A Systematic Review of Current Research and Practice On Spatial Ability Training For Mathematical and STEM Success
A Systematic Review of Current Research and Practice On Spatial Ability Training For Mathematical and STEM Success
Abstract
Spatial ability is a broad skillset. Researchers have explained several concepts relating to spatial ability
such as spatial visualisation, spatial reasoning, three-dimensional objects, mental rotation, and spatial
information processing. Further, neuroscience defines multiple cognitive abilities in this context, such as
feature decomposition, mental rotation, hypothesis generation, dynamic visualisation, mental
transformation, and magnitude reasoning to name a few. In this review, it is argued that current curricula
must include spatial training as its mainstream focus. This central theme is supported with subject matter
from mathematics, language, art, and design. To justify this claim, the review synthesises current
research and practice in the domain.
According to recent evidence, researchers argue that integrating spatial training into future curriculums
requires interdisciplinary research from mathematicians, neuroscientists, and psychologists. Spatial
training needs to imbibe the important aspects of correlating mathematical content to context, developing
“spatial senses”, understanding methods that work in specific context, understanding student preferences
with respect to solution methods, correlating art, craft, and design to mathematics and science
achievement, understanding bodily and sensory experiences as the basis of mathematical thought,
understanding embodiment in learning, and modelling language to mathematize instances for superior
mathematical performance. Researchers recommend the use of play-based approaches, exercising clinical
judgement, and using responsive strategies according to individual learning trajectories. Besides, teachers
require mathematical content language to plan lessons targeting embodied thinking and not just verbal
ability. Teacher perception of mathematical thinking influences learner performance and interventions to
build spatial competencies among teachers is essential. Gender-relevant approaches, storytelling ideas
and other approaches that promote superior learning outcomes are discussed.
JSTOR 5
Methodology and Criteria
for Systematic Review Table 1: Journal Articles Reviewed
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The setting described in this paper outlines a Differences in Problem Solving: Semantic Vs
cycle of educating children in their elementary Visuospatial
years (“Early Years Planning Cycle”), where
educators observe and analyse the behaviour of To understand the neural basis of problem
children to assess the child’s knowledge, plan solving during the different preferences selected
learning experiences to rehearse, consolidate, by learners, scientists used fMRI imaging data to
and extend a child’s skills, and reflect on the assess mental images during the
learning that was achieved by observing child problem-solving process (Pyke et al., 2017).
participation, and plan new experiences (Hedge Visuospatial representations depict
& Cohrssen, 2019). Educators need to possess “relative magnitudes of relevant
mathematical content knowledge to quantities”. Learners require knowledge of
understand embodied as opposed to magnitude of problem elements and the
verbal mathematical thinking. magnitude relations among these
elements for successful mathematical learning
In early childhood, learning is a multimodal and transfer. In a specific activity students
process, and the manipulation of objects showed better estimation and
engages the sensory (thermal, cutaneous, and memorization of addition facts when
kinesthetic sensors) and motor (manipulative presented with shaded bars that showed
and prehensile abilities) haptic systems. magnitude in conjunction with symbolic facts.
Sensori-motor feedback received from In integral calculus, representing an area
manipulating the object allows children to as a two-dimensional region as opposed to
control the “pace, speed, direction, and symbolic procedures showed different
magnitude” of the exploration. During this
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Problem type affected teaching difficulty (visual Researchers tested different spatial
problems were more difficult than word or perspective-taking abilities, such as instructing
notation problems). Further, problem context an individual to adopt new imaginary positions
and level of spatial thinking also affected within a certain configuration of objects (Cardillo
teaching difficulty. It was more difficult to teach et al., 2020). Their study focused on
real-world problems when compared to abstract understanding spatial visualisation
problems and higher level of spatial thinking was performance, spatial orientation, and
correlated to greater teaching difficulty. object-based spatial transformations. Most
Visualisation helpfulness was most relevant to research studies found a correlation between
visual problems, real-world contexts, and the spatial visualisation performance and spatial
inclusion of spatial thinking. Further, a higher orientation. Further, they indicated that mental
level of spatial thinking was involved in visual rotation and perspective taking had common
problems and real-world contexts (Burte et al., underlying processes, individuals used similar
2020). All these factors affected student learning strategies to perform these tasks, and an
in maths as maths attitudes among teachers individual’s innate abilities and the environment
affected maths teaching. Researchers influenced how the two transformations were
recommended teachers to focus on their spatial solved. Spatial perspective-taking also
competency rather than anxiety, help students depends on an individual’s motor abilities
understand spatial aspects, and pursue and visuospatial working memory.
additional courses to improve maths efficacy and Researchers also found that spatial-perspective
perception, to improve student belief and maths taking activated general cognitive
scores. The study indicated the need for processes such as working memory and
interventions for teachers when looking at supplementary motor area, suggesting
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Motor experts have an advantage over Mathematical giftedness was also linked to
non-motor experts in performing spatial tasks processing of information. The verbal-logical
(Voyer and Janson, 2017). ability was linked to the level of giftedness,
and the visual-pictorial component was linked
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Both reading and spatial abilities are integral Pedagogical knowledge is essential among
to programming success (Endres et al., 2021). teachers to recognize mathematical thinking
demonstrated by children, plan learning
Spatial perspective taking is a conscious, experiences, integrate the thinking of
deliberate, and high-level transformation children, and adapt their plans to achieve the
involving spatial orientation. It is a form of desired learning outcomes (Hedge &
spatial transformation that involves mental Cohrssen, 2019).
imagery and perception. Individuals are able
to imagine being part of a space or moving
Table 5: Integrating Spatial Skills in Mathematics
through space (Cardillo et al., 2020).
Curriculums
Spatial perspective-taking also depends on an
individual’s motor abilities and visuospatial PERSPECTIVES ON SPATIAL SKILLS
working memory (Cardillo et al., 2020). INTERVENTIONS
Table 4: Student Ability in Spatial Reasoning Good schematic representations were useful
in solving problems and formulating
conclusions (Yurmalia and Jupri, 2021).
PERSPECTIVES ON INTEGRATING SPATIAL
SKILLS IN MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM Spatial skills are strong predictors of STEM
success in the academic and occupational
To make realistic improvements in the domains (Yang et al., 2020).
educational practice of STEM, it is important
to carry out further research and determine It is possible to use interventions to enhance
the causal relationship between STEM neural function for spatial thinking to enhance
education and spatial ability (Buckley et al., maths and science skills (Yang et al., 2020).
2018).
Difficulty in spatial functioning may be
Different modes of representation must be supported through the use of game tasks
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Ng & Tsang (2021) draw upon the elements of 3DnST Framework to Enhance Spatial
the constructionist approach and hands-on Thinking Skills in Children
learning with reference to gaining expertise
required in STEM disciplines. Authors argue that Bhaduri and team (2021) propose a 3D
3D printing can be an effective tool to promote modelling framework to address challenges
physical and cognitive components of associated with Tinkercad 3D modelling tool
mathematical classrooms. The theory of such as working with the interface, formation of
constructionism (making) is based on a mental model, and enhancing spatial thinking
constructivism - the idea that knowledge is skills. Tinkercad and other 3D tools may be
not delivered to the learner, but rather linked to the “maker movement” that resulted
constructed and organised cognitively as a after the widespread adoption of 3D printers.
“mental schema”. Constructionism extends Researchers argue that tinkering with these
this idea wherein learners are able to integrate technologies can promote STEM learning.
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To address the need for high-quality, 3D Tool for Embodied Cognition of Human
student-centred resources for teaching 3D Anatomy
modelling and 3D printing, researchers proposed
Tinkercad. They propose that 3D printing and Chaker and team (2021) discuss about a 3D
modelling must be child-friendly to promote interactive tool called “Antepulsio” to learn
interdisciplinary projects (Bhaduri et al., 2021). human anatomy. Embodiment is an important
Their rationale is to empower students in their aspect of learning anatomy as the science
learning by instilling design thinking, relates to the body. Several tools are used to
computational thinking, and boosting learn anatomy including virtual reality,
collaboration, self-expression, and self-esteem. augmented reality, 3D animation, and immersive
anatomy. Antepulsio is a 3D tool that enhances
Researchers attempted to collect data on the the spatial representation of musculoskeletal
challenges students faced during the creation of function, and provides learners the facility to
3D models by observing interaction with recreate a series of movements in real-time in
Tinkercad, as students designed 3D prosthetics 3D settings. It helps them utilise spatial ability
for animals with disabilities. They identified and motor imagery to receive feedback on the
several challenges including alignment problems, accuracy of their choices without really
floating shapes, software orientation, and executing movement.
perspectives. The proposed spatial thinking
framework, known as 3D spatial thinking Studies have reported differing outcomes related
framework (3DnST), was designed to address to the use of 3D tools in anatomy learning
3D modelling challenges and maximise student outcomes. Some studies did not report any
engagement (Bhaduri et al., 2021). They differences between paper-based and
classified student behaviour during the activity computer-based instruction. Among positive
as on-task, off-task, or on-task seeking help outcomes was improved learning outcomes and
behaviour. a reduction in cognitive load, while negative
outcomes such as dizziness, blurred vision, and
Challenges associated with the activity were headache were observed. Scientists observed
either related to spatial thinking skills or using that differing outcomes may be the result of a
the Tinkercad interface. By observing student number of factors including differing motor and
strategies, researchers proposed improved spatial abilities, specificity and difficulty of the
approaches to perspective changing and mental anatomical topic, and the nature of interaction
rotation (Bhaduri et al., 2021). Some students between the computing tool and the ability of
also faced a problem with using the Tinkercad the learner. It is known that students with high
interface and taking instruction. Researchers spatial ability build better anatomical mental
reported that student engagement was models. Scientists argue that 3D tools can
dependent on deeply understanding the help students with low spatial abilities
3D space, using spatial thinking skills and build better mental models.
developing and ability to debug 3D models
before printing them. They recommended the Assuming that the success of the learning
incorporation of augmented reality (AR) to process depends on the interaction with the
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Virtual Reality and Tangible Embodied The goals of developing the system were to
Interactions for Perspective Taking allow users to switch perspectives, create an
enjoyable experience, establish and augment
Chang and team (2017) describe a technology embodiment, and create a transferable and
termed “Tangibles for Augmenting Spatial generalizable design. An example of a task in a
Cognition” (TASC) that combines tangible fully implemented system is the movement of
interfaces with virtual worlds to work with objects in virtual space when a user touches and
spatial cognition. In the domain of “embodied moves an object restructured by relevant
cognition” researchers have indicated a boundaries in the real world (Chang et al.,
tight relation and activation between 2017). The system showed positive experiences
cognition, perception, and action codes. and the possibility of future research.
Further, the motor system is engaged in
accomplishing spatial tasks. Tangible Embodied Spatial Interventions and Advanced STEM
Interaction (TEI) is a novel research area that Learning
shows a link between spatial cognition and
embodiment based on the use of interactive Several researchers have attempted to create
systems. In this context, the TASC system innovative knowledge frameworks in spatial
proposed by researchers, provides learners with reasoning to identify pathways related to the
a sense of embodiment in a virtual reality (VR) pedagogy, learning, and curriculum in
environment. TASC relies on “tangible object mathematics. Mulligan and team (2017)
manipulation” and “movement tracking” to proposed an analytical tool they named Spatial
engage “perspective taking”, a spatial skill that Reasoning Mathematics Program (SRMP)
requires the use of multiple viewpoints. Users targeted at grades 3 to 5, to link mathematical
are expected to solve a series of virtual puzzles and spatial abilities in complex systems. The
for the purpose. positive outcomes of their system were in terms
of the development of spatial skills in
Their research draws upon insights from students, influence on policy and
common coding, embodied cognition, and enhancement of teacher capability for
spatial cognition. The underlying theory is the more sophisticated STEM education.
ideomotor theory, which entails that by
repeatedly executing action, knowledge of the In another study, when researchers explored the
perceived effects of those actions on the incorporation of spatial skills into learning, they
environment cause them to be linked to neural found that middle school children performed
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Conclusion
The review is a synthesis of important
perspectives and techniques that can be
adopted by educators and researchers to
“spatialize the curriculum”. Based on findings
from neurological studies indicating superior
mathematical abilities of visuospatially trained
solvers, multiple studies reinforcing the value of
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