A Systematic Review of Current Research and Practice On Spatial Ability Training For Mathematical and STEM Success

A Systematic Review of Current Research and
Practice on Spatial Ability Training for

Mathematical and STEM Success
Safia Fatima Mohiuddin

Researcher & Scientific Writer (Corresponding Author)
BCA (Osmania University), MSc Bioinformatics (IASE University), Graduate Certificate

Healthcare Management (Clarkson University Capital Region Campus USA)
Hyderabad, Telangana 500024, India; Mobile: 8019202091

Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract
Spatial ability is a broad skillset. Researchers have explained several concepts relating to spatial ability
such as spatial visualisation, spatial reasoning, three-dimensional objects, mental rotation, and spatial
information processing. Further, neuroscience defines multiple cognitive abilities in this context, such as
feature decomposition, mental rotation, hypothesis generation, dynamic visualisation, mental
transformation, and magnitude reasoning to name a few. In this review, it is argued that current curricula
must include spatial training as its mainstream focus. This central theme is supported with subject matter
from mathematics, language, art, and design. To justify this claim, the review synthesises current
research and practice in the domain.
According to recent evidence, researchers argue that integrating spatial training into future curriculums
requires interdisciplinary research from mathematicians, neuroscientists, and psychologists. Spatial
training needs to imbibe the important aspects of correlating mathematical content to context, developing
“spatial senses”, understanding methods that work in specific context, understanding student preferences
with respect to solution methods, correlating art, craft, and design to mathematics and science
achievement, understanding bodily and sensory experiences as the basis of mathematical thought,
understanding embodiment in learning, and modelling language to mathematize instances for superior
mathematical performance. Researchers recommend the use of play-based approaches, exercising clinical
judgement, and using responsive strategies according to individual learning trajectories. Besides, teachers
require mathematical content language to plan lessons targeting embodied thinking and not just verbal
ability. Teacher perception of mathematical thinking influences learner performance and interventions to
build spatial competencies among teachers is essential. Gender-relevant approaches, storytelling ideas
and other approaches that promote superior learning outcomes are discussed.
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4262790

Spatial ability is a malleable skill and students have several advantages including enhanced mathematical
performance and computational thinking, efficient programming skills, improved neural function, superior
maths and science skills, and STEM and academic success. Researchers propose several interventions to
develop spatial skills in students including 2D and 3D frameworks (EasySRRobot, 3D Pen, 3DnST
framework, Antepulsio anatomy), Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual reality (VR) Tools (Geogebra
Dynamic Geometry Software, handheld AR, Meta-AR-App, SpaceSafari, AVRAM, ARC, and SCS1R test for
programming), and interfaces imbibing embodied cognition (Keep the Ball Rolling, Tangible for
Augmenting Spatial Cognition - TASC, and Spatial Reasoning Mathematics Program - SRMP).
Keywords: learning preferences, information processing efficiency, mind-body connection, sensorimotor

information, general intelligence, working memory, retention, information retrieval, efficient recall,
immersive experiences, mathematical giftedness, decision-making, mathematics innovation, spatial sense,
mathematical processing, problem solving, early arithmetic, mathematics performance, analytical
thinking, executive function, think spatially, spatialize the curriculum, embodied perspective taking,
pattern recognition, transdisciplinary research and practice, collaborative enquiry, synthesising, visual
intuition, verbalization, logic, empathising, visual thought experiment, motor skills, spatial skills, spatial
perspective taking, object-based spatial transformation, spatial imagery, temporal and spatial metaphor,
object imagery, SNARC effect, spatial numerical associations (SNAs), visual processing, visuospatial
memory, visuospatial reasoning, code switching, imagination, malleability of spatial skills, coordinated use
of space, mental imagery, mental rotation, spatial visualisation, spatial reasoning, spatial orientation,
spatial thinking, spatial information processing, mental transformation, perspective taking, geometry,
trigonometry, geometric reasoning, algebra, calculus, mathematics, STEM, STEMM, space, dimension,
mental folding, concrete imagery, abstract mathematics relations, dynamic imagery, kinesthetic imagery,
imagery of formulae, schematic representation, modelling, dimensional thinking, automatic number
processing, magnitude reasoning, arithmetic transformation, spatial sensemaking, numerical reasoning,
computer aided design (CAD), 3D objects, augmented reality, virtual reality, robotics, embodied cognition,
whole body movement, hand gestures, manipulatives, hands-on activity, game tasks, arts, crafts, and
design, playing.

Introduction Background: Early
Mental imagery, mental rotation, spatial Research Conclusions on
visualisation, and reasoning have been a topic of
research since the eighteenth century. Early
Spatial Abilities
researchers such as Sir Francis Galton, Guilford
Research on spatial skills started as early as the
and Lacy discussed spatial skills, which was
1800s. Sir Francis Galton assessed how people
followed by Dehaene's study about the SNARC
had differing mental dispositions based on
effect and Presmeg's view of image
their use of mental imagery. His conclusions
visualisation. Their research conclusions are
inspired more researchers to explore spatial
valid even today and differing perspectives on
skills. It was in 1974 when spatial orientation
spatial abilities in mathematics indicate novel
and spatial visualisation were first recognized
approaches to build on the malleable spatial
by Guilford and Lacy. Mental rotation as a
skills in diverse learner groups. The focus of this
spatial ability was first recognized by Lohman in
paper is to enlist current perspectives on
1979. Henceforth, many different spatial skills
developing spatial visualisation, reasoning, and
were discovered including map reading,
thinking skills based on evidence. These
embedded figures, navigation, and paper
perspectives focus on the development of
folding (Bockmon, Cooper, Koperski, et al.,
"spatial senses", learner preferences, solving
2020).
realistic problems with visualisation, ways to
enhance spatial skills in a context-dependent
Galton’s mental imagery studies also identified
manner, spatial factors that enhance learning in
numbers as objects with specific positions
STEM curriculums, and links between spatial
in space. The ability to visualise numbers
abilities and programming. Current evidence
differed in terms of brightness, orientation,
presents training strategies for educators, and
and colour (Hawes & Ansari, 2020). Among
insight into teaching practice for policy makers
other significant studies was Dehaene’s study,
and researchers. Cross-disciplinary findings from
indicating the SNARC effect, which identified
neuroscience, mathematics, and psychology
how people had a tendency to place smaller
assist professionals in the field understand the
numbers to the left and larger numbers to the
basis of mathematics innovation. Other aspects
right in space. Studies also provided evidence
discussed in the paper include the role of art
about the association between visualisation
avocations in enhancing thinking and STEMM
skills and improved number line
success, and bodily and sensory experiences in
performance, leading to better mathematics
enhancing mathematical learning. Furthermore,
and arithmetic performance.
the paper discusses interventions to develop
spatial training abilities through tools built using Presmeg, in 1986, identified a visual image as “a
embodied cognition, augmented reality, virtual mental scheme depicting visual or spatial
reality, and 2D and 3D frameworks. These information”. In Presmeg’s research, images
interventions may be included in curriculums in visualised by students were classified into five
an age-appropriate manner to enhance spatial categories: figures of real objects (concrete
skills of learners for efficient decision-making images), mental images linked to muscle
and application in real-life situations and activity (kinesthetic images), images showing
occupational settings. abstract mathematical relations visually
(pattern images), seeing the formula as it
appears when written (images of formulae),

and mental representations of moving objects and ACM Digital Library. Scholarly journals with
(dynamic images). full text available were included in the review. A
total of 607 articles were retrieved matching this
Gutierrez (1996) summarises several definitions criteria out of which 223 were included. The
of spatial abilities suggested by early journal articles were filtered based on whether
researchers in the field. Mcgee (1979) classified they met one or more of the following inclusion
ten different spatial abilities into two categories: criteria: [1] relate to mathematics learning
spatial visualisation and spatial research and practice [2] include technology
orientation. Gutierrez (1996) defined support as a teaching intervention in
visualisation as an activity of reasoning, mathematics or STEM [3] discuss spatial
utilising spatial and visual elements, which may visualisation and imagery abilities among
be mental or physical action, intended to prove students [4] discuss instructional strategies or
properties or find solutions to problems. In the strategies to support learning in mathematics or
model proposed by Gutierrez, visualisation STEM [5] discuss learning motivation in
integrates the four elements of external mathematics or maths anxiety among teachers
representations, visualisation abilities, and learners. The queries executed for the
visualisation processes, and mental purpose are included in Appendix 2. On
images. Other early scientists have described synthesising the articles for relevance to the
the abilities of visualisation as visual focus of this review, the following (133 articles
processing of information (VP) and in all) were included in the final synthesis.
interpretation of figural information (IFI).
VP refers to translating abstract relationships ProQuest 49
into visual, and manipulating and translating
visual imagery. IFI refers to using visual ACMDigiLab 61
conventions and spatial vocabulary to interpret
visual images and solve problems. Yakimaskaya’s Google Scholar 8
(1991) view was that spatial thinking consisted Sage 6
of the interrelated processes of creation
and manipulation of mental images. Taylor & Francis 4
JSTOR 5
Methodology and Criteria
for Systematic Review Table 1: Journal Articles Reviewed
A comprehensive literature review was carried Current Perspectives on

out for all research papers published in the last
five years, i.e. between 2017 and 2022. The Spatial Thinking in
objective of the review was to answer the
questions: [1] What current perspectives are
Mathematics Teaching and
available in the teaching and learning of spatial
skills in curricula targeted at different ages. [2]
Learning
What interventions are evidence-based in this
context and serve as a means to teach and Spatial Thinking Ability
enhance spatial skills among learners. The
databases searched were ProQuest, A comprehensive definition by Osborn and
GoogleScholar, JSTOR, Sage, Taylor&Francis, Agogino in 1992 defines spatial thinking as “a
mental process that involves thinking about

relationships between three-dimensional (3D) Spatial Visualisation Ability
objects” (Bhaduri et al., 2021). Space is part of
the environment and thinking spatially is a Herrera and team (2019) discuss certain aspects
central aspect of solving even simple problems. of spatial visualisation in advanced mathematical
Spatial information processing takes place domains (calculus). They state Fischbein’s view
during manipulation of objects, design, and of spatial visualisation as “the capacity, the
navigation. Spatial thinking involves several product, and the process of creation,
cognitive abilities including folding, rotating, interpretation, use, and reflection on
feature decomposition, and hypothesis pictures, images, and diagrams in our minds, on
generation and verification (Bhaduri et al., paper, or with technological tools, with the
2021). In the educational domain, especially purpose of representing and communicating
STEM, developing spatial abilities leads to the information and developing previously unknown
development of psychological attributes, ideas”.
enhances mathematical performance, and
promotes computational thinking. The most Hawes and Ansari (2020) state Lohman’s
important aspect of acquiring spatial thinking is definition of spatial visualisation as the ability to
to develop visualisation skills in the 3D space, “generate, recall, maintain, and
such as orthographic to isometric manipulate visual-spatial images and
transformations, projections, and solutions”, a cornerstone of innovative
perspective changing. Researchers indicate scientific and mathematical discoveries. The
that skills in geometry and trigonometry are an structure of DNA, induction motor, periodic
important aspect of learning 3D modelling. table, and theory of relativity, are all examples
of scientific discoveries that were made possible
Lowrie and team (2018) explain the three through spatial visualisation.
basic components of spatial thinking -
awareness of space or an understanding of Mathematicians have reported interesting facts
dimensions and distance, representation of about spatial visualisation ability. According to
spatial information in the mind and on media popular mathematician Jacques Hadamard,
(graphics, maps, diagrams), and applying mathematical discoveries emerge from
reasoning to interpret this spatial information visual-spatial imagery and intuitions.
for decision-making. Thereafter, the imagination is put to test by
applying logic. Einstein and other
mathematicians have also presented a similar
idea about the thought process - the limited role
of words and the major contribution of images
in the process of mathematical discovery (Hawes
& Ansari, 2020).
Spatial Reasoning Ability

Early researchers believed that spatial reasoning
is “malleable and transferable across the
Figure 1: Spatial Thinking Ability
lifespan”. When an improvement is achieved in
one spatial task, it can be transferred to the
same or other tasks. Several research studies
have claimed spatial skills can be trained. Spatial

reasoning has multiple dimensions (Lowrie et al., spatial and mathematical processing.
2018). Three important aspects of spatial Researchers propose the use of mathematical
reasoning are mental rotation, spatial activities to acquire spatial sense and approach
visualisation, and spatial orientation. Mental difficult problems.
rotation is the ability to rotate a 2D or 3D
object in the mind for a specific task. Mental A spatial sense depends on the choice of
rotation is enhanced through learning and strategy in learning early arithmetic.
experience and is strongly associated with STEM Researchers argue that high-level mental
success. Spatial visualisation refers to arithmetic may be one such strategy. In a
mentally transforming or manipulating the research study, children who received
visuospatial properties of objects. It is different geometry-related spatial skills interventions
from rotation or changing one’s perspective. demonstrated an improvement in 2D mental
Examples of spatial visualisation include rotation, spatial language, and visual-spatial
visualising the cube from its net. Spatial geometric reasoning. Researchers identified
orientation is the egocentric ability to change several dependencies related to spatial skills
perspective, often involving re-orientation when such as visuospatial memory pathways and
a change greater than 90 degrees is required. visuospatial memory resources. Visuospatial
memory in elementary grades predicted
numerical but not reading success in later years,
as well as was linked to numerical success in
high school. Other researchers indicated that
mental rotation was a better predictor of
mathematical performance when compared to
visuospatial memory.
Using spatial skills in the early years may be

linked to numeracy, addition, and subtraction.
Spatial reasoning was found to be linked
Figure 2: Spatial Reasoning to addition and subtraction skills. They
observed a connection with the mental number
Teaching and Learning line and visualising quantity. In early arithmetic
problem solving, decomposition and retrieve
Perspectives and Preferences strategies were considered more advanced than
concrete counting strategies. These strategies
Developing “Spatial Senses” for Specific depend on visuospatial memory and spatial
Mathematical Content Areas reasoning. Spatial skills had a negative
association with counting strategies, and 2D
Casey and Fell (2018) explain that a generalised visualisation was linked to decomposition from
approach to teaching spatial skills may not be first through fourth grades. Visual spatial
appropriate for all students. They explain that memory is important for decomposition, and
spatial interventions must be correlated to verbal skills are related to decomposition but not
specific content in mathematics to enable retrieval (Casey & Fell, 2018). Early spatial
students to develop different types of “spatial skills predicted superior algebra, and
senses” specific to the content area or geometry performance during the later
mathematical domain. The underlying ability for years through direct and indirect
better spatial skills may not be higher fluid pathways. Evidence also indicates that boys
reasoning ability, but a specific link between possess superior mental transformation

and rotation skills when compared to girls. performance adversely. Visualising abstract
Boys preferred decomposition while girls mathematical relations is linked to spatial
preferred concrete manipulatives as arithmetic geometry concepts, and the strengths and
problem-solving strategies. Further, boys used weaknesses of visual and analytical
retrieval strategies more accurately. thinking determine the type of giftedness
in mathematics. Furthermore, verbalizers had
Researchers indicate that interventions to a correlation with success in algebra. Finally,
develop fraction magnitude sense, students who were gifted in mathematics
conceptualising them as units rather than preferred analytical methods. In a similar
numerators and denominators, predicts better research study, students classified as
performance. Interventions such as fraction “harmonics” had well-developed spatial abilities,
number line, fraction games, and using spatial and could be further classified as
representations with graphing are relevant in pictorial-harmonic and abstract-harmonic
this context. Other interventions such as (Mainali, 2021). In a study of high-school
geometry games, visualisation games, route students, calculus performance was correlated
mapping, generating mental images of 2D and with graphical representations but not with
3D representations, using mental folding, using algebraic representations. These findings
modelling clay to understand solids, surfaces, indicate the importance of using several
and cross-sections, building convex solids, and different modes of representation to gain
building and slicing plasticine objects to see side proficiency in mathematics by developing
views may be helpful in developing critical solution methods that have the visual and
components of spatial sense (Casey & Fell, nonvisual component.
2018). These examples demonstrate the
importance of specific spatial skills relevant Visualisation by Students for Realistic
to context as a means of promoting Problem Solving
superior performance.
Yurmalia and Jupri (2021) hypothesised that
Preference for Visual and Non-Visual visualisation could be causal towards solving
Representation among Learners realistic problems. Researchers analysed data
from study participants with respect to
Mainali (2021) argued on similar lines, stating Presmeg’s five types of visualisation: mental
student preferences for solution methods imagery of formulae, concrete imagery,
influence teaching, learning, and pattern imagery, dynamic or moving
mathematical performance. He categorised imagery, and kinesthetic imagery. They
mathematical processing as visual-pictorial defined concrete imagery as the ability to
(visualizers) and verbal-logical (verbalizers). illustrate something in the mind to understand a
A third category of learners make use of both concept. Pattern imagery refers to interpreting a
methods, and are referred to as harmonics or concept in a pattern. Memory image of the
mixers. These learning preferences formula refers to imagining the formula of a
(“organising, representing, and processing concept. Kinesthetic imagery is the visualisation
information”) in mathematics relate to that leads a person to use their body to
cognitive styles, and the perception and understand a concept. Finally, visualisation
response to “ideas, events and problems”. through dynamic imagery is the representation
Early research indicates that highly developed of concepts by changing them to another
analytical thinking does not necessarily relate to concept. Researchers attempted to find out how
mathematical thinking, but low level analytical students understood and visualised a problem,
thinking does influence mathematical

and formed their conclusions. When they policy-makers and researchers: spatial skills
presented problems to high school students, were more malleable in young children; children
researchers observed three types of with difficulty in spatial functioning may be
visualisations: pattern imagery, concrete supported through the use of game tasks
imagery, and memory image of formulae. such as rotating objects on devices or playing
Furthermore, good schematic with robots; more research is required to
representations were useful in solving implement spatially-oriented curriculum in
problems and formulating conclusions. early-childhood training settings; authentic
These activities had a significant impact on learning of spatial skills is the domain of
student performance, and can be used to design policy-makers who may assist in forming
further tasks in the domain of visualisation. settings for children with diverse backgrounds to
support weaker socio-economic sections;
Recommended Spatial Training Strategies spatial skills training enhances spatial
for Researchers and Policy-Makers functioning in girls, who must be given
priority in engaging in such experiences given
In a meta-analysis carried out to determine the “male advantage” with respect to spatial
whether spatial training was an effective skills. Therefore, it is essential to infuse spatial
strategy in the early years, Yang and colleagues learning in early childhood experiences, and
(2020) explored the role of spatial skills in researchers recommend that educators
solving problems by manipulating visuospatial “spatialize the curriculum” allowing students to
information. Spatial skills are strong “think spatially”.
predictors of STEM success in the
academic and occupational domains. Spatial Factors that Enhance STEM Learning
Spatial skills are evident in early years in the
ability to form mental transformations, mental Buckley and team (2018) identified a framework
rotation, and perspective taking. These abilities to relate spatial abilities and STEM education.
are linked to numerical, maths, reasoning skills, Spatial abilities have received less attention as
and map use. They also assist in the predictors of academic success. Current research
development of writing skills, executive function, is focused on understanding the “factor
and motor skills. Evidence from neurology structure of spatial ability”. Spatial abilities may
indicates that it is possible to use predict success in many STEM disciplines
interventions to enhance neural function including mathematics, biology, physics,
for spatial thinking to enhance maths and chemistry, engineering graphics, design,
science skills. It is known that spatial skills are computer programming, and geometry.
malleable and can be improved with hands-on Researchers argue that it is important to
activities and environmental feedback. Based on understand the methods that work and
this assumption, researchers conducted an those that do not under specific
analysis and concluded that training during the educational contexts. Researchers were keen
early years can improve the spatial functioning to uncover evidence on spatial skills, perceptual
of young children. Classroom spatial training factors, and memory-based factors in the
was found to be effective. Suggested forms of context of STEM education. Drawing upon the
training were visual prompts, hands-on findings from factor-analysis studies, researchers
exploration, and the use of gestures. Motor identified that it is important to understand the
activities were helpful in developing spatial nature of a factor prior to classifying it as a
perspective taking and mental rotation skills. spatial factor and also attach an inclusion and
Scientists provided important insights for exclusion criteria to it. Further, spatial factors

must be “generalizable to any context”. To a cognitive map of the human mind.
answer this question, researchers proposed a Eventually, in order to make realistic
framework across multiple contexts to improvements in the educational practice of
understand how spatial abilities correlated with STEM, it is important to carry out further
STEM education. research and determine the causal
relationship between STEM education and
The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory, which spatial ability.
contains the most updated definition of spatial
ability, does not contain many important factors. The Confluence of Mathematics, Psychology,
Researchers defined several criteria for spatial and Neuroscience towards Evolution in
factors such as being unique cognitive Mathematical Education Research
processes, representing spatial processes, the
inclusion of dynamic spatial abilities, and Bruce and team (2016) identified the importance
identifying factors that do not rely on semantic of interdisciplinary research, amalgamating
knowledge such as mental rotation, including the expertise of psychologists,
spatial orientation as a core factor of spatial mathematicians, and neuroscientists, as a
ability. They identified factors in the area of means to evolve education research in the field
human perception termed as “imagery factors” of mathematics, focusing on an understanding
and related to the aspects of imagery speed, of “spatial reasoning” across disciplines. Spatial
imagery quality, and imagery self-report, ability not just contributes to mathematical
which may constitute multiple dimensions cognition, but also plays an important role in
including vividness, controllability, classroom organisation, curriculum
transformation and maintenance, reconceptualization, teaching strategies, and
generation, and clarity. They also defined supporting careers in an information and
imagery as a capacity to generate perceptual technology space. These demands require
illusions by understanding how illusions affect collaboration among specialised disciplines.
individuals in terms of size contrast, Researchers point out the differences between
direction, shape, frame of reference, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and
overestimation, and underestimation. transdisciplinary approaches in the sense of
Moving beyond crystalline and fluid intelligence “combining monologues”, “creating dialogues”,
as predictors of STEM success, researchers laid and “sustaining holistic conversations”. They
specific emphasis on mental rotation, argue that transdisciplinary approaches refer to
visualisation, and perspective-taking. In holistic methods based on an inquiry into
terms of dynamic factors, researchers complex problems that integrate cross-domain
considered speed judgement, directional expertise, and are necessary to make the
judgement, and movement detection for required progress to address complex problems
inclusion in their framework (Buckley et al. of teaching and learning mathematics. Such an
2018). Two other factors that involved stimulus approach requires integrating
identification and were closely linked were domain-specific initiative and creativity.
closure speed and flexibility of closure.
Some factors that were associated with static Researchers attempted to address the gaps
and dynamic stimulus were spatial scanning, between research domains by studying specific
serial perceptual integration, visual case studies. In the first case of perspective
memory, and perceptual alternations. taking, researchers identified that it is an
Researchers also defined considerations to important skill in psychology and needs greater
identify spatial factors in the future and develop integration in mathematics curriculums. Piaget’s

“Three Mountain Task” involves explaining a mathematics curriculum does not sufficiently
scene (landscape) from different perspectives. focus on symmetry, leading to the broader area
The purpose of this task in Psychology is to gain of spatial reasoning.
an understanding into the “egocentric nature of
young children’s thinking”. The task is known to In a third case study in the educational
enrich the spatial reasoning of children, and neuroscience domain, several concepts have
“make sense of the world”. However, perspective received considerable attention such as pattern
taking in school mathematics is treated as an recognition and perception (Bruce et al., 2016).
isolated skill, involving activities such as Even in mathematical education research, visual
sketching the different faces of 3D structures pattern recognition and perception is an
from top, sides, and bottom (Bruce et al., 2016). important topic in early learning experiences.
These approaches limit and reduce complexities According to early researchers, mathematical
related to perspective. Researchers argue that a intuition may reflect the ability of the
better approach would be “embodied nervous system to discover patterns in the
perspective taking” that involves inserting world. Neuroscience knowledge such as the
the person into different spaces, thereby ability of autistic individuals to process global
making sense of a specific setting. and local information simultaneously, and inhibit
Perspective taking has deep connections with background noise to perceive meaningful spatial
mathematical ability as it is linked to dissection patterns has implications in mathematical and
of shapes, drawing, mapping, composing psychology education.
figures, and navigating, and a transdisciplinary
approach is essential to support mathematical Researchers who integrated
achievement. cross-disciplinary knowledge from these
three domains achieved significant
A second case of “symmetry” was analysed in success in mathematics learning. One such
the mathematical context, a subject that is instance was the application of symmetry in a
relevant to a number of mathematical concepts way that allows learners to “see” the inherent
including linear algebra, group theory, calculus, symmetry in integers (Bruce et al., 2016). As
differential equations, set theory, graph theory, young children do not perceive negative integers
topology, combinatorics, probability, elementary as reflections of their positive counterpart,
arithmetic, and balancing equations. In fourth-grade children were presented with a
geometry, although rotational and mirror learning experience deduced from neuroscience
symmetry are recognized, other forms of and psychology. Their activity involved
symmetry including glide reflection symmetry, paper-folding designed based on neuroimaging
double rotation symmetry, translational studies that identified the involvement of brain
symmetry, scale symmetry and the like are not regions connected with symmetry processing of
explicitly addressed (Bruce et al., 2016). School visual images in achieving a “mature
mathematics consists of symmetry discussed as understanding of integers”.
a static topic based on two-dimensional images,
as opposed to being “well-proportioned, Researchers concluded that gaps in information
well-balanced” from the artistic perspective, or a flow exist among different disciplines, and
“dynamic property of emerging phenomenon”. deliberate transdisciplinary approaches
The focus on symmetry in mathematics are required to solve complex problems.
education is rather narrow with a few For example, while early number development
computer tools in mathematics allowing focuses on cardinality, neuroscience points at
dynamic shape transformations. However, distinct processing patterns of cardinal and
ordinal numbers in the brain. Incorporating
10

these findings opens new opportunities to focus correlation between arts, crafts, design
on ordinality approaches for a better (ACD) and STEMM achievement. They
understanding of place value. In another indicate 13 nonverbal thinking tools including
instance, researchers relate a collaborative abstracting, kinesthetic thinking,
project between teachers, mathematics observing, imaging, dimensional thinking,
consultants, researchers, numeracy facilitators, modelling, playing, pattern forming,
education ministry, and school administrators to analogizing, pattern recognition,
integrate spatial reasoning from works empathising, synthesising, and
undertaken in psychology. Activities defined in transforming. STEMM professionals were
this context supported teaching and learning in observed to use some or all of the tools.
spatial reasoning and geometry during the early Avocations were sometimes related to certain
years. The project had interesting outcomes in nonverbal thinking tools. For example, visual
the form of research conclusions for thinking tools had a correlation with visual arts
mathematics and psychology experts and an and visual thinking was related to musical
improvement in the geometric and spatial avocations. Further, arts and crafts were related
reasoning of students. to kinesthetic thinking, and writing avocations
were more frequently found in verbal thinkers.
These results imply that mathematics education Understanding how non-verbal thinking tools
must involve “transdisciplinary research and relate to STEMM achievement may result in
practice” as priority. Such approaches are formal pedagogical approaches that enhance
expected to resolve the limitations of current STEMM learning.
approaches relying on unidirectional and
hierarchical information. “Collaborative In the present study, researchers surveyed
inquiry” is expected to fulfil demands of STEMM professionals for their use of thinking
complex problems in spatial reasoning tools and contributions in the form of
(Bruce et al., 2016). Researchers may need to publications, companies founded, patents, and
persevere towards studying methodologies and copyrights. STEMM and ACD professionals were
vocabulary specific to the discipline, to identify surveyed on language-based thinking skills and
where progress is possible. familiar terms. They found that non-verbal
thinking skills were used by STEMM
Evidence of Correlation between STEMM professionals, including unusual skills such as
Success, ACD Avocations, and Non-Verbal smell, taste, and tactile imagery. The skills most
Thinking Tools commonly linked to STEMM professionals were
visual intuition, pattern recognition, visual
Root-Bernstein and team (2018) examined the imaging, visual observation, verbalization, and
use of non-verbal thinking tools among a group logic (Root-Bernstein et al., 2019). Other skills
of STEMM (Science, technology, Engineering, included physical modelling, abstracting, thought
Mathematics, and Medicine) professionals. Their experiments, world invention, and mental
intent was to find out the range of cognitive modelling. STEMM professionals used visual
skills used by them. Creative thinking in these imaging and logic more than ACD professionals.
domains is known to influence student On the other hand, ACD professionals used
performance for improving formal and informal more non-symbolic thinking tools than STEMM
STEMM education. Scientists who practised their professionals such as kinesthetic thinking,
interests were found to be highly successful in physical models, playing, abstracting, and
their field and made more contributions during empathising.
their lifetime. Researchers point at an important
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Researchers also indicated that there may be Certain achievements also had negative
gender differences in the use of STEMM and correlations with ACDs such as patent filing
ACD tools, as well as cognitive skills. While men being negatively correlated with singing and
used mental and physical models and visual dancing, but researchers attributed this effect to
thought experiment, females used body and confounding factors. Finally, the preferences for
verbal forms of thinking more frequently. tools used correlated with the choice of ACD -
Females in ACD professions seemed to use a scientists who preferred verbal forms of
different set of thinking tools when compared to thinking also preferred ACD associated
females in STEMM professionals. Men in STEMM with verbal skills while those who
fields had more contributions to their credit preferred body thinking engaged in
when compared to women, in terms of patents body-related ACD. Company founders
filed, companies, licences, copyrights, and indicated that they related cognitive skills
published books. Companies founded and learned in ACD to their science practice, and
papers written were much the same in both linked visualisation learned in ACD to improve
groups of participants, although women understanding of science. For company
outperformed men in the number of books founders, abstracting and patterning acquired
written (Root-Bernstein et al., 2019). Certain from ACD were relevant to science practice, ACD
tools did not show any differentiation in creative behaviours led to a deep understanding
achievement such as analogizing, non-verbal of science creative behaviours, and ACD
imagery, and intuition. However, patent stimulated flexibility in exploration and curiosity
production had a significant correlation with that they did not learn as part of the scientific
visual imaging, physical modelling, and playing. subject. In effect, cognitive skills learned in
Founded companies were correlated with mental ACD transferred to STEMM. In spite of
modelling and visual imaging. Further, certain biases and limitations, it will be
peer-reviewed publications were linked to reasonable to conclude that STEMM
physical modelling and abstraction. Verbal professionals use a broad range of cognitive
thinking as a preferred tool had a correlation skills and examining nonverbal thinking tools is a
with production of books, patents, research potential area of research. These tools correlate
papers, and licences. A negative correlation was with STEMM achievement, which in turn
also associated with book writing and logic. correlates with ACD avocations. Therefore,
Thinking in words did not improve the ability to integrating ACD into STEMM classrooms is
make discoveries or inventions. Verbal thinking likely to improve learning outcomes.
had a negative correlation with patent
production and kinesthetic thinking. Relation between Spatial Abilities,
Programming, and Mathematical Success
Researchers attempted to identify whether
persistence of an avocation over life correlated As stated earlier, spatial abilities are closely
with the use of thinking tools. They found that related to STEM success. Bockmon and team
childhood ACD predicted young adult ACD and (2020) hypothesised that a correlation existed
adult ACD, and young adult ACD predicted between spatial abilities and programming skills.
mature ACD (Root-Bernstein et al., 2019). In They decided to test their hypothesis as recent
certain cases, specific ACD correlated with an studies indicated an improvement in
achievement such as in the case of patent programming skills and spatial skills when
production, which was linked to metalworking, spatial skills interventions were applied to
photography, printmaking, woodworking, students attending introductory courses in
electronics, music composition, and mechanics. computing (Bockmon, Cooper, Gratch, et al.,
12

2020). The study tested a number of variables (physical artefacts and visuospatial
including prior spatial skills, prior programming representations that facilitate cognitive spatial
abilities, race, gender, and socioeconomic status. processes) contexts.
Student attitudes towards computing were
tested by relating five factors to problem solving Distributed spatial sensemaking is a term used
i.e. ability to connect concepts to solve to describe the interaction between cognitive
problems, classical strategies in computer spatial processes and how they are distributed
science problem solving, motivation, across resources specific to the activity or
engagement, and personal interest with context (Ramey & Uttal, 2017). Activity contexts
computer science, student belief of learned during learning present specific sensemaking
helplessness in computer science, and relation goals, which may be achieved through the
between computer science and the real world. learners’ internal cognitive spatial processes.
“Spatial sensemaking practices” are achieved
Researchers have established correlations through an interplay of these internal processes
between spatial skills and several aspects of and material and social external resources.
STEM learning such as calculations involving Scientists concluded that spatial thinking has
conversions, success in programming an important role beyond mathematical,
modules, computer aided design (CAD), scientific and verbal reasoning. They used a
database manipulation, and high impact mixed-methods approach to conclude that it was
on achievement in computer science possible for learners to solve spatial engineering
(Bockmon, Cooper, Gratch, et al., 2020). On problems by combining spatial sensemaking
conducting logistic regression, ANOVA, and practices and cognitive spatial processes.
applying a series of data analysis tools for their Distributed spatial sensemaking was linked to
variables listed above, researchers confirmed unique spatial practices and skills among
that spatial abilities not only predicted success in students. Finally, the nature of engineering
STEM but also programming abilities. Results activity was linked to unique cognitive spatial
indicated that prior spatial skills of students processes, spatial sensemaking practices, and
were the most accurate predictors of post spatial sensemaking goals. In summary, they
programming performance of students. Their demonstrated that specific material and
research extends the validity of spatial skills as social conditions of activity contexts were
predictors of success in not just engineering but connected with related spatial practices
also computing disciplines. and processes.
Distributed Spatial Sensemaking as a Evidence on Links between Spatial Skills

Problem Solving Strategy and Mathematical Abilities based on
Psychology, Neuroscience, and Education
Researchers trying to understand spatial Perspectives
thinking have observed that context is an
important aspect that shapes teaching and Hawes and Ansari (2020) explored the link
learning. Towards this end, sociocultural, between mathematics and spatial skills and why
situated, and distributed approaches may these abilities may be linked. They present
help understand the processes (Ramey & Uttal, evidence by studying the confluence of
2017). Researchers define social (learner neuroscience, psychology, and education. They
collaboration over shared representations and explain their findings in terms of shared neural
objects to solve spatial problems in a distributed processing, spatial representation of
cognitive system), activity (engineering design numbers, working memory, and spatial
activities towards a specific goal), and material
13

modelling. Mapping numbers to space is act as a proxy for more cognitive
the basis of mathematical learning. This demanding skills including working
ability is applied to concepts such as memory, executive function, and general
Pythogorean theorem and apparent in real life in intelligence. There also seems to be a close
the use of the clock and abacus. The cognitive connection between spatial visualisation,
processes that support these capabilities revolve visual spatial working memory (VSWM),
around spatial skills. Spatial visualisation and numerical reasoning. Finally, spatial
facilitates numerical reasoning. visualisation skills are largely inherited and are
highly “malleable” (Hawes & Ansari, 2020).
As noted earlier, scientific evidence supports the However, in depth research is required to
fact that spatial visualisation skills predict STEM determine whether spatial training is
success and creativity and innovation in generalizable to mathematical and numerical
the occupation. Further, spatial skills expand the reasoning. This in depth research account
breadth of mathematical tasks in algebra, provides important information for the design of
geometry, mental maths, estimation, word mathematics curricula and interventions in the
problems, logic, function theory, and future.
computational mathematics (Hawes &
Ansari, 2020). Spatial visualisation skills may be Embodied Activities and Mathematical
related to mathematics in several ways. In the Thinking
context of representing numbers spatially, a
large body of evidence exists in the form of Research on embodied cognition using hand
visualising number forms, the SNARC gestures, manipulatives, and whole body
effect, and numerical reasoning through movement indicates important aspects of the
spatial-numerical associations (SNAs). learning process, human perception, and
integration of knowledge. Embodied cognition
Neurological evidence on the Gerstman’s refers to the idea that cognition is formed not
syndrome indicates that impaired mental just by the brain but also by the body.
rotation and manipulation of visual-spatial Embodiment refers to bidirectional physical
images may be the underlying cause of finger and perceptual interactions of the human
agnosia, left-right confusion, acalculia, and body with the world with motor systems
dysgraphia. Furthermore, the intraparietal that define sensation and perception,
sulcus (IPS) of the human brain plays a movement and shape, and neural systems
critical role in reasoning about magnitudes involved in action planning. Neural
including number and time, shape and size, and representation of events are connected with
luminance. Parietal regions may also be brain states that were active during actual
involved in spatial transformation and perception in the real world.
mental rotation (Hawes & Ansari, 2020).
Furthermore, the same mechanisms of the Body movement helps with retention and
parietal regions may also support retrieval of information, allows deeper
arithmetic transformations. levels of processing, and creates a stronger
memory trace for efficient recall. Movement
Spatial visualisation skills may also help learners forms the basis of mental transformation
model mathematical relations and enhance later on, that is based on motor processes
performance. Some studies have also indicated formed from prior memories of the
that mathematical thought is “grounded” movement even with the learners no longer
in the bodily and sensory experiences in engaging in physical movement. Movement
real life. Finally, spatial visualisation skills may reduces cognitive load and improves
14

problem-solving abilities. Using embodiment, significant variability was associated with
it is possible to connect abstract and concrete stimulus type, expert type, and test type. The
concepts through mind-body connections such primary finding from their study was related to
as temporal and spatial metaphors. Other embodiment theory, which indicates that
examples of embodiment are embodied “cognitive processes are rooted in the
numerosity such as using fingers to count, the body, and sensory and motor processes
SNARC effect, using manipulatives to are used for cognitive activity”. Researchers
understand complex and abstract concepts, and state the example of training athletes and
using hand gestures (Tran et al., 2017). musicians targeting specific motor and sensory
Embodiment helps to reduce cognitive load and processes that relate to spatial cognitive activity.
provide additional feedback, and body On comparing the two activities, researchers
movement helps to accumulate and process indicated that sports activities happen in
sensorimotor information, and promote space, and musical learning requires
mathematical learning. Furthermore, technology spatial awareness. Learning sports requires
can be used to imbibe varying degrees of gross motor skills and music requires mastery
embodiment. Evidence related to embodied over fine motor skills. Since these skills correlate
cognition has led to the development of with cognitive abilities, they can be extended to
immersive experiences that make use of motion spatial abilities as well.
sensors, touch devices and virtual reality. In
general, embodiment in mathematical learning is When experts assessed the “expert type”
related to movement linked to a specific moderator, they found that combat sports
concept as opposed to general actions displayed the largest effects owing to the large
related to fitness. Moreover, embodied number of spatial processes involved. Although
experiences can also serve as indicators for a dancers and gymnasts also performed activities
student’s readiness to learn. Nevertheless, in closed spaces, the results were very different.
embodied experiences may be suitable Musicians had a large effect size due to the
only for some concepts and some learners. visuospatial requirements involved in acquiring
the skill. While studying stimulus type as a
Motor Expertise, Embodied Cognition, and moderator, researchers indicated that they found
Spatial Performance it easier to rotate 2D when compared to 3D
stimuli (Voyer and Jansen, 2017). An
As discussed earlier, sensory motor interaction examination of the test category showed the
with the environment (embodied approach to largest effects in spatial perception. Researchers
learning) leads to the development of cognitive concluded that motor expertise had a large
skills such as reasoning. Motor rotation is one effect on spatial skills, which in turn influenced
such process that promotes spatial abilities. cognitive abilities.
Voyer and Janson (2017) identified that motor
expertise is an important predictor of Non-Verbal Spatial Thinking and Language
spatial performance. Mental rotation to Modulation in Early Mathematical Learning
accomplish spatial tasks is an important
aspect of embodied cognition. In a recent Play-based learning in early childhood education
research, scientists indicated that motor is an interesting setting to demonstrate spatial
experts have an advantage over visualisation skills. In an Australian learning
non-motor experts in performing spatial space, teachers used conversation to model
tasks. Researchers assessed the role of locational and directional language. The
moderators in this area and found that the most process identified that spatial thinking may
15

be non-verbal, which accounts for exploration, the teacher finds and utilises
opportunities to model vocabulary in relation to opportunities to model locational and
behaviour, thereby mathematizing a specific directional language (Hedge & Cohrssen,
instance. For example, a child’s gesture may be 2019). Teachers may find several opportunities
narrated by an educator to support to promote spatial skills in children during
mathematical learning. An example used to learning number sense, subitizing, recognizing
describe this notion by researchers is the patterns, and teaching part-whole relationships.
recognizing of four quarters relating to a whole They may use several strategies to enhance
when a child distributes play doh equally among spatial thinking skills including sorting,
four classmates. Such approaches require classifying, and comparing shapes, solving
educators to possess knowledge of play-based puzzles and mazes, and using storytelling
pedagogies in mathematics to be able to to put a point across. Researchers also found
understand mathematical thinking in the things gender differences such as boys requiring
children say, make, and do (Hedge & Cohrssen, activities without narrative
2019). Another important skill is clinical contextualization, whereas girls requiring
judgement to evaluate the impact of teaching intervention such as geometry with story
on the learning of children. Teachers need to be telling to learn spatial skills. In essence,
able to extend the knowledge of children by pedagogical knowledge is essential among
understanding a child’s learning teachers to recognize mathematical
trajectory. They need to be responsive to thinking demonstrated by children, plan
diverse competencies in children, which learning experiences, integrate the
allows them to assess ongoing projects, thinking of children, and adapt their plans
stimulate thinking, and enrich learning. to achieve the desired learning outcomes.
The setting described in this paper outlines a Differences in Problem Solving: Semantic Vs
cycle of educating children in their elementary Visuospatial
years (“Early Years Planning Cycle”), where
educators observe and analyse the behaviour of To understand the neural basis of problem
children to assess the child’s knowledge, plan solving during the different preferences selected
learning experiences to rehearse, consolidate, by learners, scientists used fMRI imaging data to
and extend a child’s skills, and reflect on the assess mental images during the
learning that was achieved by observing child problem-solving process (Pyke et al., 2017).
participation, and plan new experiences (Hedge Visuospatial representations depict
& Cohrssen, 2019). Educators need to possess “relative magnitudes of relevant
mathematical content knowledge to quantities”. Learners require knowledge of
understand embodied as opposed to magnitude of problem elements and the
verbal mathematical thinking. magnitude relations among these
elements for successful mathematical learning
In early childhood, learning is a multimodal and transfer. In a specific activity students
process, and the manipulation of objects showed better estimation and
engages the sensory (thermal, cutaneous, and memorization of addition facts when
kinesthetic sensors) and motor (manipulative presented with shaded bars that showed
and prehensile abilities) haptic systems. magnitude in conjunction with symbolic facts.
Sensori-motor feedback received from In integral calculus, representing an area
manipulating the object allows children to as a two-dimensional region as opposed to
control the “pace, speed, direction, and symbolic procedures showed different
magnitude” of the exploration. During this
16

activation patterns for solving problems sub-stages of the learning process to
mentally later on. understand how learners progress through the
problem (Pyke et al., 2017). The stages involved
An integral aspect of mathematical (numerical) in mathematical problem solving were
cognition is the mental number line that encoding symbols in problem stimulus,
represents magnitudes of symbolic numbers. Its planning to identify a method to reach the
processing takes place in the horizontal solution, computation which involves working
intraparietal sulcus (HIPS), and the out arithmetic to calculate the answer, and
activation is dependent on numerical distance response which refers to the execution of a
between numbers in comparison tasks. Evidence motor sequence to get the final answer.
also supports the involvement of other brain Researchers found differences specific to the
regions including the posterior superior stages in the activation of brain regions between
parietal lobule (PSPL) which may learners who used visuospatial referents and
modulate attention along the number line symbolic algorithms. Participants of the study
and angular gyrus (AG). Differences between who were trained on visuospatial referents
familiar quantities and a new quantity were showed greater activation in regions
apparent in the left lingual gyrus and the associated with linguistic and imagery
fusiform gyrus. Regions involved in processing semantics (precuneus, posterior cingulate,
graphs included the precuneus, bi-lateral parahippocampal and fusiform gyri,
occipital region, right posterior superior angular and supramarginal gyri, and
parietal lobe (PSPL), right middle temporal middle and temporal gyrus). Researchers
gyrus, and right postcentral gyrus. concluded that visuospatially trained solvers
Visualisation in maths word problem was were able to make calculations from
associated with activation in several brain mental visuospatial representations
regions including lingual gyrus, occipital on-the-fly. Furthermore, learners who used the
regions, thalamus, cuneus, and calcarine two strategies were able to partition their
gyrus, in addition to right hemisphere workload differently across stages and regions.
activation of the fusiform gyrus and
superior, inferior, and middle temporal Spatial Numerical Associations (SNAs),
gyri (Pyke et al., 2017). The use of mental SNARC Effect, and Mathematical Skills
abacus imagery was associated with activation
of the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), Cipora and team (2020) explored a multitude of
right thalamus, right caudate, right spatial numerical associations (SNAs), the
angular gyrus, and right superior temporal SNARC effect, and their relation with maths
cortex. Individuals who were not skills. They defined SNAs as a neural and
abacus-trained used a different set of brain behavioural phenomena that defines numerical
regions including bi-lateral IPS and fusiform, information as exact or approximate,
occipital and cerebellar regions, and left concerning ordinality or cardinality,
supramarginal, superior frontal and explicit or implicit, or associated with a
precentral areas. specific direction in space. The size congruity
effect and operational momentum are some
In the present study, researchers used a novel examples of phenomena relating to SNAs. The
method to study the different stages of SNARC effect refers to the phenomenon where
mathematical problem, which they termed learners exhibit “bimanual parity
Hidden Semi-Markov Modeling with Multi-Voxel judgement”, which is about responding faster
Pattern Analysis (HSMM-MVPA). The method to small magnitude numbers on the left side and
involved recording fMRI data on different
17

large magnitude numbers on the right side. The task irrelevant, and flexible individuals are able
relation between the SNARC effect and maths to adapt to the situation spontaneously (Cipora
skills can be ascertained by quantifying the et al., 2020). It is also interesting to note that
SNARC effect. The SNARC effect seems to associating numbers with space is linked
appear only when the meaning of to five codes – sequential working
numbers, i.e. ordinality or magnitude can memory, visuospatial simulation,
be processed automatically. For example, spatial-verbal instructions, linguistic
this automatic magnitude processing is markedness, and non-verbal processes.
necessary if the SNARC effect is to appear in a Furthermore, embodied influences in
parity task. The other factors involved in this abstract processing are related to better
processing is representation in space. maths skills, such as the efficacy of SNARC
Further, the reaction time pattern depends effect in individuals who prefer left to right
on inhibition, interference control, and counting of fingers. Finally, spatial skills are
information processing efficiency. The associated with maths skills, leading to better
SNARC effect is related to semantic number line estimation and mental rotation
number processing. In dyscalculic children, being associated with better place-value
automatic number processing is different in even integration. SNARC effect is an interference
basic tasks such as subitizing and two-digit effect and individual capacity of inhibition
number comparison, implying that individuals and interference control, response time,
lacking automatic number processing have and information processing efficiency
weak or no SNARC effect. These basic tasks influence related cognitive mechanisms.
are not just necessary for the SNARC effect to
appear but also form the foundation of complex Evidence on Correlation between Spatial
maths skills. However, it is not clear whether Visualisation and Enhanced Calculus
SNARC effect is influenced by ordinality or Performance
cardinality. Further, an increase in semantic
number processing is not necessarily Visualizers and verbalizers are the two main
related to a linear increase in the SNARC cognitive styles that have been studied for a
effect. Rather, it is associated with the number of years. Visualizers are classified as
threshold for automatic number processing. either spatial visualizers or object
visualizers according to their ability to process
Researchers propose that there are a number of graphical and visual-spatial information and
aspects related to associating magnitude of perform mathematical tasks. Object imagery
numbers with space. Selective attention consists of the elements of colour, shape, and
assists in associating numbers with space. vividness, whereas spatial imagery refers to
Further, mathematical concepts are the spatial relations between objects and their
abstract and may be based on linguistic locations. When researchers presented a graph
codes, implying that language enhances of a function to object visualizers and spatial
mathematical representations. Flexibility is visualizers, the former created detailed images
an important aspect of high level mathematics, of slopes and tangents but did not transform
in individuals who have abstract spatial them into a derivative. Conversely, spatial
associations. Flexibility in the SNARC effect visualizers visualised the changing slope
helps to build SNA when required, of tangent lines and transformed them
suppress it, or build it in different into derivative graphs. In a study evaluating
directions. For example, in parity judgement, definite integrals, researchers observed that
spatial association must be suppressed as it is participants used algebraic expression. In the
18

processing of calculus, students relied on highest calculus performance. Moreover, low
analytic and verbal processing. Moreover, object verbalizers had high spatial ability scores.
visualizers with low spatial ability created Verbalizers also showed better calculus
pictorial representations of word algebra performance when compared to high object
problems, and spatial visualizers with high visualizers. Researchers also indicated that it is
spatial ability presented algebra word problems important to find how students differ in terms of
in terms of spatial representations. visual processing, and how personal and
Mathematical giftedness was also linked to affective variables, classroom instruction, and
processing of information (Haciomeroglu, 2016). interaction between students and teachers
The verbal-logical ability was linked to the influence this visual processing.
level of giftedness, and the visual-pictorial
component was linked to the type of Purposeful Multilingual Maths, Code
giftedness. Several other correlations were Switching, and Visualisation in Geometry
found by researchers such as verbal reasoning and Trigonometry
as a significant predictor of mathematical ability,
the absence of a correlation between visual Mental representations are extremely important
performance and spatial, mathematical, and in mathematics learning, without which meaning
verbal reasoning ability. For example, spatial cannot be achieved. Several strategies have
visualisation had a correlation with been applied to promote the conceptual
performance in calculus, and verbal-logical understanding of mathematics. Researchers
reasoning and visualisation were linked to promoted verbal language in multilingual
geometry performance. However, other classes in South Africa to trigger mental
research studies indicated differing results with imagery. This technique proved effective when
some justifying a correlation of mathematical actual representations were not available
performance with verbalizers, and others (Chikiwa & Schäfer, 2019). The use of learner’s
depicting a correlation with spatial abilities. first language through code switching helped
create meaning and promote an understanding
In their current study, scientists explored how of the concept. Language is an integral aspect of
verbal reasoning ability, spatial ability, and learning, and mathematics is a universal
mathematical performance differed in relation to language beyond political, geographical,
different cognitive styles. Their results indicated cultural, linguistic, and social differences.
that performance in calculus, verbal-logical Failing to make connections between
reasoning, and spatial ability had a clear mathematics and real life makes it an abstract
correlation. Researchers tested participants for and detached subject. Words can be used to
cognitive style, cognitive ability, and trigger curiosity and imagination in
mathematical performance. A positive learners. According to cognitive psychology
correlation was observed between research, mathematics depends on visual
calculus performance and spatial ability in pathways. Visual language in mathematics can
the spatial visualisation cognitive style. be used to convey mathematics concepts
However, object visualisation was not related to through the use of text and images. The right
spatial ability and also had a negative correlation use of visuals helps learners understand
with performance in calculus (Haciomeroglu, mathematical relationships and make
2016). Further, better calculus performance connections. Scientists believe that a
was observed in low and average object combination of words and visuals enables
visualizers rather than high object visualizers. us to “take in, comprehend, and
Conversely, high spatial visualizers showed synthesise large amounts of information”.
19

The learning of concepts in trigonometry and (perceiving objects in complex configurations),
geometry can be enhanced through the use of static-extrinsic (understanding abstract spatial
visualisations. Researchers concluded that principles), intrinsic-dynamic involving 2D to 3D
planned and reasoned visual representations mental transformation of objects, and
accompanied by verbal description in extrinsic-dynamic involving visualisation of
multilingual classes can help students make elements at different positions in space, similar
connections, understand concepts, and lead to to perspective-taking (Meneghetti et al., 2016).
effective learning experiences. Researchers analysed mental rotation training
using two strategies - repeated practice and
Participation in Spatial Activities during repeated practice with strategy learning.
Childhood as Predictors of Participation in Researchers used three different questionnaires
Adulthood for the 3D task, object perspective test, and
mental rotations test. Each questionnaire was
Several factors influence spatial thinking. In one linked to specific strategies tested on three
research study, participation in spatial different groups: mental rotation, mental
activities during childhood predicted rotation and spatial ability, and control group.
participation in adolescence. This study has Participants belonging to the spatial rotation and
implications for educators interested in mental rotation group demonstrated higher
incorporating STEM education as it elucidates accuracy and shorter response times in the 3D
that spatial skills are responsive to training and criterion task. The same group benefited greater
intervention. Playing with blocks and puzzles than their counterparts after training. A
involves arranging, observing, and discussing combination of the abilities help achieved
physical location of objects in space. Artistic and superior spatial performance. Another benefit
mechanical activities allow opportunities to work evident in the group with both abilities
with 2D and 3D representations. Soccer, was fluid intelligence. Researchers concluded
basketball, and dance involve reasoning about that incorporating strategy is a good approach
static and dynamic positioning. Music, technical to “increase malleability of people’s spatial
and computer activities also improve spatial skills.”
skills (Peterson et al., 2020). There was an
indirect relation between childhood activities and Improving Programming Performance with
spatial skills. Beyond understanding why spatial Spatial Training
skills are important, one must understand when
these activities are beneficial and who gains the Endres and team (2021) discuss the use of a
most from them. Finally, considering spatial spatial training tool and technical reading to
thinking outcomes and the relevant activities is a improve the performance of computing students
significant aspect of gaining success in STEM in their programming endeavours. The
learning. interventions were designed based on the fact
that both reading and spatial abilities are
Incorporating Strategy in Mental Rotation integral to programming success. Reading,
Training for Better Spatial Performance maths, and spatial abilities are essential for
success in computer science. Success in
Researchers were keen to compare whether software engineering requires several abilities
mental rotation or the combination of spatial including technical reading ability (the ability to
mental rotation and mental rotation made read and understand technical and scientific
spatial ability training more efficient. They tests), the ability to review code, and language
classified spatial abilities as static-intrinsic aptitude (reading code and prose activate the
20

same brain regions). The goal of researchers Teacher Attitudes and Student Performance
was to test for transfer between technical in Elementary maths
reading and computer science. They assessed
possible correlations between reading and The beliefs and attitudes of teachers were
programming while comparing it with spatial connected to spatial abilities, and teaching and
ability (Endres et al., 2021) learning maths, which has relevance in
developing mathematics learning interventions.
On comparing experimental results of technical Several connections related to spatial abilities
reading training and spatial ability training, have been established by prior research studies.
researchers answered five questions. In the first For example, mental rotation and visuospatial
question, researchers found that students in memory in young children affects spatial and
reading treatment performed better in maths performance. Mental rotation training
programming than those in spatial ability improved calculation ability. Spatial training
training in some cases. Secondly, there were improved geometry performance. In students
differences in reading treatment based on with maths difficulties, origami training improved
programming question presented, in the sense calculation and spatial performance.
that it was helpful in certain cases (code-tracing)
but not others (definitional). Thirdly, since the Teachers integrating spatial interventions in
sample size was not large enough, researchers mathematics may face difficulties with
did not find any variation in the effectiveness of perceptions of maths and maths anxiety,
treatment among subpopulations in terms of and perception of spatial thinking and
their reading ability, spatial ability, gender, or spatial anxiety. Teacher preference,
native language (Endres et al., 2021). In finding attitude, knowledge, and anxiety towards a
correlations, researchers concluded that most subject affects how they teach maths (Burte et
reading and spatial assessments correlated with al., 2020). For example, poor pedagogical
final programming outcomes, mental rotation practices, negative attitudes, inadequate content
had a greater correlation with introductory knowledge, and beliefs about maths may
programming than mental folding, reading had a influence student achievement, and the latter
greater correlation with programming than may also develop negative attitudes towards the
spatial ability. Fifthly, there were differences in subject. To study the link between spatial
the way students perceived training helpfulness. thinking and maths success among teachers,
Researchers finally concluded based on their researchers categorised maths using the factors
linear regression model, that in spite of spatial thinking level, problem type, and problem
limitations, participants in reading treatment had context (Burte et al., 2020). The opinion of
larger gains than participants in spatial training, elementary teachers was assessed using
and reading treatment helped with programming questionnaires on their demographics, teaching
problems that demanded code tracing. Finally, experience, and measuring their maths beliefs
spatial ability and reading ability are both and maths teaching anxiety using a scale as well
correlated with programming, but do not as spatial competency. Maths anxiety measured
have a strong correlation among low and further decreased with teaching
themselves and may be perceived as “discrete experience. Teacher's own perceptions about
cognitive skills important for software teaching and learning mathematics was that
engineering”. they were moderately effective. They found a
negative correlation between maths efficacy and
maths teaching anxiety, and a positive
correlation between years in maths teaching and
21

maths efficacy. Most teachers rated themselves spatial thinking interventions for children.
as moderately competent in spatial skills and Building spatial competencies among teachers is
slightly spatially anxious. integral to success in STEM learning.
Maths education level had a positive correlation Spatial Perspective-Taking in Autism

with efficacy in learning and teaching maths and Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
years spent teaching maths. It had a negative
correlation with spatial anxiety. Teaching maths An important aspect of spatial ability that
daily provided experience and reduced involves multiple facets is spatial perspective
maths-teaching anxiety. Spatial anxiety had a taking, which is a conscious, deliberate, and
strong correlation with teaching-maths anxiety high-level transformation involving spatial
(Burte et al., 2020). Teachers who were more orientation. It enables individuals with the ability
competent in spatial aspects of maths were to view a space from different perspectives with
more spatially competent in general, less new orientations. It is the ability to view a scene
anxious in teaching maths, less spatially from an external viewpoint (Cardillo et al.,
anxious, and more effective in teaching and 2020). This is a form of spatial
learning maths. The perception of teachers’ transformation that involves mental
spatial competency and their actual spatial imagery and perception. This ability is part of
competency negatively correlated with anxiety “large-scale” spatial activities, where individuals
and positively with teaching efficacy. In general, are able to imagine being part of a space or
mathematical reasoning and spatial thinking was moving through space. A common example
highly correlated among elementary grade of spatial perspective-taking is environment
teachers. learning and navigation.
Problem type affected teaching difficulty (visual Researchers tested different spatial
problems were more difficult than word or perspective-taking abilities, such as instructing
notation problems). Further, problem context an individual to adopt new imaginary positions
and level of spatial thinking also affected within a certain configuration of objects (Cardillo
teaching difficulty. It was more difficult to teach et al., 2020). Their study focused on
real-world problems when compared to abstract understanding spatial visualisation
problems and higher level of spatial thinking was performance, spatial orientation, and
correlated to greater teaching difficulty. object-based spatial transformations. Most
Visualisation helpfulness was most relevant to research studies found a correlation between
visual problems, real-world contexts, and the spatial visualisation performance and spatial
inclusion of spatial thinking. Further, a higher orientation. Further, they indicated that mental
level of spatial thinking was involved in visual rotation and perspective taking had common
problems and real-world contexts (Burte et al., underlying processes, individuals used similar
2020). All these factors affected student learning strategies to perform these tasks, and an
in maths as maths attitudes among teachers individual’s innate abilities and the environment
affected maths teaching. Researchers influenced how the two transformations were
recommended teachers to focus on their spatial solved. Spatial perspective-taking also
competency rather than anxiety, help students depends on an individual’s motor abilities
understand spatial aspects, and pursue and visuospatial working memory.
additional courses to improve maths efficacy and Researchers also found that spatial-perspective
perception, to improve student belief and maths taking activated general cognitive
scores. The study indicated the need for processes such as working memory and
interventions for teachers when looking at supplementary motor area, suggesting
22

possible relation with perspective
It is important to understand the methods
transformation. that work and those that do not under specific
educational contexts (Buckley et al., 2018).
In children with autism spectrum disorder,
researchers attempted to measure manual Context is an important aspect that shapes
dexterity, dynamic balance, fine and gross motor teaching and learning. Towards this end,
skills, visuospatial working memory, mental sociocultural, situated, and distributed
rotation, visuo-constructive abilities, and approaches may help understand the
processes (Ramey & Uttal, 2017).
visuospatial processing. In making an
assessment of the spatial-perspective abilities, Specific material and social conditions of
researchers found that larger errors were activity contexts were connected with related
encountered when a greater degree of angular spatial practices and processes (Ramey &
disparity was present (Cardillo et al., 2020). Uttal, 2017).
Motor skills affected performance on spatial
perspective-taking. Mental rotation and spatial Spatial thinking may be non-verbal, which
accounts for opportunities to model
perspective-taking were correlated. The study
vocabulary in relation to behaviour, thereby
provides important information on mathematizing a specific instance (Hedge &
perspective-taking in the ASD population and Cohrssen, 2019)
their coping strategies related to inaccuracies
with angular disparity. Perspective-taking was Table 2: Correlation of Spatial Abilities with
also affected as a result of visuospatial and Context
motor processes. Since a difficulty in
perspective-taking was identified in ASD when
PERSPECTIVES ON STEM SUCCESS IN
compared to control, it serves as essential
RELATION TO SPATIAL ABILITY
evidence for future endeavours in training ASD
children on specific areas such as way-finding. Arts, crafts, design (ACD) and STEMM
achievement have a definite correlation
(Root-Bernstein et al., 2018)
Calculations involving conversions, success in

programming modules, computer aided
design (CAD), database manipulation, and
high impact on achievement in computer
science are important aspects of STEM
learning that have a correlation with spatial
abilities (Bockmon, Cooper, Gratch, et al.,
2020)
Building spatial competencies among teachers

Figure 3: Correlation between Mathematics
is integral to success in STEM learning (Burte
Ability and Spatial Skills et al., 2020)
PERSPECTIVES ON CORRELATION OF Table 3: STEM Success in Relation to Spatial

SPATIAL ABILITIES WITH CONTEXT
Ability
Spatial interventions must be correlated to
specific content in mathematics to enable PERSPECTIVES ON STUDENT ABILITY IN
students to develop different types of spatial RELATION TO SPATIAL REASONING
senses (Casey & Fell, 2018).
23

Student preferences for solution methods Teachers need to be able to extend the
influence teaching, learning, and knowledge of children by understanding a
mathematical performance (Mainali, 2021). child’s learning trajectory (Hedge & Cohrssen,
2019).
Strengths and weaknesses of visual and
analytical thinking determine the type of Visuospatial representations depict “relative
giftedness in mathematics (Mainali, 2021). magnitudes of relevant quantities”. Learners
require knowledge of the magnitude of
It was possible for learners to solve spatial problem elements and the magnitude
engineering problems by combining spatial relations among these elements for successful
sensemaking practices and cognitive spatial mathematical learning and transfer (Pyke et
processes. Distributed spatial sensemaking al., 2017).
was linked to unique spatial practices and
skills among students (Ramey & Uttal, 2017). Visuospatially trained solvers were able to
make calculations from mental visuospatial
Spatial skills expand the breadth of representations on-the-fly (Pyke et al., 2017).
mathematical tasks in algebra, geometry,
mental maths, estimation, word problems, The SNARC effect seems to appear only when
logic, function theory, and computational the meaning of numbers, i.e. ordinality or
mathematics (Hawes & Ansari, 2020). magnitude can be processed automatically.
SNARC effect is related to semantic number
Spatial visualisation skills may act as a proxy processing. Individuals lacking automatic
for more cognitive demanding skills including number processing have weak or no SNARC
working memory, executive function, and effect (Cipora et al., 2020).
general intelligence (Hawes & Ansari, 2020).
Associating numbers with space is linked to
Spatial visualisation skills are largely inherited five codes – sequential working memory,
and are highly “malleable” (Hawes & Ansari, visuospatial simulation, spatial-verbal
2020). instructions, linguistic markedness, and
non-verbal processes (Cipora et al., 2020).
Mathematical intuition may reflect the ability
of the nervous system to discover patterns in SNARC effect is an interference effect and
the world (Bruce et al., 2016). individual capacity of inhibition and
interference control, response time, and
The ability of autistic individuals to process information processing efficiency influence
global and local information simultaneously, related cognitive mechanisms (Cipora et al.,
and inhibit background noise to perceive 2020).
meaningful spatial patterns has implications in
mathematical and psychology education Embodied influences in abstract processing
(Bruce et al., 2016). are related to better maths skills, such as the
efficacy of SNARC effect in individuals who
Scientists who preferred verbal forms of prefer left to right counting of fingers (Cipora
thinking also preferred ACD associated with et al., 2020).
verbal skills while those who preferred body
thinking engaged in body-related ACD. Visualizers and verbalizers are the two main
Cognitive skills learned in ACD transferred to cognitive styles that have been studied for a
STEMM (Root-Bernstein et al., 2018). number of years (Haciomeroglu, 2016).
Motor experts have an advantage over Mathematical giftedness was also linked to
non-motor experts in performing spatial tasks processing of information. The verbal-logical
(Voyer and Janson, 2017). ability was linked to the level of giftedness,
and the visual-pictorial component was linked
24

to the type of giftedness. (Haciomeroglu, used to gain proficiency in mathematics by
2016). developing solution methods that have the
visual and nonvisual component (Mainali,
Spatial visualisation had a correlation with 2021).
performance in calculus, and verbal-logical
reasoning and visualisation were linked to Interdisciplinary research, amalgamating the
geometry performance (Haciomeroglu, 2016). expertise of psychologists, mathematicians,
and neuroscientists, is important as a means
Performance in calculus, verbal-logical to evolve education research in the field of
reasoning, and spatial ability had a clear mathematics, focusing on an understanding of
correlation. A positive correlation was “spatial reasoning” across disciplines (Bruce et
observed between calculus performance and al., 2016).
spatial ability in the spatial visualisation
cognitive style. Better calculus performance Mathematics education must involve
was observed in low and average object “transdisciplinary research and practice” as
visualizers rather than high object visualizers. priority. “Collaborative inquiry” is expected to
High spatial visualizers showed highest fulfil demands of complex problems in spatial
calculus performance (Haciomeroglu, 2016). reasoning (Bruce et al., 2016).
Participation in spatial activities during Integrating ACD into STEMM classrooms is

childhood predicted participation in likely to improve learning outcomes
adolescence (Peterson et al., 2020). (Root-Bernstein et al., 2018).
Both reading and spatial abilities are integral Pedagogical knowledge is essential among
to programming success (Endres et al., 2021). teachers to recognize mathematical thinking
demonstrated by children, plan learning
Spatial perspective taking is a conscious, experiences, integrate the thinking of
deliberate, and high-level transformation children, and adapt their plans to achieve the
involving spatial orientation. It is a form of desired learning outcomes (Hedge &
spatial transformation that involves mental Cohrssen, 2019).
imagery and perception. Individuals are able
to imagine being part of a space or moving
Table 5: Integrating Spatial Skills in Mathematics
through space (Cardillo et al., 2020).
Curriculums
Spatial perspective-taking also depends on an
individual’s motor abilities and visuospatial PERSPECTIVES ON SPATIAL SKILLS
working memory (Cardillo et al., 2020). INTERVENTIONS
Table 4: Student Ability in Spatial Reasoning Good schematic representations were useful
in solving problems and formulating
conclusions (Yurmalia and Jupri, 2021).
PERSPECTIVES ON INTEGRATING SPATIAL
SKILLS IN MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM Spatial skills are strong predictors of STEM
success in the academic and occupational
To make realistic improvements in the domains (Yang et al., 2020).
educational practice of STEM, it is important
to carry out further research and determine It is possible to use interventions to enhance
the causal relationship between STEM neural function for spatial thinking to enhance
education and spatial ability (Buckley et al., maths and science skills (Yang et al., 2020).
2018).
Difficulty in spatial functioning may be
Different modes of representation must be supported through the use of game tasks
25

such as rotating objects on devices or playing mathematics may face difficulties with
with robots (Yang et al., 2020). perceptions of maths and maths anxiety, and
perception of spatial thinking and spatial
Deductions in neuroscience may facilitate anxiety (Burte et al., 2020).
ordinality approaches for a better
understanding of place value (Bruce et al., Teacher preference, attitude, knowledge, and
2016). anxiety towards a subject affects how they
teach maths (Burte et al., 2020).
Sensori-motor feedback received from
manipulating the object allows children to
Table 6: Perspectives on Spatial Interventions
control the “pace, speed, direction, and
magnitude” of the exploration. During this
exploration, the teacher finds and utilises EMBODIED COGNITION - IMMERSIVE AND
opportunities to model locational and HOLISTIC LEARNING
directional language (Hedge & Cohrssen,
2019). Scientists who preferred verbal forms of
thinking also preferred Art, Craft, Design
Teachers may use several strategies to (ACD) associated with verbal skills while those
enhance spatial thinking skills including who preferred body thinking engaged in
sorting, classifying, and comparing shapes, body-related ACD (Root-Bernstein et al.,
solving puzzles and mazes, and using 2018).
storytelling to put a point across (Hedge &
Cohrssen, 2019). Mathematical thought is “grounded” in the
bodily and sensory experiences in real life
Mathematical concepts are abstract and may (Hawes & Ansari, 2020).
be based on linguistic codes, implying that
language enhances mathematical Embodiment refers to bidirectional physical
representations (Cipora et al., 2020). and perceptual interactions of the human
body with the world with motor systems that
Verbal language was promoted in multilingual define sensation and perception, movement
classes in South Africa to trigger mental and shape, and neural systems involved in
imagery. This technique proved effective when action planning (Tran et al., 2017).
actual representations were not available
(Chikiwa & Schäfer, 2019). According to embodiment theory, cognitive
processes are rooted in the body, and sensory
Language is an integral aspect of learning, and motor processes are used for cognitive
and mathematics is a universal language activity (Voyer and Janson, 2017).
beyond political, geographical, cultural,
linguistic, and social differences (Chikiwa & Body movement helps with retention and
Schäfer, 2019). retrieval of information, allows deeper levels
of processing, and creates a stronger memory
A combination of words and visuals enables trace for efficient recall (Tran et al., 2017).
us to “take in, comprehend, and synthesise
large amounts of information” (Chikiwa & Movement forms the basis of mental
Schäfer, 2019). transformation later on, that is based on
motor processes formed from prior memories
Incorporating strategy in mental rotation of the movement even with the learners no
training is a good approach to “increase longer engaging in physical movement (Tran
malleability of people’s spatial skills.” et al., 2017).
(Meneghetti et al., 2016).
Movement reduces cognitive load and
Teachers integrating spatial interventions in improves problem-solving abilities (Tran et al.,
26

2017).
Using embodiment, it is possible to connect

abstract and concrete concepts through
mind-body connections such as temporal and
spatial metaphors (Tran et al., 2017).
Embodied experiences can also serve as

indicators for a student’s readiness to learn
(Tran et al., 2017).
Technology can be used to imbibe varying

degrees of embodiment (Tran et al., 2017).
“Embodied perspective taking” that involves

inserting the person into different spaces,
thereby making sense of a specific setting is a
plausible mathematical learning approach
(Bruce et al., 2016).
Symmetry should not be a static topic based

on two-dimensional images, as opposed to
being “well-proportioned, well-balanced” from
the artistic perspective, or a “dynamic
property of emerging phenomenon” (Bruce et
al., 2016).
Educators need to possess mathematical

content knowledge to understand embodied
as opposed to verbal mathematical thinking
(Hedge & Cohrssen, 2019).
Motor expertise is an important predictor of

spatial performance. Mental rotation to
accomplish spatial tasks is an important
aspect of embodied cognition (Voyer and
Janson, 2017).
Table 7: What Evidence Says about Embodied

Learning Experiences
Figure 4: Perspectives on Embodied Cognition
27

Interventions for Training
Spatial Abilities
In today’s data-rich and digital world, one needs
not just the ability to work with alphanumeric
data, but also spatial data. Individuals need the
abilities to make sense of data in the form of
maps, sketches, models, flowcharts, graphs,
scans, and computer-aided design (CAD). To
achieve these abilities, individuals need to
reason, visualise, and communicate information
on two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional
(3D) spaces. These abilities are also important
to learn STEM subjects. Researchers believe that
spatial thinking skills must be instilled in
students to equip them with the knowledge and
skills required to compete in the 21st century
(Lane et al., 2018). Although there are no
specific international standards to measure
spatial literacy, metrics such as PISA and TIMSS
are used to make assessments of reasoning and
visualisation. The need for spatial literacy has
emerged in recent years and requires integration
in the curriculum.
2D and 3D Toolsets and

Frameworks
2D and 3D Shapes for Spatial Thinking in
Early Childhood
Cohrssen and team (2017) discuss the

importance of mathematical thinking, specifically
spatial thinking during early childhood. In their
paper, researchers discuss the use of a
project-based approach in an informal
curriculum to understand spatial thinking, and
2D and 3D shapes in a real-world context.
During early childhood, mathematical learning is
multidimensional and along a “continuum”. To
“recognize, consolidate, and extend” the
mathematical thinking and learning during
play may be a challenge for some
Figure 5: Causal Mechanisms for Connections
educators, possibly those with negative
between Spatial Skills and Mathematics
28

feelings for maths or those that assume it using 2D maps (Cohrssen et al., 2017). They
may not necessarily be a requirement. constructed 3D models and mapped the route
from their home to school along with landmarks.
Spatial reasoning is often apparent in spatial Their project identifies that childrens’ existing
activities such as patterning and measurement. skills may be underestimated when they
Enhancing the spatial abilities of students enter school after attending high-quality
enables them to accomplish day-to-day activities early-childhood programs. Researchers
such as reverse car parking and map reading inform that formative assessment is an
with success through mental manipulation and important tool to support differentiated
transformation of objects and shapes. As teaching practice. One important finding was
discussed, spatial ability also predicts STEM that sustained thinking that was shared among
success. Geometric thinking is developed as an students ensured perseverance on tasks as they
innate ability and the meaning is represented became more challenging. An example was
through gestures, verbally, using written identifying positions on a map by using the
language, or arts. Educators can extend concept of “between”. Researchers concluded
spatial thinking in children through that mathematics teaching and learning
spoken language and embodied was well-suited to project-based
demonstrations (Cohrssen et al., 2017). approaches in a play-based curriculum
Researchers recommend that educators focus on that demonstrates the competencies of
several aspects of spatial literacy including children in an authentic way.
“perspective change”, “mental rotation”,
“coordinated use of space”, “reasoning”, and
“representation”.
Researchers demonstrated a simple project

involving taking a trip from the child’s home to
school along the same route as the following
year, and taking a photograph of the school to
be forwarded to kindergarten (Cohrssen et al.,
2017). The journey was timed and conversations
with the child included directional, shape, and
positional vocabulary. This activity reinforced Figure 6: Differentiated and Contextual
learning in the aspects of “representation” and Mathematics Teaching Practice (Cohrssen et al.,
“exploration” to build layers of learning. 2017)
Learning preferences were factored in to help
identify attributes of objects and shapes. Spatial Skills Training through Interaction
Children were encouraged to compare routes, with a Robot
schools, classrooms, outdoor play layouts, and
landmarks. The project helped them compose Yu and team (2018) propose the reconfigurable
and decompose 2D and 3D shapes. modular EasySRRobot as a means to improve
spatial ability through training. Their EEG data
Children were able to recognize 2D shapes in a analysis indicated a marked improvement in
range of orientations, sizes, rotations, and even spatial skills (Yu et al., 2018). Scientists
with one side missing. Educators laid down evaluated their training by assessing mental
activities to assess the perceptions of students rotation skills of students. Their training tool
about their school, representations of their named Easy SRRobot provides multiple rotation
school, and illustrations of 3D environments
29

degrees of freedom (DOF), which can be the social and intellectual component into
increased in number by connecting more mathematics and produce something that is real
modules. Students were trained by interaction and personal, and can be shared (Ng & Tsang,
with the robot. Experiments were performed 2021). Constructionism is a way to formulate
with Easy SRRobot consisting of a and transform the ideas of learners in a specific
predetermined number of modules which context. Constructionist learning allows students
produced different numbers of rotations. Users to use technology flexibly, to apply design
interacted with Easy SRRobot either when the thinking, construct cognitive models and
robot changes shape according to the task level internalise knowledge.
allowing the user to observe the transformation
process, or when a user holds the cubes and 3D printing, which makes it possible to
interactively rotates them. Researchers transform ideas into artefacts without
measured the spatial ability with the Purdue programming knowledge, allows students to
visualisation of Rotations (ROT) test. They engage in engineering design cycle. This process
recorded time to correct completion (TTCorrect), assists in the development of spatial skills and
time to completion (TTC), and correct rate to achieve mathematical learning beyond
measure ratio of correct answers in order to procedures and formulae. The 3D pen is an
measure behavioural responses. effective technological tool to interact with
mathematics through 3D models that students
Participants indicated 30.76% improvement in can transform and manipulate physically. In
the TTCorrect measure. In terms of EEG primary school mathematics learning, 3D
findings, scientists noticed that alpha power was printing pens improved learning outcomes for
suppressed after individuals completed their studying properties and cross sections of
task, indicating that participants may be pyramids and prisms (Ng & Tsang, 2021).
investing cognitive resources to complete the Students were able to predict cross-sections of
spatial task. They also observed a greater 3D shapes, and even produce gestures imitating
activation of the left frontal area of the brain in the drawing processes of 3D printing pens to
response to the training (Yu et al., 2018). visualise cross sections of the models. The
Researchers concluded that Easy SRRobot is a process promotes active learning that is
successful intervention to improve spatial ability goal-oriented and relies on inductive reasoning
and mental rotation skills. and generalisation. It enables students to use
artefacts as learning tools and integrate
3D Pen for Hands-On STEM Learning embodied interaction in their learning.
Ng & Tsang (2021) draw upon the elements of 3DnST Framework to Enhance Spatial
the constructionist approach and hands-on Thinking Skills in Children
learning with reference to gaining expertise
required in STEM disciplines. Authors argue that Bhaduri and team (2021) propose a 3D
3D printing can be an effective tool to promote modelling framework to address challenges
physical and cognitive components of associated with Tinkercad 3D modelling tool
mathematical classrooms. The theory of such as working with the interface, formation of
constructionism (making) is based on a mental model, and enhancing spatial thinking
constructivism - the idea that knowledge is skills. Tinkercad and other 3D tools may be
not delivered to the learner, but rather linked to the “maker movement” that resulted
constructed and organised cognitively as a after the widespread adoption of 3D printers.
“mental schema”. Constructionism extends Researchers argue that tinkering with these
this idea wherein learners are able to integrate technologies can promote STEM learning.
30

However, challenges still exist in making the develop the abilities of concept development,
technologies “conceptually meaningful” to spatial cognition, design modification, and
students. They state that the issues surrounding decision-making by being able to view and touch
“learnability” and “usability” need to be the design. These and emerging 3D technologies
addressed. will enable real-world visualisation of 3D models.
To address the need for high-quality, 3D Tool for Embodied Cognition of Human
student-centred resources for teaching 3D Anatomy
modelling and 3D printing, researchers proposed
Tinkercad. They propose that 3D printing and Chaker and team (2021) discuss about a 3D
modelling must be child-friendly to promote interactive tool called “Antepulsio” to learn
interdisciplinary projects (Bhaduri et al., 2021). human anatomy. Embodiment is an important
Their rationale is to empower students in their aspect of learning anatomy as the science
learning by instilling design thinking, relates to the body. Several tools are used to
computational thinking, and boosting learn anatomy including virtual reality,
collaboration, self-expression, and self-esteem. augmented reality, 3D animation, and immersive
anatomy. Antepulsio is a 3D tool that enhances
Researchers attempted to collect data on the the spatial representation of musculoskeletal
challenges students faced during the creation of function, and provides learners the facility to
3D models by observing interaction with recreate a series of movements in real-time in
Tinkercad, as students designed 3D prosthetics 3D settings. It helps them utilise spatial ability
for animals with disabilities. They identified and motor imagery to receive feedback on the
several challenges including alignment problems, accuracy of their choices without really
floating shapes, software orientation, and executing movement.
perspectives. The proposed spatial thinking
framework, known as 3D spatial thinking Studies have reported differing outcomes related
framework (3DnST), was designed to address to the use of 3D tools in anatomy learning
3D modelling challenges and maximise student outcomes. Some studies did not report any
engagement (Bhaduri et al., 2021). They differences between paper-based and
classified student behaviour during the activity computer-based instruction. Among positive
as on-task, off-task, or on-task seeking help outcomes was improved learning outcomes and
behaviour. a reduction in cognitive load, while negative
outcomes such as dizziness, blurred vision, and
Challenges associated with the activity were headache were observed. Scientists observed
either related to spatial thinking skills or using that differing outcomes may be the result of a
the Tinkercad interface. By observing student number of factors including differing motor and
strategies, researchers proposed improved spatial abilities, specificity and difficulty of the
approaches to perspective changing and mental anatomical topic, and the nature of interaction
rotation (Bhaduri et al., 2021). Some students between the computing tool and the ability of
also faced a problem with using the Tinkercad the learner. It is known that students with high
interface and taking instruction. Researchers spatial ability build better anatomical mental
reported that student engagement was models. Scientists argue that 3D tools can
dependent on deeply understanding the help students with low spatial abilities
3D space, using spatial thinking skills and build better mental models.
developing and ability to debug 3D models
before printing them. They recommended the Assuming that the success of the learning
incorporation of augmented reality (AR) to process depends on the interaction with the
31

environment as well as digital tools, embodied Figure 7: STEM Interventions (2D and 3D
cognition is considered the learning process Toolsets and Frameworks)
appropriate to make it more efficient. Scientists
have measured the amount of embodiment in Virtual and Augmented Reality
STEM in terms of congruency between content
and gesture, sensori-motor engagement, and
Environments
the immersion experienced. Antepulsio
Computer-Assisted Geometry Tools for
successfully triggered embodied cognition and
scientists analysed whether it was possible to Efficient Spatial Ability Training
improve the anatomical scores of students by
Vágová & Kmetová (2019) propose the use of
enhancing the UX and the application itself. The
“Geogebra”, a tool in the realm of Dynamic
application allowed learners to visualise muscle
Geometry Software (DGS) to help students
movement, analyse and reproduce it, and then
overcome difficulties with paper representations
make an assessment. The tool enhanced
and manipulative materials in solid geometry as
efficiency of 3D animations. Learners found that
well as in understanding proofs. In the past,
the tool served useful for their assessments and
researchers have concluded that a
revision. The most common feedback was that
technology-based environment is most effective
the guidance was too detailed and not clear,
in developing spatial abilities, followed by the
exercises were more detailed than expected,
use of manipulative materials. The least
and the program had small software bugs.
stimulating environment is a traditional class
Scientists report that a major limitation in their
that does not feature “auxiliary resources”. While
results is that a control group was not engaged
the different environments may have pros and
to study the results. They recommend that a
cons, certain environments are more conducive
randomised controlled trial would provide
to some activities compared to others.
convincing results, and that a measurement of
embodiment is also necessary. These efforts will
Elaborating on Gutierrez’s view of spatial abilities
lead to a better understanding of the anatomical
(1996), the spatial abilities of students can be
concepts and the impact of the Antepulsio
defined from five angles: figure-ground
software.
perception where a student identifies a figure
by isolating it from a background (the object
may have several parts or overlapping parts);
perceptual constancy where a student is able
to recognize that certain properties of a mental
image or real image do not depend on position,
colour, or size, and the student is not confused
about perceiving the image from different
viewpoints; mental rotation which shows the
ability to create a dynamic mental image or
visualise a “moving configuration”; perceiving
spatial position or recognizing position in
space which is the ability of the student to relate
a position of a mental image to oneself; and
perceiving spatial relationship where the
student can identify relations and properties of
pictures, images, or objects among and within
themselves such as whether objects are
32

perpendicular or rotated (Vágová & Kmetová, questionnaire included perception, usability,
2019). motivation, and understanding. Participants
indicated that the tool improved their
Researchers conducted a preliminary study to understanding of individual
find out if 3D objects in geometry affected the transformations and sequences of
solving of spatial visualisation tasks. The transformations (Suselo et al., 2021).
non-standard Cube Layer Problem was given to Participants indicated a preference for the
students to visualise hidden spatial objects, and mobile tool over desktop tools. Students were
their solutions were assessed based on external motivated to use the tool and were able to
representation type and group assigned using successfully perceive orientation, position, and
Presmeg’s (1986) Mathematical Processing movement of virtual objects in 3D space. Based
Instrument (MPI) (Vágová & Kmetová, 2019). on the overall feedback, it was clear that the
Students were divided into three groups based tool helped to enhance the understanding of 3D
on mathematical visuality (MV) – the visual transformations, and visualise objects in
group (students who prefer using visual real-time.
methods), the non-visual group (students who
do not prefer using visual methods), and the Handheld Augmented Reality (AR) for
harmonic group (students who do not prefer Mathematical Learning
visual and non-visual methods).
Sarkar and Pillai (2021) proposed an
In their current exploratory case study, scientists activity-based learning (ABL) method that uses
constructed a solution to the problem and called augmented reality (AR) to promote hands-on
it Look Inside (LI) using GeoGebra. Students learning. This student-centred approach involves
having low spatial abilities solved the problem, superimposing virtual graphics to the real world.
first in the paper-pencil environment, and then The proposed education technology involves
in the combined paper-pencil and dynamic immersive experiences and its design is based
environment. The dynamic environment on five dimensions of thinking - perception
provided the required feedback to help the and positive attitude towards learning,
student correct her results (Vágová & Kmetová, acquiring and integrating knowledge,
2019). This implied that DGS promoted spatial extending and refining knowledge, using
ability development. knowledge meaningfully, and productive
habits of the mind. It focuses on important
Using Mobile Augmented Reality to Teach aspects of learning such as absorption in an
3D Transformation activity to attain “flow”, and measuring elements
of engagement in a learning activity, which are
Suselo and team (2021) address the challenges the aspects of boredom, frustration, and anxiety.
experienced in learning graphics, which
involves a wide range of skills including AR has previously been used to teach geometry
programming, mathematics, visuospatial and the methods reported better 3D thinking,
skills, and problem-solving. Students were spatial ability, visualisation skills, mental
tested for their understanding in 3D rotation, attitude, and learning performance. It
transformation and how the use of all helps to understand difficult abstract concepts.
functionalities of the AR tool assisted in The use of AR in teaching fractions involves
visualising 3D transformations. Results of teaching using augmented interactive number
statistical analysis revealed that participants lines, matching equivalent fractions, and using
realised an improvement in performance. The the area model to sort equivalent fractions, unit
abilities of students tested through the fractions, and mixed fractions. AR has also been
33

used successfully in teaching probability, learning is a good way to achieve learning
positively influencing the learning gains, goals. Results of the study identified the
self-efficacy, and attitude of students (Sarkar & eagerness of students to work with new
Pillai, 2021). Overall, AR tools enhanced learning technologies as well as their enhanced interest
effectiveness, engagement, motivation, in Physics.
collaboration, and learning outcomes.
Learning Calculus with Virtual Environments
Researchers designed their own AR tool, called
the “Meta-AR-App” to promote authoring, Herrera and colleagues (2019) discuss how the
interaction, and collaboration. They used four development of spatial skills in engineering
categories to describe AR experiences - students through the use of virtual reality and
narrative, location, experience mechanics, and augmented reality assists in the learning of
roles. A number of design strategies were used calculus. They describe the use of two tools to
by researchers to achieve improved learning develop skills required for dynamic visualisation.
outcomes, such as the use of simple, minimal These tools assist in problem solving, logic
design based on user expectations to use thinking, and spatial abstraction to enhance
real-life scenarios as a basis for visualising academic performance. Researchers were
abstract concepts, promote game-based and motivated to devise technical tools, owing to the
problem-based learning and learning by design, lack of evidence on visualisation in 3D space.
involvement in embodied and exploratory Technology plays an essential role in motivating
processes, encouraging competition and students and helping them acquire spatial
collaboration, allowing teacher participation and abstraction skills. While geometry was initially
control to monitor student performance, and the subject of visualisation in mathematics,
promoting immersion by allowing students to calculus has gained recognition recently.
locate and rotate objects in the classroom. Dynamic visualisation helps to observe
relationships and changes prior to and after
Space Safari - A Challenge for STEM modifying figures.
Rangers
Researchers propose a platform called AVRAM to
Peltekova and colleagues (2017) describe an design, visualise, and manipulate geometric
inquiry-based learning approach that employs models of surfaces remotely in 3D space. It
traditional learning tools and technology support consists of a server that synchronises clients and
in the form of paper star maps, VR glasses, generates 3D graphics, and the virtual sessions
online platforms, and interactive white board to are driven by an Android application to
assist educators in raising the standard of STEM coordinate interconnected mobile devices
learning among students. Named “space safari”, (Herrera et al., 2019). In this way, it is possible
their learning platform evaluated student for teachers and students to collaborate,
perception, rate of retention, and attitude allowing them to move objects, change position,
towards the subject through the application of a project them in a coordinate space, and visualise
number of strategies including from different points. AVRAM supports calculus
“demonstrational innovative thinking by helping students visualise
meta-learning, inquiry-based learning, intersections that concur between surfaces,
collaboration, and networking.” The system allowing them to describe volumes and areas by
is also equipped with the ability to gather applying integrals. Rotation, translation,
feedback, assess data, and share good practices decomposition, and scaling, are all possible with
and results (Peltekova et al., 2019). Their AVRAM. For example, intercepting regions and
experiment confirms that inquiry-based describing them along the different axes is an
34

important feature of AVRAM. It makes complex Spatial Skills Intervention to Enhance
exercises such as describing projections and Introductory Programming Skills
inequalities quite simple, and promotes the
development of spatial skills, and understanding In an attempt to design an intervention for
of the concept of limits in integration. Students enhancing spatial skills and programming
indicated that AVRAM enhanced their learning of abilities, research scientists Bockmon, Cooper,
quadratic surfaces, multiple integrals, and Koperski, and team (2020) indicated the relation
concepts of planes. between spatial skills of students and their
computing performance. To demonstrate this
Another tool proposed by researchers was idea, researchers offered online modules
Augmented Reality in Calculus (ARC), which is a covering surfaces and solids of revolution, coded
mobile application with two sections to perform plans, isometric drawings, rotations on a single,
different activities in multivariate calculus. The two or more axes, orthographic drawings,
tool allows students to supply a quadratic reflections and symmetry. The goal of their
surface equation for visualisation and then implementation was to determine whether a
interact with it, from all angles, in the form of a correlation existed between spatial skills and
mesh or a solid surface. It also allows union, programming success. Their results indicated an
intersection, and difference operations between improvement in the spatial skills of
the selected surfaces, and visualisation of the students, and improved performance in
result (Herrera et al., 2019). Teachers can computer science examination. Students
develop their own activities in writing and with higher spatial skills also enjoyed
graphing equations, or use cards and trigger computation, suggesting that either higher
augmented reality that allow visualising spatial skills were linked to greater computing
quadratic surfaces, view intersections between enjoyment or computing enjoyment was related
planes, and change coefficients to manipulate to higher skill development. This attitude
them. According to students, ARC helps them suggested greater motivation in studying
learn multiple integrals, quadratic surfaces, polar computer science. Overall, researchers
coordinates, and level curves with varying levels successfully achieved an improvement in
of usefulness and understandability. AVRAM and computation and spatial skills of students over
ARC has helped hundreds of university students, the course of the semester.
increased their motivation and learning, and
reduced failure rates. They realised an
improvement in spatial visualisation skills in
terms of describing surfaces as words and
improvement in drawings and graphics. They
were highly motivated. Researchers concluded
that visualisation being an important aspect of
learning and teaching in 3D space, deserves
greater research efforts to be channelled into
the domain. Visualisation in 3D space improved
the perception and spatial abstraction skills of
students. Their research proves the
effectiveness of dynamic visualisation to solve
mathematical problems.
35

Learning using Embodied
Cognition
Tangible VR Game for Spatial Penetrative
Thinking Ability
Chang and team (2018) reinforced that 2D

interventions are not optimised for STEM
success. In an attempt to design an intervention
based on the premise that spatial abilities are
independent of each other, researchers
proposed a VR system targeting a central spatial
ability - penetrative thinking. They argue that
traditional 2D training tools for spatial abilities,
such as pen and paper, tablet, mobile, or
computer neither offer 3D perception required
Figure 8: STEM Interventions (Virtual and for real-world 3D spatial problem-solving nor
Augmented reality Environments) incorporate tactile and visuo-motor input
("embodied engagement").
Researchers discuss a VR tool that incorporates

fun, aesthetics, and efficacy to promote
penetrative thinking - an ability that
allows envisioning the internal structure
of objects based on their external 3D
structure (Chang et al., 2018). It is an
extremely essential aspect of STEM learning and
also predicts success in other subjects including
anatomy, biology, and geology, to name a few.
Their VR offering named "keep the ball rolling"
encourages "embodied interaction in a VR
environment", consisting of a foot pedal and a
plank to promote game-based interaction.
Penetrative thinking is strengthened when
participants interact with a 3D environment
containing complex spatial puzzles to be solved
Figure 9: STEM Interventions (Virtual and using embodied interaction, allowing a holistic
Augmented reality Environments) interaction and a link between the mind and
body. Allowing participants to cut through a
spatial puzzle using the plank to facilitate the
rolling of the ball, form the basis of
"embodiment through perspective". The game
design is inspired by Cohen and Hegarty's Santa
Barbara Solids Test (SBST). The system,
implemented in Unity 3D relies on a VR headset
and uses a range of hardware and software
36

technologies, such as ultrasonic distance sensor, codes leading to the action. The tight coupling
potentiometer, and Arduino microcontroller. causes the activation of other codes when a
"Keep the ball rolling" is a definitive specific code is activated (Chang et al., 2017).
advancement in STEM education, to support Perception of motion leads to motor system
spatial abilities, especially penetrative thinking. activation, and selecting motor plans leads to
Their research is important as it focuses on the “activation of perceptual and cognitive codes”.
human learning ability and mechanisms to take Object and environment exploration forms
in spatial information by interaction with the associations between representations in the
environment, people, and objects using their action and perception systems, which can assist
bodies. It is a practical implementation of in enhancing language and memory. Relevant
ideomotor and embodied theories of cognition. research in the field indicates that the
It justifies the use of VR for immersive spatial engagement of the sensorimotor system
training (Chang et al., 2019). enhances learning and recall.
Virtual Reality and Tangible Embodied The goals of developing the system were to
Interactions for Perspective Taking allow users to switch perspectives, create an
enjoyable experience, establish and augment
Chang and team (2017) describe a technology embodiment, and create a transferable and
termed “Tangibles for Augmenting Spatial generalizable design. An example of a task in a
Cognition” (TASC) that combines tangible fully implemented system is the movement of
interfaces with virtual worlds to work with objects in virtual space when a user touches and
spatial cognition. In the domain of “embodied moves an object restructured by relevant
cognition” researchers have indicated a boundaries in the real world (Chang et al.,
tight relation and activation between 2017). The system showed positive experiences
cognition, perception, and action codes. and the possibility of future research.
Further, the motor system is engaged in
accomplishing spatial tasks. Tangible Embodied Spatial Interventions and Advanced STEM
Interaction (TEI) is a novel research area that Learning
shows a link between spatial cognition and
embodiment based on the use of interactive Several researchers have attempted to create
systems. In this context, the TASC system innovative knowledge frameworks in spatial
proposed by researchers, provides learners with reasoning to identify pathways related to the
a sense of embodiment in a virtual reality (VR) pedagogy, learning, and curriculum in
environment. TASC relies on “tangible object mathematics. Mulligan and team (2017)
manipulation” and “movement tracking” to proposed an analytical tool they named Spatial
engage “perspective taking”, a spatial skill that Reasoning Mathematics Program (SRMP)
requires the use of multiple viewpoints. Users targeted at grades 3 to 5, to link mathematical
are expected to solve a series of virtual puzzles and spatial abilities in complex systems. The
for the purpose. positive outcomes of their system were in terms
of the development of spatial skills in
Their research draws upon insights from students, influence on policy and
common coding, embodied cognition, and enhancement of teacher capability for
spatial cognition. The underlying theory is the more sophisticated STEM education.
ideomotor theory, which entails that by
repeatedly executing action, knowledge of the In another study, when researchers explored the
perceived effects of those actions on the incorporation of spatial skills into learning, they
environment cause them to be linked to neural found that middle school children performed
37

better when the “spatial reasoning intervention” use of body features to process numbers. At a
was applied (Lowrie et al., 2018). The program more advanced level, when learners use their
experimented within the learning has relevance hands to simulate how an object appears after
in STEM applications. Researchers indicated that rotation instead of imagining it, they are able to
applying spatial skill interventions enhances use mental resources to think about spatial
student competencies to prevent them from relations on a deeper level and transition to a
being overwhelmed from STEM studies in the more abstract form of spatial reasoning.
later stages. Researchers elaborated that a
spatial skills training intervention should address To assist learners with embodied cognition,
the three elements of spatial thinking i.e. digital or concrete manipulatives are commonly
awareness of space, representation of used to support abstract reasoning, allowing
spatial information, and reasoning to them to enact the concept for improved
interpret spatial information and make encoding, retrieve knowledge in multiple ways,
decisions. The intervention must address and provide more opportunities for exploration.
cognitive processes and must be relevant across Technology support with touchscreens and
age groups and skill levels of students. Their sensors can assist learners at the later stages.
instrument addressed the multi-dimensional Digital manipulatives control what learners move
nature of spatial reasoning skill and assessed and do not move and allow the use of different
spatial orientation, mental rotation, and spatial strategies and develop a better mathematical
visualisation. The framework builds upon the understanding. Hand gestures are an important
existing knowledge of learners, which is learning tool and assist in solving spatial
reinforced through the use of knowledge by the visualisation problems, thinking in new ways,
teacher, followed by encouraging students to and long-term retention of knowledge (Tran et
describe their understanding and discuss it with al., 2017). Whole body movement in this context
others. Knowledge is pictorially represented and refers to bodily activities that relate to a
symbolically aligned to ideas which may be mathematical component such as the
applied to new situations. Researchers called representation of magnitude on the number line,
this framework the ELPSA framework or stepping to the left or right to assimilate the
(Experience-Language-Pictorial-Symbolic- concept of “greater than” and “lesser than” in
Application), which showed prominent the number system. Digital technology, 3D
improvements in all abilities tested, allowing the applications, can be used to teach complex
transfer of the knowledge to new situations. concepts such as exponential notation and
parabola. 3D printing systems can be used to
Embodied Cognition to Assist Spatial create customised manipulatives for students.
Reasoning Technology may also be used to create
embodied activities involving the whole body in
Tran and colleagues (2017) discuss the use of a specific context. Researchers provide the
embodied cognition in the teaching of example of teaching estimation, average, and
mathematical concepts and how it can be number sense by asking students to first
leveraged to support spatial reasoning. In estimate and then pace to different targets while
modern learning systems, embodied cognition is using a laser-based measurement to calculate
supported through “immersive experiences” the actual steps. In future, embodied
achieved by a range of technology support mathematical experiences assisted by
including motion sensors, touch devices, and technology can influence mathematical
virtual reality. Using fingers to count, add, and thinking, experimenting with thoughts,
subtract illustrates a common strategy of the and evolving ideas.
38

is multidimensional and along a “continuum”
(Cohrssen et al., 2017).
Childrens’ existing skills may be

underestimated when they enter school after
attending high-quality early-childhood
programs (Cohrssen et al., 2017).
Learners are able to integrate the social and

intellectual component into mathematics and
produce something that is real and personal,
and can be shared (Ng & Tsang, 2021).
Students with higher spatial skills also enjoyed

computation, suggesting that either higher
spatial skills were linked to greater computing
enjoyment or computing enjoyment was
related to higher skill development (Bockmon,
Cooper, Koperski et al., 2020b).
Figure 10: STEM Interventions (Embodied
Cognition) EDUCATOR NOTES
To “recognize, consolidate, and extend” the

mathematical thinking and learning during
play may be a challenge for some educators,
possibly those with negative feelings for
maths or those that assume it may not
necessarily be a requirement (Cohrssen et al.,
2017).
Researchers recommend that educators focus

on several aspects of spatial literacy including
“perspective change”, “mental rotation”,
“coordinated use of space”, “reasoning”, and
“representation” (Cohrssen et al., 2017).
Educators can extend spatial thinking in

children through spoken language and
embodied demonstrations (Cohrssen et al.,
2017).
Formative assessment is an important tool to

Figure 11: STEM Interventions (Embodied support differentiated teaching practice
Cognition) (Cohrssen et al., 2017).
Mathematics teaching and learning was

DESIGNING SPATIAL ABILITY well-suited to project-based approaches in a
INTERVENTIONS FOR MATHEMATICAL AND play-based curriculum that demonstrates the
STEM SUCCESS competencies of children in an authentic way
(Cohrssen et al., 2017).
LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
Constructionist learning allows students to use
During early childhood, mathematical learning technology flexibly, to apply design thinking,
39

spatial skills training for mathematical and STEM
construct cognitive models and internalise
knowledge (Ng & Tsang, 2021). success, supported by backlinks to early
research conclusions, it is justified that spatial
Challenges still exist in making the skills are malleable. Further, spatial skills training
technologies “conceptually meaningful” to is ideally a cohesion of multiple cognitive
students. They state that the issues abilities and subjects including maths, language,
surrounding “learnability” and “usability” need
art, and design for enhanced mathematics and
to be addressed. 3D printing and modelling
must be child-friendly to promote STEM ability. These conclusions indicate that a
interdisciplinary projects (Bhaduri et al., perspective-change is desirable in the context of
2021). curriculum design towards targeting the
development of spatial ability as its DNA. The
3D tools can help students with low spatial process of “spatializing may curriculum” may be
abilities build better mental models (Chaker et
supported through evidence-based pedagogical
al., 2021).
strategies based on sensory-motor feedback,
Design strategies used by researchers to language modulation, embodiment, diverse
achieve improved learning outcomes include technology and tools, applying context, student
using simple, minimal design to use real-life attitude and preference, and teacher perception
scenarios and visualise abstract concepts, and capability in the form of a differentiated and
game-based and problem-based learning and student-centric instruction as a plausible
learning by design, embodied and exploratory
approach.
processes, encouraging competition and
collaboration, teacher participation, and
promoting immersion by allowing students to
locate and rotate objects in the classroom
(Sarkar & Pillai, 2021).
Improvement in the spatial skills of students,

showed improved performance in computer
science examination (Bockmon, Cooper,
Koperski et al., 2020b).
In the domain of “embodied cognition”

researchers have indicated a tight relation and
activation between cognition, perception, and
action codes (Chang et al., 2017).
Table 8: Spatial Ability Interventions for

Mathematical and STEM Success
Conclusion
The review is a synthesis of important
perspectives and techniques that can be
adopted by educators and researchers to
“spatialize the curriculum”. Based on findings
from neurological studies indicating superior
mathematical abilities of visuospatially trained
solvers, multiple studies reinforcing the value of
40

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Appendix 1 - Figures
Figure 1: Spatial Thinking Ability
Figure 2: Spatial Reasoning
45

46

Figure 3: Perspectives on Embodied Cognition
47

48

49

Figure 4: Causal Mechanisms for Connections between Spatial Skills and Mathematics
50

Figure 5: Correlation between Mathematical Efficiency and Spatial Skills
Figure 6: Differentiated and Contextual Mathematics Teaching Practice
51

Figure 7: STEM Interventions (2D and 3D Toolsets and Frameworks)
52

Figure 8: STEM Interventions (Virtual and Augmented reality Environments)
53

Figure 9: STEM Interventions (Virtual and Augmented reality Environments)
54

Figure 10: STEM Interventions (Embodied Cognition)
55

Figure 11: STEM Interventions (Embodied Cognition)
56

Appendix 2 - Search Queries Executed
Database Articles Articles Articles Search Query

Searched Retrieved Meeting Included
Inclusion
Criteria
ProQuest 92 50 49 (mathematics AND visualization AND imagery

AND spatial) NOT ("mathematical model" OR
nursing OR geology OR "remote sensing" OR
disease* OR plant OR climate OR "medical
imaging" OR "3D product design" OR "fluid
mechanics" OR carcinoma OR physics OR
"robot navigation" OR "big data" OR satellite
OR chemistry OR "computer vision")
ACMDigiLab 214 60 61 [All: mathematics] AND [All: visualization]

AND [All: spatial] AND [All: imagery] AND
NOT [All: algorithm] AND NOT [All: "data
science"] AND NOT [All: "fuzzy logic"] AND
NOT [All: satellite] AND NOT [All:
microfluidics] AND NOT [All: cellular] AND
NOT [All: dataset] AND NOT [All:
"mathematical model"] AND NOT [All:
disease] AND NOT [All: politics] AND
[Publication Date: (01/01/2017 TO
12/31/2022)]
Google 61 29 8 mathematics AND visualization AND spatial

Scholar AND imagery -microfluidics -disease
-biomedical -architecture -surgery -chemistry
-dataset -cellular -politics -microfluidics
-"fuzzy logic" -imaging -"mathematical model"
-disease -"data science" -satellite
Sage 147 49 6 [All mathematics] AND [All visualization] AND

[All spatial] AND [All imagery] AND NOT [All
tourism] AND NOT [All archaeology] AND NOT
[All "transportation research"] AND NOT [All
"composite materials"] AND NOT [All
"mechanical engineering"] AND NOT [All lidar]
AND NOT [All reconnaissance] AND NOT [All
"mathematical model"] AND NOT [All fabric]
AND NOT [All spectroscopy] AND NOT [All
geosynthetics] AND NOT [All "machine
vision"] AND NOT [All political] AND NOT [All
"drug delivery"] AND NOT [All "internet of
things"] AND NOT [All disease] AND NOT [All
acoustic] AND NOT [All ballerinas] AND NOT
57

[All blind] AND NOT [All ethnography] AND
NOT [All microfluidics] AND NOT [All textiles]
AND NOT [All ballistics] AND NOT [All vortex]
AND NOT [All surgery] AND NOT [All lung]
AND NOT [All hypoxia] AND NOT [All "finite
element"] AND NOT [All cosmology] AND NOT
[All "statistical analysis"] AND NOT [All "neural
network"] AND NOT [All pollution] AND NOT
[All tourism] AND NOT [All aortic] AND NOT
[All radiation] AND NOT [All biomaterials] AND
NOT [All aircraft] AND NOT [All "machine
learning"] AND NOT [All ultrasound]
Taylor & 34 16 4 mathematics AND visualization AND spatial

Francis AND imagery -geophysics -surgery
-psychology -mechanics -"human-computer
interaction" -optics -multimedia -"fluid
dynamics" -finance -biology -"remote sensing"
-architecture -biomedical -chemistry
-construction -cryptography -infrastructure
-geography -"data science" -"fuzzy logic"
-satellite -microfluidics -cellular -dataset
-"mathematical model" -disease -politics
JSTOR 41 9 5 (mathematics AND visualization AND imagery

AND spatial) NOT "mathematical model"
58

A Systematic Review of Current Research and Practice On Spatial Ability Training For Mathematical and STEM Success

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A Systematic Review of Current Research and Practice On Spatial Ability Training For Mathematical and STEM Success

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A Systematic Review of Current Research and

Practice on Spatial Ability Training for

Safia Fatima Mohiuddin

BCA (Osmania University), MSc Bioinformatics (IASE University), Graduate Certificate

Hyderabad, Telangana 500024, India; Mobile: 8019202091

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Keywords: learning preferences, information processing efficiency, mind-body connection, sensorimotor

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A comprehensive literature review was carried Current Perspectives on

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Spatial Reasoning Ability

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Using spatial skills in the early years may be

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Distributed Spatial Sensemaking as a Evidence on Links between Spatial Skills

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Maths education level had a positive correlation Spatial Perspective-Taking in Autism

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Calculations involving conversions, success in

Building spatial competencies among teachers

PERSPECTIVES ON CORRELATION OF Table 3: STEM Success in Relation to Spatial

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Participation in spatial activities during Integrating ACD into STEMM classrooms is

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Using embodiment, it is possible to connect

Embodied experiences can also serve as

Technology can be used to imbibe varying

“Embodied perspective taking” that involves

Symmetry should not be a static topic based

Educators need to possess mathematical

Motor expertise is an important predictor of

Table 7: What Evidence Says about Embodied

Figure 4: Perspectives on Embodied Cognition

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2D and 3D Toolsets and

Cohrssen and team (2017) discuss the

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Researchers demonstrated a simple project

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Chang and team (2018) reinforced that 2D