspended solids, and 25% to 35% of the
BOD5 (NY Department of Health, 1950).
Settling characteristics in the primary clarifier are generally charac-
terized by type 2 flocculant settling. The Stokes formula for settling veloc-
ity cannot be used because the flocculated particles are continuously
changing in shape, size, and specific gravity. Since no mathematical equa-
tion can describe flocculant settling satisfactorily, laboratory analyses of
settling-column tests are commonly used to generate design information.
Some recommended standards for the design of primary clarifiers are
as follows (GLUMRB–Ten States Standards, 1996; Illinois EPA, 1998).
Multiple tanks capable of independent operation are desirable and shall
be provided in all plants where design average flows exceed 380 m3/d
(100,000 gal/d). The minimum length of flow from inlet to outlet should
be 3.0 m (10 ft) unless special provisions are made to prevent short cir-
cuiting. The side depth for primary clarifiers shall be as shallow as
practicable, but not less than 3.0 m (10 ft). Hydraulic surface settling
rates (overflow rates) of the clarifier shall be based on the anticipated
peak hourly flow. For normal domestic wastewater, the overflow rate,
with some indication of BOD removal, can be obtained from Fig. 6.11.
If waste-activated sludge is returned to the primary clarifier, the design
surface settling rate shall not exceed 41 m3/(m2⭈ d) (1000 gal/(d ⭈ ft2)).
The maximum surfaced settling rate for combined sewer overflow and
bypass settling shall not exceed 73.3 m3/(m2 ⭈ d) (1800 gal/(d ⭈ ft2)), based
on peak hourly flow. Weir loading rate shall not exceed 250 m3/d linear
meter (20,000 gal/(d ⭈ ft)), based on design peak hourly flow for plants
having a design average of 3785 m3/d (1 Mgal/d) or less. Weir loading
rates shall not exceed 373 m3/(d2 ⭈ m) (30,000 gal/(d ⭈ ft)), based on peak
design hourly flow for plants having a design average flow greater than
3785 m3/d (1.0 Mgal/d). Overflow rates, side water depths, and weir
loading rates recommended by various institutions for primary settling
tanks are listed elsewhere (WEF and ASCE, 1991a).
Figure 6.11 BOD5, removal in primary settling tank (source: Illinois EPA 1998).
In cases where a reliable loading–performance relationship is not

available, the primary tank design may be based on the overflow rates
and side water depths listed in Table 6.10. The design surface settling
is selected on the basis of Fig. 6.11 and Table 6.10. The hydraulic
TABLE 6.10 Typical Design Parameters for Primary Clarifiers
Surface settling rate,

m3/(m2 ⭈ d) (gal/(d ⭈ ft2))
Type of treatment Source Average Peak Depth, m (ft)
Primary settling US EPA, 1975a 33–19 81–122 3–3.7

followed by (800–1200) (2000–3000) (10–12)
secondary
treatment
GLUMEB–Ten States 600 Figure 6.11 minimum 2.1
Standards and Illinois (7)
EPA, 1998
Primary settling US EPA, 1975a 24–33 49–61 3.7–4.6
with waste (600–800) (1200–1500) (12–15)
activated sludge
return
Ten States Standards, ⱕ 41 ⱕ 61 3.0
GLUMRB, 1996
(ⱕ 1000) (ⱕ 1500) (10)
minimum
Inlet zone
Outlet
Settling zone zone
12
1
Figure 6.12 Typical circular basin design-plan view and cross section.
Peripheral weirs shall be placed at least 300 cm (1 ft) from the well (Ten
States Standards, GLUMRB, 1996).
Example 1: Design circular clarifiers using English system units with the
same given information as in the example for rectangular clarifiers design.
solution:
Step 1. Calculate surface area A

Use 90⬚ standard V notches at rate of 8 in center-to-center of the launders.

n ⫽ 125.6 ft ⫻ 12 in/ft ⫼ 8 in
⫽ 188
Step 7. Calculate average discharge per notch at average design flow q
q ⫽ 1,000,000 gal/d ⫻ (1 d/1440 min) ⫼ 188

⫽ 3.7 gal/min ⫽ 14 L/min
Example 2: If the surface overflow rate is 40 m3/(m2 ⭈ d) [982 gal/(d ⭈ ft2)] and
the weir overflow rate is 360 m3/(d ⭈ m) [29,000 gal/(d ⭈ ft)], determine the max-
imum radius for a circular primary clarifier with a single peripheral weir.
solution
Step 1. Compute the area (A) required with a flow (Q)
Let r ⫽ the radius of the clarifier

A ⫽ pr ⫽ Q/40 m /(m ⭈ d) or Q ⫽ 40 pr2
2 3 2
Step 2. Compute the weir length (⫽ 2pr)
2pr ⫽ Q/360 m /(d ⭈ m)

3
or
Q ⫽ 720pr m /(d ⭈ m)
3
Step 3. Compute r by solving the equations in Steps 1 and 2
pr2 ⫽ 720pr [m3/(d ⭈ m)]/40 [m3/(m2 ⭈ d)]

r ⫽ 18 m (59 ft)
20 Biological (Secondary) Treatment

Systems
The purpose of primary treatment is to remove suspended solids and
floating material. In many situations in some countries, primary treat-
ment with the resulting removal of approximately 40% to 60% of the sus-
pended solids and 25% to 35% of BOD5, together with removal of
material from the wastewater, is adequate to meet the requirement of
the receiving water body. If primary treatment is not sufficient to meet
the regulatory effluent standards, secondary treatment using a biolog-
ical process is mostly used for further treatment due to its greater
removal efficiency and less cost than chemical coagulation. Secondary
treatment processes are intended to remove the soluble and colloidal
organics (BOD) which remain after primary treatment and to achieve
further removal of suspended solids and, in some cases, also to remove
618 Chapter 6
nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen. Biological treatment

processes provide similar biological activities to waste assimilation,
which would take place in the receiving waters, but in a reasonably
shorter time. Secondary treatment may remove more than 85% of BOD5
and suspended matter, but is really not effective for removing nutrients,
nonbiodegradable organics, heavy metals, and microorganisms.
Biological treatment systems are designed to maintain a large active
mass and a variety of microorganisms, principally bacteria (and fungi,
protozoa, rotifers, algae, etc.), within the confined system under favor-
able environmental conditions, such as dissolved oxygen, nutrient, etc.
Biological treatment processes are generally classified mainly as sus-
pended growth processes (activated sludge, Fig. 6.13), attached (film)
growth processes (trickling filter and rotating biological contactor,
RBC), and dual-process systems (combined). Other biological waste-
water treatment processes include the stabilization pond, aerated
lagoon, contaminant pond, oxidation ditch, high-purity oxygen acti-
vated sludge, biological nitrification, denitrification, and phosphorus
removal units.
In the suspended biological treatment process, under continuous
supply of air or oxygen, living aerobic microorganisms are mixed thor-
oughly with the organics in the wastewater and use the organics as
food for their growth. As they grow, they clump or flocculate to form an
active mass of microbes. This is so-called biologic floc or activated sludge.
Figure 6.13 Conventional activated sludge process.

In the past, designs of activated-sludge processes were generally

based on empirical parameters such as BOD5 (simplified as BOD) load-
ings and aeration time (hydraulic retention time). In general, short
HRTs were used for weak wastewaters and long HRTs for strong
wastewaters. Nowadays, the basic theory and design parameters for the
activated-sludge process are well developed and generally accepted.
The different design approaches were proposed by researchers on the
basis of the concepts of BOD5, mass balance, and microbial growth kinet-
ics (McKinney, 1962; Eckenfelder, 1966; Jenkins and Garrison, 1968;
Eckenfelder and Ford, 1970; Lawrence and McCarty, 1970; Ramanathan
and Gaudy, 1971; Gaudy and Kincannon, 1977; Schroeder, 1977;
Bidstrup and Grady, 1988).
Solution of the theoretical sophisticated design equations and com-
puter models requires knowledge of microbial metabolism and growth
kinetics, with pilot studies to obtain design information. Alternatives
to such studies are: (1) to assume certain wastewater characteristics
and embark on a semiempirical design; and (2) to use an entirely empir-
ical approach relying on regulatory recommended standards (WEF and
ASCE, 1991a).
21.5 Process mathematical modeling

For almost half a century, numerous design criteria utilizing empirical
and rational parameters based on biological kinetic equations have been
developed for suspended-growth systems. A survey of major consulting
firms in the United States indicates that the basic Lawrence and
McCarty (1970) model is most widely used. Details of its development
can be obtained in the references (Lawrence and McCarty, 1970; Grady
and Lim, 1980; Qasim, 1985; Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1991). The basic
Lawrence and McCarty design equations used for sizing suspended-
growth systems are listed below.
The flow in a reactor is continuously stirred.

The contents of the reactor are mixed completely. It is called the
Complete mix with recycle.
complete-mix reactor or continuous flow stirred tank reactor. Ideally, it

is uniform throughout the tank. If the mass input rate into the reactor
remains constant, the content of the effluent remains constant.
For a complete-mix system, the mean hydraulic retention time (HRT)
u for the aeration tank is
u ⫽ V/Q (6.69)
where u ⫽ hydraulic retention time, day

V ⫽ volume of aeration tank, m
3
Q ⫽ influent wastewater flow, m3/d

628 Chapter 6
Figure 6.15 Schematic chart of complete-mix activated sludge reactor: (a) sludging wast-
ing from the aeration tank; (b) sludge wasting from return sludge line.
Referring to Fig. 6.15a, the mean cell residence time uc (or sludge age
or SRT) in the system is defined as the mass of organisms in the aeration
tank divided by the mass of organisms removed from the system per day,
and is expressed as
X
uc 5 (6.70)
s⌬X/⌬td
VX total mass SS in reactor

(6.71)
SS wasting rate
uc 5
QwaX 1 QeXe
5
where uc ⫽ mean cell residence time based on solids in the tank,

day
X ⫽ concentration of MLVSS maintained in the tank, mg/L
⌬X/⌬t ⫽ growth of biological sludge over time period ⌬t,
mg/(L ⭈ d)
Qwa ⫽ flow of waste sludge removed from the aeration
tank, m3/d
Qe ⫽ flow of treated effluent, m3/d
Xe ⫽ microorganism concentration (VSS) in effluent, mg/L
For system-drawn waste sludge from the return sludge line (Fig. 6.15b),
the mean cell residence time would be
VX
uc 5 (6.72)
Qwr X r 1 Qe Xe
where Qwr ⫽ flow of waste sludge from return sludge line, m3/d
Xr ⫽ microorganism concentration in return sludge line, mg/L
Microorganism and substrate mass balance. Because the term V ⫻ MLSS

in Eq. (6.63) is a function of SRT or uc and not HRT or return sludge ratio,
the F/M ratio is also a function only of SRT. Therefore, operation of an
activated-sludge plant at constant SRT will result in operation at a con-
stant F/M ratio.
The mass balance for the microorganisms in the entire activated sludge
system is expressed as the rate of accumulation of the micro-organisms
in the inflow plus net growth, minus that in the outflow. Mathematically,
it is expressed as (Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1991)
dX
V 5 QX0 1 Vsrrgd 2 sQwaX 1 Qe X ed (6.73)
dt
where V ⫽ volume of aeration tank, m3

dX/dt ⫽ rate of change of microorganisms concentration (VSS),
mg/(L ⭈ m3 ⭈ d)
Q ⫽ influent flow, m3/d
X0 ⫽ microorganisms concentration (VSS) in influent, mg/L
X ⫽ microorganisms concentration in tank, mg/L
r⬘g ⫽ net rate of microorganism growth (VSS), mg/(L ⭈ d)
Other terms are as in the above equations.
The net rate of bacterial growth is expressed as

rrg 5 Yrsu 2 kdX (6.74)
630 Chapter 6
where Y ⫽ maximum yield coefficient over finite period of log

growth, mg/mg
rsu ⫽ substrate utilization rate, mg/(m3 ⭈ d)
kd ⫽ endogenous decay coefficient, per day
Substituting Eq. (6.74) into Eq. (6.73), and assuming the cell con-
centration in the influent is zero and steady-state conditions, this
yields
(6.75)
QwaX 1 QeXe r
5 2Y su 2 kd
VX X
The left-hand side of Eq. (6.75) is the inverse of the mean cell residence
time uc as defined in Eq. (6.71); thus
1 r
5 2Y su 2 kd (6.76)
uc X
The term 1/uc is the net specific growth rate.

The term rsu can be computed from the following equation
Q S 2S
rsu 5 sS 2 Sd 5 0 (6.77)
V 0 u
where S0 ⫺ S ⫽ mass concentration of substrate utilized, mg/L

S0 ⫽ substrate concentration in influent, mg/L
S ⫽ substrate concentration in effluent, mg/L
u ⫽ hydraulic retention time (Eq. (6.69)), day
Effluent microorganism and substrate concentrations. The mass con-

centration of microorganisms X in the aeration tank can be derived by
substituting Eq. (6.77) into Eq. (6.76)
ucYsS0 2 Sd m sS 2 Sd
X5 5 m 0 (6.78)
us1 1 kducd ks1 2 kducd
where mm ⫽ maximum specific growth rate, per day

k ⫽ maximum rate of substrate utilization per unit mass of
microorganism, per day
Substituting for u from Eq. (6.69) for (6.78) and solving for the reactor
(aeration tank) volume yields
ucQYsS0 2 Sd
V5 (6.79)
Xs1 1 kducd
TABLE 6.12 Ranges and Typical Biological Kinetic Coefficients

for the Activated-Sludge Process for Domestic Wastewater
Coefficient Range Typical value
k, per day 11–20 5

kd, per day 0.025–0.075 0.06
Ks, mg/L BOD5 25–100 60
mg/L COD 15–70 40
Y, mg VSS/mg BOD5 0.4–0.8 0.6
SOURCE: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. (1991), Techobanoglous and Schroeder

(1985)
The substrate concentration in effluent S can also be determined from

the substrate mass balance by the following equation
Ks s1 1 uckdd
S5 (6.80)
uc sYk 2 kdd 2 1
where S ⫽ effluent substrate (soluble BOD5) concentration, mg/L

Ks ⫽ half-velocity constant, substrate concentration at one
half the maximum growth rate, mg/L
Other terms are as mentioned in previous equations.
The ranges of typical biological kinetic coefficients for activated-sludge

systems for domestic wastewater are given in Table 6.12. When the
kinetic coefficients are available, Eqs. (6.78) and (6.80) can be used to
predict densities of effluent microorganisms and substrate (soluble
BOD5) concentrations, respectively. They do not take into account influ-
ent suspended solids concentrations (primary effluent). They can be
used to evaluate the effectiveness of various treatment system changes.
Substituting the value of X given by Eq. (6.78) for r⬘g in Eq. (6.74), and
dividing by the term S0 ⫺ S which corresponds to the value of rsu
expressed as concentration value, the observed yield in the system with
recycle is
Y
Yobs 5 (6.81)
1 1 Kduc or uct
where Yobs ⫽ observed yield in the system with recycle, mg/mg

uct ⫽ mean of all residence times based on solids in the
aeration tank and in the secondary clarifier, day
Other terms are defined previously.
To predict the effluent bio-

mass and BOD5 concentration, the use of Eqs. (6.78) and (6.80) is difficult
Process design and control relationships.
632 Chapter 6
because many coefficients have to be known. In practice, the relation-

ship between specific substrate utilization rate, mean cell residence
time, and the food to microorganism (F/M) ratio is commonly used for
activated-sludge process design and process control.
In Eq. (6.76), the term (⫺rsu /X) is called the specific substrate utiliza-
tion rate (or food to microorganisms ratio), U. Applying rsu in Eq. (6.77),
the specific substrate utilization rate can be computed by
rsu
U 5 2 (6.82)
X
QsS0 2 Sd S 2S
U 5 5 0 (6.83)
VX uX
The term U is substituted for the term (–rsu/X) in Eq. (6.76). The result-
ing equation becomes
1
5 YU 2 kd (6.84)
uc
The term 1/uc is the net specific growth rate and is directly related
to U, the specific substrate utilization rate.
In order to determine the specific substrate utilization rate, the sub-
strate utilized and the biomass effective in the utilization must be given.
The substrate utilized can be computed from the difference between
the influent and the effluent BOD5 or COD.
In the complete-mix activated-sludge process with recycle, waste
sludge (cells) can be withdrawn from the tank or from the recycling
line. If waste sludge is withdrawn from the tank and the VSS in the
effluent Xe is negligible (QeXe ⬇ 0), Eq. (6.71) will (if Xe is very small)
be approximately rewritten as
VX
uc < (6.85)
QwaX
or
V
Qwa < (6.86)
uc
The flow rate of waste sludge from the sludge return line will be
approximately
VX
Qwr 5 (6.87)
ucXr
where Xr is the concentration (in mg/L) of sludge in the sludge return line.
In practice, the food-to-microorganism (F/M) ratio is widely used and

is closely related to the specific substrate utilization rate U. The F/M
(in per day) ratio is defined as the influent soluble BOD5 concentration
(S0) divided by the product of hydraulic retention time u and MLVSS con-
centration X in the aeration tank
S0 QS0 mg BOD5/d
F/M 5 (6.88)
VX mg MLVSS
5 5
uX
F/M and U are related by the efficiency E of the activated-sludge process

as follows:
U 5 (6.89)
sF/MdE
100
The value of E is determined by
S0 2 S
E 5 3 100 (6.90)
S0
where E ⫽ process efficiency, %

So ⫽ influent substrate concentration, mg/L
S ⫽ effluent substrate concentration, mg/L
Sludge production. The amount of sludge generated (increased) per day

affects the design of the sludge treatment and disposal facilities. It can
be calculated by
Px 5 YobsQsS0 2 Sd 4 s1000 g/kgd (SI units) (6.91)

Px 5 YobsQsS0 2 Sd s8.34d (British system) (6.92)
where Px ⫽ net waste activated sludge (VSS), kg/d or lb/d

Yobs ⫽ observed yield (Eq. (6.81)), g/g or lb/lb
Q ⫽ influent wastewater flow, m3/d or Mgal/d
S0 ⫽ influent soluble BOD5 concentration, mg/L
S ⫽ effluent soluble BOD5 concentration, mg/L
8.34 ⫽ conversion factor, lb/(Mgal) ⭈ (mg/L)
The theoretical oxygen require-

ment in the activated sludge is determined from BOD5 of the waste-
Oxygen requirements in the process.
water and the amount of microorganisms wasted per day from the
634 Chapter 6
process. The biochemical reaction can be expressed as below

C5H7NO2 1 5O2 S 5CO2 1 2H2O 1 NH3 1 energy
113 5 3 32 5 160
organism cells (6.93)
1 1.42
Equation (6.93) suggests that the BODu (ultimate BOD) for one mole
of cells requires 1.42 (160/113) moles of oxygen. Thus the theoretical
oxygen requirement to remove the carbonaceous organic matter in
wastewater for an activated-sludge process is expressed as (Metcalf
and Eddy, Inc. 1991).
Mass of O2/d ⫽ total mass of BODu used ⫺ 1.42
(mass of organisms wasted, px)
QsS0 2 Sd
kg O2/d 5 2 1.42Px (SI units) (6.94a)
s1000 g/kgd f
QsS0 2 Sd 1
kg O2/d 5 a 2 1.42Yobs b (6.94b)
1000 g/kg f
1
lb O2/d 5 QsS0 2 Sd 3 8.34a 2 1.42Yobsb (US customary units) (6.95)
f
where Q ⫽ influent flow, m3/d or Mgal/d

S0 ⫽ influent soluble BOD5 concentration, mg/L
S ⫽ effluent soluble BOD5 concentration, mg/L
f ⫽ conversion factor for converting BOD5 to BODu
Yobs ⫽ observed yield, g/g or lb/lb
8.34 ⫽ conversion factor, lb/(Mgal ⭈ (mg/L))
When nitrification is considered, the total oxygen requirement is the
mass of oxygen per day for removal of carbonaceous matter and for
nitrification. It can be calculated as
QsS0 2 Sd 1 QsN0 2 N d
kg O2/d 5 a 2 1.42 Yobs b 1 (SI units) (6.96)
1000 g/kg f 1000 g/kg
lb O2/d 5 8.34[QsS0 2 Sds1/f 2 1.42Yobsd
1 4.75sN0 2 Nd] (US customary units) (6.97)
where N0 ⫽ influent total kjeldahl nitrogen concentration, mg/L

N ⫽ effluent total kjeldahl nitrogen concentration, mg/L
4.75 ⫽ conversion factor for oxygen requirement for complete
oxidation of TKN
Oxygen requirements generally depend on the design peak hourly

BOD5, MLSS, and degree of treatment. Aeration equipment must be able
to maintain a minimum of 2.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen concentration
in the mixed liquor at all times and provide adequate mixing. The
normal air requirements for all activated-sludge systems, except
extended aeration, are 1.1 kg of oxygen (93.5 m3 of air) per kg BOD5 or
1.1 lb of oxygen (1500 ft3 of air) per lb BOD5, for design peak aeration
tank loading. That is 94 m3 of air per kg of BOD5 (1500 ft3/lb BOD5) at
standard conditions of temperature, pressure, and humidity. For the
extended aeration process, normal air requirements are 128 m3/kg BOD5
or 2050 ft3/lb BOD5 (GLUMRB, 1996).
For F/M ratios greater than 0.3 d⫺1, the air requirements for con-
ventional activated-sludge systems amount to 31 to 56 m3/kg (500 to
900 ft3/lb) of BOD5 removed for coarse bubble (nonporous) diffusers
and 25 to 37 m3/kg (400 to 600 ft3/lb) BOD5 removal for fine bubble
(porous) diffusers. For lower F/M ratios, endogenous respiration, nitri-
fication, and prolonged aeration increase air use to 75 to 112 m3/kg
(1200 to 1800 ft3/lb) of BOD5 removal. In practice, air requirements
range from 3.75 to 15.0 m3 air/m3 water (0.5 to 2 ft3/gal) with a typical
value of 7.5 m3/m3 or 1.0 ft3/gal (Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1991).
Example 1a: Design a complete-mix activated-sludge system.
Given:
Average design flow ⫽ 0.32 m3/s (6.30 Mgal/d)

Peak design flow ⫽ 0.80 m3/s (18.25 Mgal/d)
Raw wastewater BOD5 ⫽ 240 mg/L
Raw wastewater TSS ⫽ 280 mg/L
Effluent BOD5 ⱕ 20 mg/L
Effluent TSS ⱕ 24 mg/L
Wastewater temperature ⫽ 20⬚C
Operational parameters and biological kinetic coefficients:

Design mean cell residence time uc ⫽ 10 d
MLVSS ⫽ 2400 mg/L (can be 3600 mg/L)
VSS/TSS ⫽ 0.8
TSS concentration in RAS ⫽ 9300 mg/L
Y ⫽ 0.5 mg VSS/mgBOD5
kd ⫽ 0.06/d
BOD5/ultimate BODu ⫽ 0.67
Secondary Settling Tank
Hindered (zone) settling occurs in sludge thickeners and at the bottom

of a secondary clarifier in biological treatment processes. The velocity
of hindered settling is estimated by (Steel and McGhee, 1979)
vh/v ! (1 " Cv)4.65 (6.48)
where vh ! hindered settling velocity, m/s or ft/s

v ! free settling velocity, calculated by Eq. (6.33) or (6.38)
Cv ! volume of particles divided by the volume of the
suspension
Equation (6.48) is valid for Reynolds numbers less than 0.2, which is gen-
erally the situation in hindered settling.
A typical curve of interface height versus time for activated sludge is
shown in Fig. 6.10. From A to B, there is a hindered settling of the par-
ticles and this is called liquid interface. From B to C there is a deceler-
ation marking the transition from hindered settling into the compression
Figure 6.10 Graphic analysis of interface.

604 Chapter 6
zone. From C to D there is a compression zone where settling depends

on compression of the sludge blanket.
The system design for handling concentrated suspensions for hin-
dered settling must consider three factors: (1) the area needed for dis-
crete settling of particles at the top of the clarifier; (2) the area needed
for thickening (settling of the interface between the discrete and hin-
dered settling zones); and (3) the rate of sludge withdrawal. The settling
rate of the interface is usually the controlling factor.
Column settling tests, as previously described, can be used to deter-
mine the area needed for hindered settling. The height of the interface
is plotted against time, as shown in Fig. 6.10. The area needed for clar-
ification is
A ! Q/vs (6.49)
2 2
where A ! surface area of the settling zone, m or ft
Q ! overflow rate, m3/s or gal/min
vs ! subsidence rate in the zone of hindering settling, mm/s
or in/s
A value of vs is determined from batch settling column test data by com-

puting the slope of the hindered settling portion of the interface height
versus time curve (Fig. 6.10). The area needed for thickening is obtained
from the batch settling test of a thick suspension. The critical area
required for adequate thickening is (Rich, 1961)
Qtu
A5 (6.50)
H0
where A ! area needed for sludge thickening, m2 or ft2

Q ! flow into settling tank, m3/s or ft3/s
tu ! time to reach a desired underflow or solids concentration, s
H0 ! depth of the settling column (initial interface height), m
or ft
From Fig. 6.10, the critical concentration (C2) is determined by extend-

ing the tangent from the hindered and compression settling lines to
their point of intersection and bisecting the angle formed. The bisector
intersects the subsidence curve at C2 which is the critical concentration.
The critical concentration controls the sludge-handling capacity of the
tank at a height of H2.
A tangent is drawn to the subsidence curve at C2 and the intersec-
tion of this tangent with depth Hu, required for the desired underflow
(or solids concentration Cu), will yield the required retention time tu.
Since the total weight of solids in the system must remain constant, i.e.
C0H0A ! CuHuA, the height Hu of the particle–liquid interface at the

underflow desired concentration Cu is
C 0 H0
Hu 5 (6.51)
Cu
The time tu can be determined as:

Draw a horizontal line through Hu and draw a tangent to the subsidence
settling curve at C2. Draw a vertical line from the point of intersection
of the two lines drawn above to the time axis to find the value of tu. With
this value of tu, the area needed for thickening can be calculated using
Eq. (6.50). The area required for clarification is then determined. The
larger of the two calculated areas is the controlling factor for design from
Eqs. (6.49) and (6.50).
Example: The batch-settling curve shown in Fig. 6.10 is obtained for an

activated sludge with an initial solids concentration C0 of 3600 mg/L. The ini-
tial height of the interface in the settling column is 900 mm. This continu-
ous inflow to the unit is 380 m3/d (0.10 Mgal/d). Determine the surface area
required to yield a thickened sludge of 1.8 percent by weight. Also determine
solids and hydraulic loading rate.
solution:
Step 1. Calculate Hu by Eq. (6.51)
Cu 5 1.8% 5 18,000 mg/L
C0H0 3600 mg/L 3 900 mm

Hu 5 5
Cu 18,000 mg/L
5 180 mm
Step 2. Determine tu
Using the method described above to find the value of tu
tu ! 41 min ! 41 min/1440 min/d

! 0.0285 day
Step 3. Calculate the area required for the thickening, using Eq. (6.50)
Qtu 380 m3/d 3 0.0285 day

A5 5
H0 0.90 m
5 12.02 m2
5 129 ft2
696 Chapter 6
Note: This is the power required for mixing and is commonly the control
factor in sizing the aerators for domestic wastewater treatment. For indus-
trial wastewater treatment, the control factor is usually reversed.
22 Trickling Filter
A trickling filter is actually a unit process for introducing primary efflu-
ent into contact with biological growth and is a biological oxidation bed.
The word “filter” does not mean any filtering or straining action; nev-
ertheless, it is popularly and universally used.
22.1 Process description

The trickling filter is the most commonly used unit of the fixed-growth
film-flow-type process. A trickling filter consists of: (1) a bed of coarse
material, such as stone slates or plastic media, over which wastewater
from primary effluent is sprayed; (2) an underdrain system; and (3) dis-
tributors. The underdrain is used to carry wastewater passing through
the biological filter and drain to the subsequent treatment units and to
provide ventilation of the filter and maintenance of the aerobic condi-
tion. Wastewater from the primary effluent is distributed to the surface
of the filter bed by fixed spray nozzles (first developed) or rotary dis-
tributors. Sloughs of biomass from the media are settled in the second-
ary sedimentation tank.
Biological slime occurs on the surface of the support media while
oxygen is supplied by air diffusion through the void spaces. It allows
wastewater to trickle (usually in an intermittent fashion) downward
through the bed media. Organic and inorganic nutrients are extracted
from the liquid film by the microorganisms in the slime. The biological
slime layer consists of aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative bacteria, algae,
fungi, and protozoans. Higher animals such as sludge worms, filter-fly
larvae, rotifers, and snails are also present. Facultative bacteria are the
predominant microorganisms in the trickling filter. Nitrifying bacteria
may occur in the lower part of a deep filter.
The biological activity of the trickling filter process can be described
as shown in Fig. 6.27. The microbial layer on the filter is aerobic usu-
ally to a depth of only 0.1 to 0.2 mm. Most of the depth of the microbial
film is anaerobic. As the wastewater flows over the slime layer, organic
matter (nutrient) and dissolved oxygen are transferred to the aerobic
zone by diffusion and extracted, and then metabolic end products such
as carbon dioxide are released to the water.
Dissolved oxygen in the liquid is replenished by adsorption from air
in the voids surrounding the support media. Microorganisms near the
surface of the filter bed are in a rapid growth rate due to plenteous food
Figure 6.27 Schematic diagram of attached-growth process.
supply, whereas microorganisms in the lower portion of the filter may

be in a state of starvation. Overall, a trickling filter operation is con-
sidered to be in the endogenous growth phase. When slime becomes
thicker and cells die and lyse, the slime layer will slough off and is sub-
sequently removed by secondary settling.
For over a century, the trickling filter has been used as a secondary
treatment unit. In a rock-fill conventional trickling filter, the rock size
is 25 to 100 mm (1 to 4 in). The depth of the rock bed varies from 0.9 to
2.5 m (3 to 8 ft) with an average of 1.8 m (6 ft). The Ten States Standards
recommends a minimum depth of trickling filter media of 1.8 m above the
underdrains and that a rock and/or slag filter shall not exceed 3 m (10 ft)
in depth (GLUMRB, 1996).
After declining in use in the late 1960s and early 1970s because of
the development of RBC, trickling filters regained popularity in the late
1970s and 1980s, primarily due to new synthetic media. The new high-
rate media were generally preferred over rocks because they are lighter,
increased the surface area for biological growth, and improved treatment
698 Chapter 6
efficiency. High-rate media minimizes many of the common problems

with rock media, such as uncontrolled sloughing, plugging, odors, and
filter flies. Consequently, almost all trickling filters constructed in the
late 1980s have been of high-rate media type (WPCF, 1988b).
Plastic media built in square, round, and other modules of corrugated
shape have become popular. The depths of these plastic media range
from 4 to 12 m (14 to 40 ft) (US EPA, 1980; Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1991).
These materials increase void ratios and air flow. The plastics are 30%
lighter than rock. A minimum clearance of 0.3 m (1 ft) between media
and distribution arms shall be provided (GLUMRB, 1996).
22.2 Filter classification

Trickling filters are classified according to the applied hydraulic and organic
loading rates. The hydraulic loading rate is expressed as the quantity of
wastewater applied per day per unit area of bulk filter surface (m3 /(d ⭈ m2),
gal/(d ⭈ ft2), or Mgal/(d ⭈ acre) or as depth of wastewater applied per unit
of time. Organic loading rate is expressed as mass of BOD5 applied per day
per unit of bulk filter volume (kg/(m3 ⭈ d), lb/(1000 ft3 ⭈ d)). Common clas-
sifications, are low- or standard-rate, intermediate-rate, high-rate, super-
high-rate, and roughing. Two-stage filters are frequently used, in which two
trickling filters are connected in series. Various trickling filter classifica-
tions are summarized in Table 6.14.
22.3 Recirculation
Recirculation of a portion of the effluent to flow back through the filter
is generally practised in modern trickling filter plants. The ratio of the
return flow Qr, to the influent flow Q is called the recirculation ratio r.
Techniques of recirculation vary widely, with a variety of configura-
tions. The recirculation ratios range from 0 to 4 (Table 6.14) with usual
ratios being 0.5 to 3.0.
The advantages of recirculation include an increase in biological solids
in the system with continuous seeding of active biological material; elim-
ination of shock load by diluting strong influent; maintenance of more
uniform hydraulic and organic loads; an increase in the DO level of the
influent; thinning of the biological slime layer; an improvement of treat-
ment efficiency; reduction of filter clogging; and less nuisance problems.
22.4 Design formulas

Attempts have been made by numerous investigators to correlate oper-
ational data with the design parameters of trickling filters. The design
of trickling filter plants is based on empirical, semiempirical, and mass
balance concepts. Mathematical equations have been developed for
700 Chapter 6
calculating the BOD5 removal efficiency of biological filters on the basis

of factors such as bed depth, types of media, recirculation, temperature,
and loading rates. The design formulations of trickling filters of major
interest include the NRC formula (1946), Velz formula (1948), Fairall
(1956), Schulze formula (1960), Eckenfelder formula (1963), Galler and
Gotaas formulas (1964, 1966), Germain formula (1966), Kincannon and
Stover formula (1982), Logan formula (Logan et al., 1987a, b), and British
multiple regression analysis equation (1988). These are summarized
elsewhere (WEF and ASCE, 1991a; McGhee, 1991).
The NRC (National Research Council) formula for

trickling-filter performance is an empirical expression developed by
NRC formula.
the National Research Council from an extensive study of the oper-

ating data of trickling treatment plants at military bases within the
United States during World War II in the early 1940s (NRC, 1946).
It may be applied to single-stage and multistage rock filters with
varying recirculation ratios. Graphic expressions for BOD removal
efficiency are available. The equation for a single-stage or first-stage
rock filter is
100
(6.129)
1 1 0.532 2W/VF sSI unitsd
E1 5
100
(6.130)
1 1 0.561 2W/VF sUS customary unitsd
E1 5
where E1 ⫽ efficiency of BOD removal for first stage at 20⬚C

including recirculation and sedimentation, %
W ⫽ BOD loading to filter, kg/d or lb/d
⫽ flow times influent concentration
V ⫽ volume of filter media, m3 or 1000 ft3
F ⫽ recirculation factor
The recirculation factor is calculated by
11r
F5 (6.131)
s1 1 0.1rd2
where r ⫽ recirculation ratio, Qr /Q

Qr ⫽ recirculation flow, m3/d or Mgal/d
Q ⫽ wastewater flow, m3/d or Mgal/d
The recirculation factor represents the average number of passes of the

influent organic matter through the trickling filter. For the second-
stage filter, the formula becomes
100
E2 5 (SI units) (6.132)
0.0532
11 Wr
1 2 E1 Å
VF
100 (British system) (6.133)
E2 5
0.0561 W r
11
1 2 E1 Å VF
where E2 ⫽ efficiency of BOD5 removal for second-stage filter, %

W ⬘ ⫽ BOD loading applied to second-stage filter, kg/d or lb/d
Other terms are as described previously. Overall BOD removal efficiency
of a two-stage filter system can be computed by
35 E E
E 5 100 2 100a1 2 b a1 2 1 b a1 2 2 b (6.134)
100 100 100
where the term 35 means that 35% of BOD of raw wastewater is

removed by primary settling.
BOD removal efficiency in biological treatment process is significantly
influenced by wastewater temperature. The effect of temperature can
be calculated as
ET ⫽ E20 1.035T–20 (6.135)
Example 1: Estimate the BOD removal efficiency and effluent BOD5 of a two-
stage trickling filter using the NRC formula with the following given conditions.
Wastewater temperature 20⬚C

Plant flow Q 2 Mgal/d (7570 m3)
BOD5 in raw waste 300 mg/L
Volume of filter (each) 16,000 ft (453 m )
3 3
Depth of filter 7 ft (2.13 m)

Recirculation for filter 1 ⫽ 1.5 Q
Recirculation for filter 2 ⫽ 0.8 Q
solution:
Step 1. Estimate BOD loading at the first stage
Influent BOD C1 ⫽ 300 mg/L (1 – 0.35) ⫽ 195 mg/L
W ⫽ QC1 ⫽ 2 Mgal/d ⫻195 mg/L ⫻ 8.34 lb/(Mgal ⭈ mg/L)
⫽ 3252 lb/d
Water Pollution
• Pollutant
– Any substance that does not belong in the natural system and disrupts the
natural balance
• Water Pollution
– Degradation of water quality in a manner that disrupts/prevents its intended or
original use.
Water pollution contaminant types
 Infectious agents
 Oxygen-demanding Wastes
 Plant nutrients and cultural eutrophication
 Toxic tides
 Inorganic Pollutants ( Metals, nonmetallic salts, acids and bases )
 Organic Chemicals
 Sediment
 Thermal Pollution and thermal shocks
MCL and secondary MCL
MCL=Maximum Contaminant Level
– The highest concentration of a pollutant allowed in drinking water by
law
– Concentration above which adverse health effects are believed to occur
Secondary MCL
– Concentration of a pollutant above which the water is unpleasant in
odor or taste
– May not be hazardous to your health at that level
Dissolved Oxygen – DO
– Amount of oxygen available in the water. – Oxygen in water maintained by
• exchange with the atmosphere
• Production of oxygen by photosynthetic organisms (vegetation)
• Circulation of water (essential to maintain oxygen levels in deeper portions)
– Oxygen consumed by decaying organic matter and oxygen breathing
organism.
BOD
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand
–Measure of the amount of oxygen required for the aerobic degradation of
organic and non-organic compounds in the water.
–Highly polluted waters have very high BOD implying that oxygen is
consumed rapidly.
Third Lecture Sources of water pollution
Sources of water pollution

Sources of water pollution are broadly grouped into point sources and
nonpoint sources.
1- Point sources are defined as localized discharges of contaminants
and include industrial and municipal wastewater outfalls, septic
tank discharges, and hazardous-waste spills.
Types of point sources:
i. Domestic Wastewater Discharges.
ii. Combined-Sewer Overflows.
iii. Storm water Discharges.
iv. Industrial Discharges.
v. Animal Feeding Operations.
vi. Spills.
i- Domestic Wastewater Discharges

GENERAL CHARACHTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC RETURN WATERS :
Three terms are used to describe sewage generally. All are of
significance in sewage treatment, they are:
1. Condition.(‫)الحالة‬
2. Concentration. (‫)التركيز‬
3. Composition. (‫)المكونات أو التركيبة‬
1. Condition: refer to the age of sewage. Three categories of
condition are usually identified and defined:
a. Fresh Sewage (‫)الفضالت الحديثة‬: in which the dissolved oxygen
concentration is not less than that of the municipal water supply
which went into it. In terms of the concept of biodegradation,
Page 1 of 6
the oxygen-demanding processes of decomposition have not yet

become evident.
b. Stale Sewage (‫)الفضالت القديمة‬: in which the dissolved oxygen
content has been depleted near zero by biological degradation.
c. Septic Sewage (‫)الفضالت المتعفنة‬: in which biodegradation has set
in.
2. Concentration : refers to the strength of a sewage, usually
measured by its 5-day, 2O°C BOD, although it may be measured in
terms of relative amounts of (biodegradable) solids. Commonly
used categories are:
a. Weak Sewage in which the BOD is below about 180 mg/liter.
b. Medium Sewage in which the BOD is in the range of from 200
to 250 mg/liter.
c. Strong Sewage which has a BOD above 280 to 300 mg/liter.
3. Composition: of sewage refers to its content of various waste-

contributed quality factors, oxygen-demanding potential, products
of biodegradation, etc.
Effect of domestic wastewater discharge:

Most municipal wastewater treatment plants discharge their
effluent into rivers, lakes, or oceans. For river discharges of municipal
wastewater, the effect of the effluent on the dissolved oxygen and
nutrient levels in the river are usually of most concern. Decreased
oxygen levels in rivers can cause harm to the aquatic life, and increased
nutrient levels stimulate the growth of algae, which consume oxygen.
Domestic wastewater discharged from septic tanks contains large
Page 2 of 6
numbers of pathogenic microorganisms, with viruses of particular

concern because of the ability of viruses to move considerable distances
in ground water. Approximately 50 million residents of the United
States, 29% of the population, dispose of their sewage by individual on-
site (septic) systems. Septic tanks represent the highest total volume of
wastewater discharged directly to ground water and are the most
common source of ground-water contamination.
Domestic wastewater contains vast numbers of bacteria – up to 20
million organisms per milliliter – originating in the wastes discharged
from the human body and on other material introduced into the sewer.
Some of the bacteria in human wastes are pathogens, such as (typhoid,
paratyphoid, cholera, … etc.).
iv. Industrial Discharges

Introduction:
There are wide varieties of industrial wastewaters, and elevated
levels of nutrients, heavy metals, heat, and toxic organic chemicals are
common in industrial wastewaters. Some industries provide
pretreatment prior to discharging their wastewaters either directly into
surface waters or into municipal sewer systems for further treatment in
combination with domestic wastewater. In many countries, industries
are permitted to discharge their wastewater without adequate
pretreatment, and the resulting human and environmental impacts are
usually noticeable.
Page 3 of 6
Comparison of industrial and domestic wastewater:

1- Total organic load of industry's only about one-half that of
domestic use.
2- Many industries discharge process waters carrying compounds
that are never found in natural waters, such as metal ions (mostly
toxic), exotic organic and inorganic chemicals, and many
refractory compounds are among the most significant.
3- Another significant difference between industrial and domestic
use of water is the percentage of water consumed (Extreme
variability in water usage from one industry to another).
*Industry's waste return to the pool may be estimated as:
1- One-third of withdrawal returned with the salt content
approximately doubled.
2- One-third of withdrawal contaminated with a spectrum of organic
and inorganic solids originated in process waters.
3- One-third of withdrawal consumed by incorporation in product or
loss to the atmosphere.
Nature of industrial wastes:
The organic wastes from industry are particularly significant in
comparison with domestic wastes because of the exceptionally(‫)على نحو‬
high BOD of many such discharges.
Its generally estimated that the average BOD of organic industrial
discharges, when process, washdown, and other return streams from
the industrial plant are combined, is of the order(‫ )مقدار‬3,500 mg/l –
more than ten times that of a strong domestic sewage. See table (5-5;5-
6;5-7)
Effect of industrial wastes :
Table (5-5;5-6;5-8) show the wide variety of quality – degrading
factors and their effects . Some of these factors are in themselves toxic
to aquatic life and higher animals. Others can create aesthetically
objectionable conditions. Still others might interfere with various uses
by reason of minerals or biochemically unstable organic matter.
2- Non-point sources of pollution include contaminant sources that
are distributed over large areas or are a composite of many point
sources, including runoff from agricultural operations, the
atmosphere, and urban runoff. Surface runoff that collects in
storm sewers and discharges via a pipe is still considered
nonpoint-source pollution since it originates as diffuse runoff from
the land surface.
Page 4 of 6
Seventh Lecture Water resources and their characterization- river 4
Oxygen Sag Curve
The effect of oxygen demanding waste on rivers:

The amount of DO in water is one of the most commonly used indicators of
river's health. In the extreme case, when anaerobic conditions exist, most higher
forms of life are killed or driven off. Noxious conditions, including floating
sludges, bubbling, odorous gases, and slimy fungal growths, then prevail.
A number of factors affect the amount of DO. available in a river:

1- Oxygen demanding waste.
2- Respiration of organisms living in the water and sediment's.
3- Respiration of plants in night.
4- Rising temperature in the summer reduce the solubility of oxygen.
5- Lower flows reduce the rate at which oxygen enters the water from the
atmosphere.
6- Ice in the winter may form, blocking access to new atmospheric oxygen.
The oxygen sag curve:

The simplest model of the oxygen resources in a river focuses on two key
processes: the removal of oxygen by microorganisms during biodegradation, and
the replenishment of oxygen through re-aeration at the interface between the river
and the atmosphere.
A- De-oxygenation: the rate of de-oxygenation at any point in the river is

assumed to be proportional to the BOD remaining at the point. That is,
Rate of de-oxygenation= kdLt
Where:
kd= the de-oxygenation rate constant (d-1)
Lt= the BOD remaining t (days) after the wastes enter the river, (mg/L).
Rate of de-oxygenation= kdLoe-kdt
where Lo is the BOD of the mixture of stream water and wastewater at the point of
discharge.
Page 1 of 4
Oxygen Sag Curve
B- Re-aeration: the rate at which oxygen is replenished is assumed to be

proportional to the difference between the actual DO in the river at any
given location and the saturated value of dissolved oxygen. This difference
is called the oxygen deficit, D:
Rate of re-aeration = krD
Where:
kr= re-aeration constant (d-1).
D= dissolved oxygen deficit = (DOs – DO)
DOs= saturated value of dissolved oxygen.
DO= actual dissolved oxygen at a given location downstream.
Where:
kr= re-aeration coefficient at 20 °C (d -1)
u = average stream velocity (m/s)
H = average stream depth (m)
kr at any temperature = kr at 20 °C x 1.024 T-20
D0 = DOs -
Where :
D0 = initial oxygen deficit of the mixture of
the river and WW
DOs = saturated value of DO in water at
the temperature of the river
Page 2 of 4
Oxygen Sag Curve
The combined the two equations, Rate of deoxygenation= kdL0e-kdt and Rate of
reaeration = krD, yields the following expression for the rate of increase of the
oxygen deficit:
Rate of increase of the oxygen deficit = Rd - Rr
which has the solution:
( )
Since the deficit D is the difference between the saturation value of dissolved
oxygen DOs and the actual value DO, we write the equation for the DO as:
( )
This equation is called the " classic streeter-phelps oxygen sag curve"
( )
( )
Tc is the time required to reach the critical point.
Page 3 of 4
Oxygen Sag Curve
( )
Page 4 of 4
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Sanitary Engineering Lec.

Chapter · November 2015

Waleed M. Sh. Alabdraba

Industrial wastewater treatment by advanced oxidation processes - A Review View project

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