Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed.

CHAPTER 1 – OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

Industrial Hygiene
The science and art devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of those environmental
factors or stresses that may cause sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant discomfort among
workers or among citizens of the community.
Includes the development of corrective measures to contol health hazards by either reducing or eliminating
exposure.
An effective program involves the anticipation and recognition of health hazards arising from work
operations and processes, evaluation and measurement of the magnitude of the hazards, and control
of the hazard.

Industrial Hygienist
Occupational health professionals who are concerned primarily with the control of environmental stresses or
occupational health hazards that arise as a result of or during the course of work.
Individual has acquired, through study or experience, a knowledge of the health effects of chemical,
phyiscal, biological, and ergonomic agents.
Involved in the monitoring and analysis required to detect the extent of exposure, and the engineering
and other methods used for hazard control.

Industrial Hygiene Profession

American Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH) – founded 1980
Voluntary, non-profit, professional credentialing organization.
Administers the Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) program.
Requirements: meet educational standards;
meet experience standards;
pass an examination; and
recertify every 5 years.

Note: Also continues recertification of the Certified Associate Industrial Hygienist

(CAIH) credential, which was not offered after 2006.

ABIH Code of Ethics

Discussion: morals v. ethics
Morals define personal character

Ethics stress a social system in which these morals are applied.

Ethics point to standards, norms, or codes of behavior of a group to which the individual belongs.
Several different “levels” of ethics exist for each of us—not necessarily mutually exclusive (e.g.,
national ethics, social ethics, company ethics, professional ethics).

At times, personal morals may place the individual at odds with the ethics of the situation.
Company ethics – increased productivity and profits
Individual morality – need for family time

Example: Defense lawyer:

Personally, finds murder abhorent (grossly amoral).
But ethically, must provide the best defense for his client.

Occupational Health and Safety Team

Chief goal is to prevent occupational injury and illness by: anticipating;
recognizing;
evaluating; and
controlling hazards.

Comprised of: medical program (occupational physician, occupational nurse);

industrial hygiene program (industrial hygienist);
industrial safety program (safety professional);
employees; and

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 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1
management (senior management, line management)

Each is distinct but complement one another and overlap.

Note: The most important attribute of a successful Occupational Health and Safety
program is the commitment of senior and line management, followed by
the assignment of authority to effectuate change.

Note: The industrial hygienist and the safety professional are often the same
individual.

Industrial Hygiene Program

Comprised of several key components: policy statement;
hazard recognition procedures;
hazard evaluation and exposure assessment;
employee training;
employee involvement;
program evaluation and audit; and
record-keeping.

Federal Regulations
Prior to 1970, health and safety standards were largely a concern of state agencies.

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHAct) of 1970

Purpose
“To assure, so far as possible, every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthy working
conditions and to preserve our human resources.”

Question: Why was it important for this to be a federal law as opposed to

continuing to leave it up to each state?

General Duty Clause

OSHAct sets out two duties for employers:
 Each employer shall furnish to each employee a place of employent free from recognized
hazards that cause or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to the employee.
 Each employer hsall comply with occupational safety and health standards under the Act.

And one duty for employees:

 Each employee shall comply with occupational safety and health standards and all rules,
regulations, and orders issued pursuant to the Act that are applicalble to his or her own actions
and conduct.

Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)

Created under provisions of OSHAct and housed in the Department of Labor.
OSHAct empowered the Secretary of Labor to:
 promulgate, modify, and revoke safety and health standards;
 conduct inspections and investigations;
 issue citations (including proposed penalties);
 require employers to keep records of safety and health data;
 petition the courts to restrain imminent danger situations; and
 approve or reject plans from states propsing ot assume jurisdiction from federal OSHA over
private sector industries and state and local governments.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

Established under provisions of OSHAct and housed in the Department of Health and Human Services
(Center for Disease Control – CDC).
Mission is to generate new knowledge in the field of occupational safety and health and to transfer
that knowledge into practice.
NIOSH:  conducts scientific research;
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 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1
 develops guidance and recommendations (Recommended
Exposure Levels – RELs);
 disseminates informations; and
 responds to request for workplace health hazard evaluations.

Mine Safety and Health Amendments Act of 1977 (MSHA)

Provides that the Mine Safety and Health Administration:
 conduct mine inspections (surface mines 2x annually, underground mines 4x annually);
 investigate mine accidents and worker complaints;
 developing improved safety and health standards;
 assessing and collecting fines; and
 reviewing mine operator’s mining plans and education and training programs.

Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (TSCA)

Empowered the EPA to require testing of chemical substancs entering the environment and regulate them
when necessary.
Included provisions for the control of risks posed by PCBs, asbestos, radon, and lead.

Resource Recovery and Conservation Act of 1976 (RCRA)

Established the EPA program regulating solid and hazardous waste management.
 created the cradle-to-grave program of hazardous waste custody and responsibility
(generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal)
 phased out land disposal for specified highly hazardous wastes
(required permiting of hazardous waste facilities and closure of substandard facilities)
 established specific testing methodologies for waste characterization
(ignitibility, corrosivity, reactivity, toxicity)

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA)

Established Superfund Program to handle emergencies and clean up uncontrolled waste sites.
Reauthorized in 1986 as the Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA).
Expanded EPA authorities to include:
 underground storage tanks;
 emergency planning;
 risk assessment;
 community right-to-know; and
 research, development, demonstratons, and training.
[created the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) charged with
preparing toxicological profiles for hazardous substances]

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1972 (FIFRA)

Authorized the EPA to:
 strengthen the registration process shifting the burden of proof to the chemical manufacturer;
 enforce compliance against banned and unregistered products; and
 develop the regulatory framework heretofor missing.
The Worker Protection Standards for Agricultural Pesticides is designed to protect employees on
farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses and pesticide handlers from occupational exposures to
pesticides, and contains requirements for:
 pesticide safety training;
 notification of pesticide application;
 use of personal protective equipment;
 restricted entry intervals following application;
 decontamination supplies; and
 emergency medical asistance.

Federal Facility Compliance Act of 1992

States, EPA, and Dept. of Justice could enforce environmental laws on federal facilities, including military
installations.

Environmental Factors and Stresses

The various environmental factors or stresses that can cause sickness, impaired health, or significant discomfort in
workers can be classified as chemical, physical, biological, or ergonomic.

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 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1
Chemical Hazards
Majority arise from excessive airborn concentrations of mists, vapors, gases, or solids in the form of dusts
or fumes, or by skin contact with these substances.
 biologically active gases
primary hazard is through inhalation, although some can be absorbed through the skin
 biologically inert gases
can lead to asphyxiation/suffocation or narcosis/anaethesia

Note: Often classified based on the major reaction they produce: asphyxiants,
systemic toxins, pneumonia producing agents, carcinogens, irritant gases,
etc.

Types of Chemical Hazards

 reactivity (combine rapidly with other chemicals to produce heat and light)
 flammable (having a low flashpoint)
 explosive (combust so rapidly as to produce an explosion)
 corrosive (capable of destroying living tissue and have destructive effects on other
substances)
 toxic (can produce injurious or lethal effects on contact with cells)

Note: Per OSHA, all containers of hazardous substances in the workplace must be
labeled with appropriate warning and identification labels.

Hazard Determination
The hazard is determined not only by the toxicity of the chemical itself, but by the conditions of its
use (who, what, how, where, and how long). Examples:
 how the chemical is used (how workers are exposed)
 duration of exposure,
 ventilation rates,
 housekeeping

Safety Data Sheets (SDSs)

Must first know about the chemicals used as raw materials and the nature of the products and by-
products manufactured.
Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) (formerly Material Safety Data Sheets, MSDSs) provide a summary
of the important health, safety, and toxicological information.

Note: This will soon change with transition to the Globally Harmonized System
(GHS) with standardization of sections, new pictogram labels, signal words,
and hazard class designations.

Note: Copies of SDSs for each hazardous substance in the workplace must be
available in that workplace.

Discussion: What is the role of the purchasing agent?

Also, about the Restricted Use List (RUL) and Authorized Use List (AUL) at Yakima
Training Center.

Toxicity v. Hazard
Toxicity refers to the capacity to produce injury or harm if it reaches a sufficient concentration at a
certain site in the body.
Hazard refers to the probability that this concentration will occur.
For there to be a hazard, there must be a sufficient exposure.

Need to evaluate: route of entry

how much is needed and for how long to produce injury
probability of contact and absorbtion
rate of generation of the contaminant
control measures in place
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 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1

Physical Hazards
Include excessive levels of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, noise, vibration, and extremes of
temperature and pressure.

Noise
Unwanted sound in the form of vibrations conducted through solids, liquids, and gases.
Effects of noise include:
 psychological effects (startle, annoy, disrupt concentration, etc.)
 interference with speech communication
 physiological effects (ear pain, hearing loss)

Threshold Value Limit (for Noise)

If the ear is subjected to high levels of noise for a sufficient period of time, some loss of hearing
may occur.
Because of the myriad of factors of noise and exposure time that play a role in hearing loss,
establishing criteria for protecting workers is difficult.
Criteria have been developed to protect against hearing loss in the speech-frequency
range (copyrighted term by ACGIH).

Permissible Levels
The criteria for hearing loss established by OSHAct.
Establish a noise level (measured in decibels) and an exposure time (hours per day).
If employees are subjected to sound that exceeds permissble levels, administrative or
engineering controls shall be used.
If these fail to reduce exposure to permissible levels, personal protective equipment
must be provided.
In all cases where the sound levels exceed 85 dBA on an 8-hour time-weighted
average, a hearing conservation program shall be developed and implemented.

Three nontechnical guidelines to determine whether excessive noise is present:

 it is necessary to speak very loudly or shout directly into the ear of a person to be
understood;
 employees say that they have had ringing noises in their ears after the end of the
workday; and
 employees complain that the sounds of speech or music seem muffled after leaving
work.

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 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1
Extremes of Temperature
Thermal stress affects the amount of work people can do and the manner in which they do it.
One question that must be asked is whether the temperature is merely causing discomfort, or whether
continued exposure will cause the body temperature to fall below, or rise above, safe limits.
Fluctuations in core temperatures exceeding 2°F below, or 3°F above the normal core temperature
of 99.6°F (98.6°F oral) impair performance markedly.
If this 5°F range is exceeded, a health hazard exists.

Stress Indices
In the development of “comfort indices” to evaluate temperature, we are trying to establish what the
(arbitrary) “effective temperature” is.
Commonly measured variables include:
 work energy metabolism (heat generated within the body – often estimated);
 air movement;
 air temperature;
 humidity; and
 radiant heat.

This is done for both high temperatures (Humidex chart) and low temperatures (Wind Chill chart).

Heat Stress Hazards

 heat rash
 heat cramps
 dehydration
 heat exhaustion
 heat stroke

Cold Stress Hazards

 chilblain
 trench foot
 frostnip
 frostbite
 hypothermia

Ionizing Radiation
The five kinds of ionizing radioactivity that are of concern are:
 alpha (least penetrating – stopped by paper or skin);
 beta (requires a quarter inch of aluminum to block);
 x-ray (requires concrete or lead shielding);
 gamma (pretty much the same as x-rays); and
 neutron (requires specialized shielding – high hydrogen).

When ionization of body tissues occurs, some of the electrons surrounding the atoms that comprise the
tissues are forcibly ejected from their orbits.
The greater the intensity of the ionizing radiation, the more ions are created and the more physical
damage is done to the cells.

Ionizing Radiation Hazards

Three basic factors must be considered in an approach to radiation safety:
 radioactive materials emit energy that can damage living tissue;
 different kinds of radioactivity present different kinds of radiation safety problems; and
 radioactive materials can be hazardous in two different ways (external v. internal).

Materials that emit x-rays, gamma rays, and neutrons can be located some distance from the
body and still cause harm as their rays pass through the body.

Because they are blocked by the skin, materials that emit alpha rays only pose a hazard if
they get inside the body (inhalation, ingestion) or expose and open wound.

Provided to National Safety Council by Allen Sullivan, Assistant Professor, Safety and Health Management, Central Washington University
 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1
Beta-emitters are generally considered an internal hazard, although they can produce
burns when in contact with the skin.

Non-ionizing Radiation
A form of electromagnetic radiation with varying effects on the body.
The effect is primarily related to wavelength, however, power intensity and time of exposure also play a
role.
Generally, longer wavelengths produce a greater penetration and temperature rise in deeper
tissues than shorter wavelengths.
There is less subjective awareness to the heat produced from longer wavelengths because of
the absorption of the longer wavelength radiation beneath the body’s surface (few or no pain
receptors).

Non-ionizing Radiation Hazards

low frequency (e.g., powerline transmission, broadcast radio, and shortwave radio)
The health hazard is very small, unless very close to powerful radio transmitter aerials.

microwave radiation (e.g., radar, communications, cooking)

Exposures may cause significant heating of tissues.

Example: Keeping seagulls off the mast.

infrared radiation
Does not penetrate below the superficial layer of the skin.
Exposure may result in thermal burns to the skin and underlying tissues.

visible radiation
Important because it can affect both the quality and accuracy of work.
One of the most objectionable features of lighting is glare.
Almost as problematic is an area of excessively high brightness.

Discussion: Give example of diffuse lighting camouflage.

Discussion: Laser hazards – highly focused uniform wavelength radiation can cause
almost immediate damage.

ultraviolet radiation (e.g., electric welding arcs, germicidal lamps, photocopiers)

Most common exposure is from direct sunlight . . . with a resultant sunburn (snow blindness).
Some industrial materials (e.g., cresols) and pharmaceuticals (e.g., certain antibiotics, oral
contraceptives, and tranquilizers) make the skin especially sensitive to ultraviolet rays (even a
short exposure usually results in severe sunburns).

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 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1
Pressure Extremes
People working under conditions of greater than normal atmospheric pressure (hyperbaric) are subject to
various health effects.
Occupational exposures occur in caisson or tunneling operations and among divers who work under
water.
Humans can withstand large pressures if air has free access to lungs, sinuses, and the middle ear.
Unequal distribution of pressure can result in barotrauma (tissue damage resulting from
expansion or contraction of gas spaces within the body – can occur during either compression
(descent) or decompression (ascent).

Under some conditions of work at high pressure, the concentration of carbon dioxide or nitrogen (or
even oxygen) dissolved in the bloodstream and delivered to cells increases such that the gas acts as a
narcotic (nitrogen narcosis).

Decompression sickness (bends) results from the release of nitorgen bubbles into the circulation and
tissues during decompression.
If these bubbles lodge in joints and muscles, they can cause severe pain and even tissue death by
cutting off blood flow.

One of the most common troubles encountered by workers under compressed air (or varying air
pressures) is pain and congestion in the ears.
This results from an inability to ventilate the middle ear during compression and decompression.
Temporary and even permanent hearing loss can result.

Biological Hazards

Approximately 200 biological agents (e.g., infectious microorganisms, biological allergens, toxins) are known to
produce infections, allergenic, toxic, or carcinogenic reactions in workers.
Most of the identified biohazardous agents belong to these groups:
 microorganisms and their toxins (viruses, bacteria, fungi, and their products)
 arthropods (crustaceans, arachnids, insects)
 allergens and toxins from higher plants (timothy hay, poison oak/ivy)
 protein allergens (urine, feces, hair, saliva, dander)
 lower plants other than fungi (lichen, liverworts, ferns)
 invertebrate animals other than arthropods (protozoa - giardia, schistosoma, roundworms)

The potential for exposure to biohazards exists in most work environments.

Workers engaging in agricultural medical, and laboratory work have been identified as most at risk.
Other occupations with high risks include:
 workers maintaining water systems
 workers assoicated with birds
 workers in wood-processing facilities
 sewage and compost workers
 healthcare workers, emergency responders, law enforecment officers, and morticians

The risk of infection varies with the type and species of animal and geographic locations.
Disease may be contracted directly from animals, but more often it is acquired in the workplace
environment.

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 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1
Routes of Entry

In order to exert its toxic effect, a harmful agent must come into contact with a body cell and must enter the
body via inhalation, skin absorption, or ingestion.

Inhalation
Involves airborn contaminants that can be inhaled directly into the lungs.
Can be physically classified as gases, vapors, and particulate matter (dusts, fumes, smokes, aerosols,
mists).
Inhalation, as a route of entry, is important due to the rapidity with which a toxic material can be
absorbed in the lungs, pass into the bloodstream, and be transported throughout the body.

Note: Inhalation is the major route of entry for hazardous chemicals in the
workplace.

Absorption
Intact skin offers a reasonably good barrier to chemicals.
This barrier can be compromised if the skin is cut or abraded.
Some chemicals can be absorbed through intact skin.

Discussion: DMSO, nicotine patches.

Ingestion
People can unknowingly eat or drink harmful chemicals.
If the compound is not soluble in digestive fluids, it will be eliminated through the digestive tract.
Toxic compounds that are soluble in digestive fluids can be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract
into the blood.
Inhaled particulates can be ingested as a result of normal ‘lung cleaning’ operations (phlegm).

Types of Airborne Contaminants

There are precise meanings of certain words commonly used in industrial hygiene.
These words must be used correctly to:
 understand the requirements of OSHAct regulations;
 effectively communicate with other occupational health professionals;
 recommend or design and test appropriate engineering controls; and
 correctly prescribe personal protective equipment.

particulate matter (dusts)

Solid particles of minerals or organics generated by handling, crunching, grinding, impact, or
detonation.
As used in industry, particulate matter (PM) is used to describe airborne solid particles that range in
size from 0.001 μm to 100 μm in diameter (1 μm = 0.00004 in.).
Generally, particles must be smaller than 5 μm to penetrate to the inner recesses of the lungs.

Note: Particles of dust of respireable size (<10 μm) cannot be seen without a
microscope . . . but may be perceived as a haze.

fumes
Form when the material from a volatilized solid (e.g., arc welding) condenses in cool air.
The particles making up a fume is extemely fine (usually < 0.1 μm)

smoke
Consists of carbon or soot particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of materials.
Typically, these particles are less than 0.1 μm in size.

aerosols
Liquid droplets or solid particles fine enough to remain dispersed in air for a prolonged period.
Provided to National Safety Council by Allen Sullivan, Assistant Professor, Safety and Health Management, Central Washington University
 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1

mists
Suspended liquid droplets generated by condenatoin of liquids from the vapor state or by breaking up a
liquid into a dispersed state.

gases
Formless fluids that expand to occupy the space or enclosure in which they are confined.

vapors
The volatile form of substances that are normally in the solid or liquid state at room temperature and
pressure.
Evaporation is the process by which a liquid is changed into the vapor state.

Respiratory Hazards
Airborne chemical agents that enter the lungs can pass diretly into the bloodstream and be carried to other
parts of the body.
All living cells of the body are engaged in a series of chemical processes, the sum total of which is
known as metabolism.
In the course of its metabolism, each cell consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a
waste product.

Respiratory hazards, can be broken into two main groups:

 air that contains harmful or toxic contaminants; and
 oxygen deficiency (oxygen concentration is below a safe level)

Oxygen Deficiency
All cells in the body require a constant supply of oxygen.
Some cells depend on a constant supply of oxygen (e.g., brain cells), while others are less
dependant (e.g., fat cells).
Some cells in the body can be regenerated (e.g., skin cells), while others cannot (e.g., brain
cells).

The hazards of oxygen deficiency depend on:

1) which cells are affected;
2) how long the cells are deprived of oxygen; and
3) whether those cells can regenerate.
Brain cells can be injured and die after 4-6 minutes without oxygen, and these cells cannot
regenerate.
Meaning injuries resulting from the loss of these cells will be permanent.

Normal air at sea level contains approximately 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen.
At higher altitudes or under conditions of reduced barometric pressure, the ratio of oxygen to
nitrogen will remain the same, but the partial pressure of each gas is reduced.
The partial pressure of oxygen at the alveolar surface of the lung is critical because it
determines the rate of oxygen diffusion through the lung membrane.

Oxygen-deficient atmospheres may exist in confined space (e.g., tanks, vats, holds of ships, silos,
mines), or in other areas where:
 oxygen is consumed by chemical reactions (rust, fermentation, decomposition)
 diluted or displaced by inert gases (argon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide)
 absorbed by porous surfaces (activated charcoal)

Airborne Contaminant Hazards

Inhaling harmful materials can irritate the upper respiratory tract and lung tissue, or the terminal
passages of the lungs and the air sacs, depending on the solubility of the material.
If the compound is very soluble (e.g., ammonia, sulfuric acid), it is rapidly absorbed in the upper
respiratory tract and during the intial phases of exposure does not penetrate deeply into the lung
(nose and throat become very irritated).

Provided to National Safety Council by Allen Sullivan, Assistant Professor, Safety and Health Management, Central Washington University
 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1
Compounds that are less soluble cause less throat irritation, but can penetrate deeply into the
lungs.

Inhaled contaminants that adversely affect the lungs fall into three general categories:
 aerosols (particulates) which, when deposited in the lungs, can produce either rapid local tissue
damage, slower tissue reactions, eventual disease, or physical plugging (e.g., asbestos, silica
dust);
 toxic vapors and gases that produce adverse reactions in the tissue of the lungs (phosgene gas);
and
 aerosols or gases that do not affect the lung tissue but pass into the bloodstream, where they are
carried to other body organs or have an adverse effect on the oxygen-carrying capacity of the
blood cells (e.g., carbon monoxide).

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)

A copyrighted trademark of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), TLVs
represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after
day, without adverse effect.
Based on an assumption that there is some safe or tolerable level of exposure.

Note: Briefly discuss bell-shaped curve.

A small percentage of workers may experience discomfort at concentrations at or below the threshold
limit.
A smaller percentage may be affected more seriously (by aggravation of a pre-existing condition or
developing an occupational illness).

Note: Hypersusceptible individuals (smoking, genetic predisposition, medication,

previous exposures)

TLVs are available for a wide range of chemical compounds, as well as limits for physical conditions (e.g.,
noise, radiation, extremes of temperature, ergonomics, and biological exposure (BEIs)).
TLVs are not fine lines between safe and dangerous concentration.
TLVs are based on animal studies, human studies, and industrial experience.
The amount and nature of information available for establishing TLVs varies from substance to
substance.
The precision of the estimate for a given TLV continues to be debated and revised.

TLVs are not mandatory federal or state employee exposure standards.

The term should not be used for standards published by OSHA.

Note: The first health and safety standards (permissible exposure limits (PELs))
published by OSHA in1970 incorporated many of the TLVs that had been
published by ACGIH in 1968.

Note: OSHA also adopted the concept of the time-weighted average (TWA) for a
workday.

TWA = CaTa + CbTb + CcTc + . . . CnTn

8

Categories of TLVs:
Time-Weighted Average (TWA)
The time-weighted average concentration of a conventional eight-hour workday and 40-hour
workweek

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 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1
Short-term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL)
The concentration to which workers can be exposed continuously for a short period of time without
suffering: 1) irritation; 2) chronic or irreversible tissue damage; or 3) narcosis.
A STEL is a 15-minute TWA exposure that:
 should not be exceeded at any time during a workday;
 should not occur more than four times per day; and
 should be at least 60 minutes between exposures.

Example: Opening and closing a process door.

Ceiling (TLV-C)
The concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the working exposure.

Note: Skin exposure designation – refers to potential significant exposure through

the cutaneous route, including mucous membranes and the eyes.

Note: Mixtures – special considerations are required when workers are exposed to
more than one substance (synergistic effects).

Evaluation
The decision-making process resulting in an opinion on the degree of health hazard posed by chemical,
physical, biological, or ergonomic stresses.
Involves:
 anticipating and recognizing health hazards;
 determing the levels of physical, chemical, and biological agents arising out of a process;
 judging the magnitude of the stress(es); and
 determining whether a health hazard exists (observation, interviews, measurement).

The degree of hazard from exposure to harmful environmental stress(es) depends on:
 nature of the material or energy involved;
 intensity of exposure; and
 duration of exposure.

Control
Industrial hygienists need to possess the skills to implement control methodologies.
Because hazards can change with time (new processes, new chemicals, etc.), the hazard control system
requires continual review and updating.

Control methods for health hazards are divided in to three basic categories:

engineering controls
Used to “engineer out” the hazard either in the initial design phase, or as retrofit actiions (e.g.,
substitution, isolation, enclosure, or ventilation).

Discussion: In the hierarchy of control methods, the use of engineering controls should be
considered first. Why?

administrative controls
Achieves employee exposure reduction by scheduling reduced work times in contaminant areas
(shift rotation, transfer).

Note: Included under “administrative controls” is the requirement for worker training
that includes both hazard recognition and appropriate work practices that
reduce exposure.

personal protective equipment (PPE)

Anything from gloves to full-suit SCBA equipment that places a barrier between the worker and the
contaminant.
Provided to National Safety Council by Allen Sullivan, Assistant Professor, Safety and Health Management, Central Washington University
 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 6th Ed. – Chapter 1

Note: PPE does not reduce or eliminate the hazard; if the barrier fails,
immediate exposure results.

Provided to National Safety Council by Allen Sullivan, Assistant Professor, Safety and Health Management, Central Washington University