CHEMISTRY

FORMAT OF ASSESSMENT

All extended candidates will sit for:

- Paper 2 (MCQ)
- Paper 4 (Theory)

All core candidates will sit for:

- Paper 1 (MCQ)
- Paper 3 (Theory)

All candidates will sit for either:

- Paper 5 (Practical)
- Paper 6 (Alternative to Practical)

Papers 1 and 2 carry 40 marks each and are 45 minutes long.

Papers 3 and 4 carry 80 marks each and are 1 hour and 15

minutes long.

Papers 5 and 6 carry 40 marks each, but paper 5 is 1 hour and 15

minutes, whereas paper 6 is 1 hour only.
 STATES OF MATTER

1.1 Solids, Liquids, and gases

There are three states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases.

A solid has a definite volume and shape which may be affected by changes
in temperature. There are strong forces of attraction between particles and
particles are packed very closely together in a fixed and regular pattern. The
atoms vibrate in position but can’t change position or move. Solids have a
high density.

A liquid has a fixed volume but not a fixed shape. The particles are still close
together but they move around and collide with each other. The forces of
attraction are weaker in liquids than those in solids. Particles can move and
slide past each other, and this explains why liquids can take up the shape of
any container. They have a moderate to high density.

A gas has neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume. However, they can be
compressed. The particles in a gas are relatively far apart. They are free to
move anywhere and usually collide with each other, but less often than in a
liquid. The particles are in random movement and move at high velocities.
They exert no intermolecular forces. Gases have a low density.
The states of matter are interchangeable because of these processes:
- Melting. This is when a solid turns into a liquid. It requires heat energy
which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to
overcome the forces of attraction and move. This process occurs at a
certain temperature called the melting point (m.p.). The m.p. is
different for different substances.
- Boiling. This is when a liquid turns into a gas. This process requires heat
energy which transforms into kinetic energy. This kinetic energy allows
the strong attractive forces in liquids to weaken, making it into a gas. It
happens at a certain temperature called the boiling point (b.p.). The
b.p. Is different for different substances.
- Evaporation. This is when a liquid turns into a gas, but this only
happens at the surface of the liquid. The particles with the most energy
escape from the surface of the liquid and turn into a gas. No heat is
required for this process.
- Freezing. This is when a liquid turns into a solid. This process requires a
reduction in heat energy, leading to a reduction in kinetic energy. This
results in the forces of attraction becoming strong. Heat is released in
this process. Freezing happens at the melting point. For example, water
melts at 0°C. It also freezes at 0°C.
- Condensation. This is when a gas turns into a liquid. This process also
requires a reduction in heat energy, leading to a reduction in kinetic
energy. This results in the forces of attraction being slightly stronger. It
happens at the boiling point.

The kinetic particle theory states that:

- All matter is made up of tiny, moving particles invisible to your eye and
different substances have different types of particles.
- The particles are in continuous motion. The higher the temperature, the
faster they move on average.
- Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles.
When substances are heated, the particles absorb thermal energy which is
converted into kinetic energy. Heating a solid causes its particles to vibrate
more and they vibrate so much that the solid expands until the structure
breaks and the solid melts.

Heating curve

Cooling curve
An increase in the temperature of a gas will result in an increase in the
volume of a gas. An increase in the pressure of a gas will result in an increase
in the volume of a gas as well.

For example, the pressure inside a balloon is caused by the gas particles
striking the inside surface of the balloon. At a higher temperature, there is
increased pressure inside the balloon. This is due to the gas particles having
more energy and therefore moving around faster, which results in the
particles striking the inside surface of the balloon more frequently, which
leads to an increase in pressure. Since the balloon is elastic, the increased
pressure causes the balloon to stretch and the volume increases.

1.2 Diffusion
All gases diffuse to fill the space available. Diffusion can be explained by the
kinetic particle theory. The theory states that all matter is made up of many
small particles which are constantly moving. In a gas, the particles move
randomly past each other, colliding with each other.

Gases diffuse at different rates. The lighter the particles of a substance, the
more distance they can diffuse. The particles are lighter because they have a
smaller relative atomic mass (Mr).
The reason why the white cloud forms nearer to the hydrochloric acid is that
ammonia particles are lighter, which means they have a smaller relative
molecular mass. As a result, they diffuse more.
 ATOMS, ELEMENTS, AND COMPOUNDS

2.1 Elements, compounds, and mixtures

Mixture Compound Element

Contains two or more It is a single substance Made up of identical

substances atoms and cannot be
broken down

The composition varies The composition is always the same Exist on their own

No chemical change When the new substance is formed -

takes place when a it involves a chemical change
mixture is formed

The properties are those The properties are very different Each element has its
of the individual elements from those of the component unique properties.
elements

The components may be The components can only be Can be separated by

separated quite easily by separated by one or more chemical physical or chemical
physical means reactions methods

2.2 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

The structure of an atom contains a central nucleus containing protons and
electrons surrounded by electrons in shells.
Particle Symbol Relative mass (amu) Relative charge

Proton p 1 +1

Neutrons n 1 0

Electrons e 1/1837 -1

The proton number, also known as the atomic number, is the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom.

The mass number, also known as the nucleon number, is the total number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Group VIII noble gases have a full outer shell. Examples include neon and
argon.

The number of outer shell electrons is equal to the group number in Groups I
to VII.

The number of occupied electron shells is equal to the period number.

2.3 Isotopes
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that have the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons.
In hydrogen-3, the number on top (3) is the mass number. The number
below (1) is the number of protons.

Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties because
they have the same number of electrons and therefore the same electronic
configuration.

Worked example:
What is the relative atomic mass of chlorine? Chlorine has two isotopes

Chlorine-35 Chlorine-37

Abundance 75% 25%

So the Ar of a chlorine atom is:
(75×35) + (25×37)
100
= 35.5
So, the Ar of a chlorine atom is 35.5 amu.

2.4 Ions and ionic bonds

There are two types of ions: cations (positive ions) and anions (negative
ions). An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the
loss/gain of electrons. Cations are formed when an atom loses electrons.
Anions are formed when an atom gains electrons.

An ionic bond is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged

ions.

An example of an ionic bond is that of sodium chloride. You can draw a

dot-and-cross diagram to represent the bond.

The sodium atom has one electron in its outer shell and the chlorine atom
has 7 electrons in its outer shell. In ionic bonding, the metal atom transfers its
electrons to the non-metal atom. After ionic bonding, the sodium atom is
now a cation as it lost an electron and the chlorine atom is an anion as it
gained an electron.
Another example of an ionic bond is between magnesium and oxygen.

Magnesium obtains a full outer shell by losing 2 electrons. These are

transferred to the oxygen atom. In magnesium oxide, the Mg2+ and O2- are
oppositely charged and are attracted to one another.

The giant lattice structure of ionic compounds is a regular arrangement of

alternating positive and negative ions.
Properties of ionic compounds:
- They have high melting and boiling points. This is due to the strong
electrostatic forces holding the crystal lattice together. A lot of the
energy is therefore needed to separate the ions and melt the
substance.
- They cannot conduct electricity when solid because the ions are not
free to move.
- They conduct electricity when in a molten state or in aqueous solution.
The forces of attraction between the ions are weakened and the ions
are free to move to the appropriate electrode. This allows an electric
current to be passed through the molten compound.

2.5 Simple molecules and covalent bonds

A covalent bond is formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two
atoms leading to noble gas configurations.

Covalent structures of:-

H2:

Each hydrogen atom in the molecule has one electron. In order to obtain a
full outer shell and gain an electronic configuration that is the same as the
noble gas helium, each of the hydrogen atoms must have 2 electrons. To do
this, the outer shells of the 2 hydrogen atoms overlap.

Cl2:
HCl:
In hydrochloric acid, the hydrogen needs one more electron to gain the
electronic configuration of the gas helium and chlorine needs 1 more electron
to gain the electronic configuration of the gas argon.

CH4:
In this, the carbon atom needs 4 more electrons to attain the electronic
configuration of the noble gas neon. Each hydrogen atom needs only 1
electron to gain the electronic configuration of the noble gas helium.
NH3:
The nitrogen atom needs 3 more electrons to obtain the noble gas structure
of neon. Each hydrogen atom only requires 1 electron to form the noble gas
structure of helium.

H2O:
The oxygen atom needs 2 electrons to gain the electronic configuration of
neon. Each hydrogen needs 1 electron to gain the electronic configuration of
helium.

N2:
Each nitrogen atom needs 3 electrons to gain the electronic configuration of
the noble gas neon.
This gas contains a triple covalent bond. A triple covalent bond is formed
when 3 pairs of electrons are shared. It is represented by ≡. So, N ≡ N.

O2:
Each oxygen atom needs 2 electrons to gain the electronic configuration of
the noble gas neon.

This gas contains a double covalent bond. A double covalent bond is formed
when 2 pairs of electrons are shared. It is represented by =. So, O = O.
CO2:
Each carbon atom needs 4 electrons to gain the electronic configuration of
the noble gas neon. Each oxygen atom needs 2 electrons to gain the
electronic configuration of neon. This is achieved by forming 2 double
covalent bonds in which 2 pairs of electrons are shared.

C2H4:
Each carbon atom needs 4 electrons to gain the electronic configuration of
the noble gas neon. Each hydrogen atom needs 1 electron to gain the
electronic configuration of helium.

CH3OH:
This is a molecule that has 3 different types of atoms. The carbon atom
needs 4 electrons to gain the electronic configuration of the noble gas neon.
The oxygen atom needs 2 electrons to gain the electronic configuration of
the noble gas neon. Each hydrogen atom needs 1 electron to gain the
electron configuration of helium.
The properties of simple molecular compounds are:
- They have low melting and boiling points. This is because of the weak
intermolecular forces of attraction which exist between simple
molecules. These are weaker compared to the strong covalent bonds.
- They have poor electrical conductivity. This is because they do not
contain ions to carry the charge.

2.6 Giant covalent structures

Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon.

In a diamond, each carbon atom bonds with 4 other carbon atoms, forming
a tetrahedral shape. All the covalent bonds are identical and strong with no
weak intermolecular forces. It does not conduct electricity, is hard and dense,
and has a high melting point. Diamond is used in cutting tools such as glass
cutters.
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to 3 others by strong covalent
bonds, forming layers of hexagonal-shaped forms. This leaves one free
electron per carbon atom. These free electrons exist in between the layers
and are free to move and carry charge, hence graphite can conduct
electricity. The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong but the layers
are connected to each other by weak intermolecular forces, hence the layers
can slide over each other making graphite slippery and smooth. Graphite
also has a high melting point. Graphite can be used as a lubricant and as an
electrode.

Silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2, is a macromolecule which occurs naturally as sand

and quartz. Each oxygen forms covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms and each
silicon atom, in turn, forms covalent bonds with 4 oxygen atoms. A
tetrahedral shape, similar to that of a diamond, is formed.
SiO2 has lots of very strong covalent bonds and no intermolecular forces so it
has similar properties to diamond. It is very hard, has a high melting and
boiling point, is insoluble in water, and does not conduct electricity. It is also
cheap since it is available naturally and is used to make sandpaper and to
line the inside of furnaces.

2.7 Metallic bonding

Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between the positive ions in a
giant lattice and a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.

Metals conduct electricity:

- There are free electrons available to move and carry charge.
 - Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to
displace itself from the other end.
- Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted.

Metals are malleable and ductile:

- Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different
positions
- Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the valence electrons do not
belong to any particular metal atom so the delocalised electrons will
move with them.
- Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result, metals are strong
and flexible
- They can be hammered and bent into different shapes without
breaking
 STOICHIOMETRY

3.1 Relative masses of atoms and molecules

The relative atomic mass, Ar , is the average mass of the isotopes of an
element compared to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of 12C.

The relative molecular mass, Mr , is the sum of the relative atomic masses.

Relative formula mass, Mr , is used for ionic compounds.

Worked example:
What mass of carbon dioxide would be produced if 6g of carbon was
completely combusted?
C + O2 -> CO2
The Ar of carbon is 12g, but the question only asks for 6g which is half the
amount. O2 will have an Ar of 32g as it has 2 atoms (16 x 2 = 32), however only
half the amount of carbon is combusted, so O2 will have an Ar of 16g.
6 + 16 = 22
So, 22g of carbon dioxide would be produced.

3.2 Formulae
The molecular formula of a compound is the number and type of different
atoms in one molecule.

The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of

the different atoms or ions in a compound.

More on formulae and symbols : Symbols & Formulae | CIE IGCSE Chemistry
Revision Notes
3.3 The mole and the Avogadro constant
The mole (unit: mol) is the unit of amount of substance. One mole contains
6.02 × 1023 particles. This number is the Avogadro constant.

We can calculate the mass of a substance using this formula:

Mass = number of moles × molar mass

a) Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of iron.

The Ar of iron is 56g.
Mass = Number of moles × molar mass
28 = 0.5 × 56
b) Calculate the number of moles in 108g of aluminium.
The Ar of aluminium is 27g.
We can substitute the formula above to:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
108
4 moles = 27

c) Calculate the number of atoms of carbon in 0.1 moles.

One mole contains 6.02 × 1023 particles.
6.02 × 1023 × 0.1 = 6.02 × 1022

d) Calculate the mass of 3 moles of CO2. (Ar: O = 16; C = 12)

1 mole of this compound contains 1 mole of carbon and 2 moles of
oxygen.
12 + (16 × 2) = 44
1 mol = 44g
3 mol = 132 g

1 mole of any gas occupies 24dm3 at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p).
This quantity is known as the molar gas volume, Vm.
You can use this formula:
3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑟.𝑡.𝑝.)
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 3
24 𝑑𝑚

a) Calculate the number of moles of NH3 in a volume of 72dm3 of the gas

measured at r.t.p.
We can use the formula so,
72
24
= 3 moles
b) Calculate the volume of CO2 occupied by 0.5 moles.
We can substitute the above formula to this:
Volume = number of moles × 24dm3
12 = 0.5 × 24

Concentration can be measured in g/dm3 or mol/dm3

The concentration of a substance can be found by using this formula:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Calculate the concentration of a solution of NaOH which was made by

dissolving 10g of solid NaOH in water and making up to 250cm3.

First, calculate the molar mass of this compound.

23 + 16 + 1 = 40
Molar mass = 40g
To find the number of moles, use this formula:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
10
= 40

= 0.25
Convert 250cm3 into dm3
250cm3 = 0.25dm3

Concentration:
0.25
0.25
= 1 mol/dm3

The empirical formula of a substance can be calculated by knowing the ratio

of masses of each element in the compound.

a) In an experiment, an unknown organic compound was found to

contain 0.12g of carbon and 0.02g of hydrogen. Calculate the empirical
formula of the compound.

Carbon Hydrogen

Masses 0.12 0.02

Number of moles 0.12

= 0.01
0.02
= 0.02
12 1

Ratio of moles 1 2

Empirical formula CH2

b) Using a mass spectrometer, the relative molecular mass (Mr) of this

organic compound was found to be 56. Calculate the molecular
formula.

Calculate the Mr of the empirical formula of the compound.

12 + 1 + 1 = 14
Divide.
56
14
=4

4 × CH2 = C4H8

The percentage yield of the reaction is based on the amount of carbon

dioxide that is actually produced against what should have been produced.
The formula for percentage yield is:
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
× 100

The percentage composition is used to describe the percent by mass of each

element in a compound.

The percentage purity is the purity of a substance. It can be found by using

this formula:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
× 100

84g of sodium hydrogencarbonate was thermally decomposed and 11.5dm3

of carbon dioxide gas was collected at r.t.p. The equation for this reaction is:

2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) −> 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) + 𝐻2𝑂 (𝑔) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)

a) Calculate the relative formula mass of this compound.

23 + 1 + 12 + 16 + 16 + 16 = 84
If 168g of sodium hydrogencarbonate gives of 44g of carbon dioxide, 84g of
this compound will give of only 22g of carbon dioxide, so only 12dm3. Now, we
can calculate the mass of sodium hydrogencarbonate.

11.5
12
× 84 = 80. 5
Now, we can calculate the percentage purity.
80.5
84
× 100 = 95. 8
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY

4.1 Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound, when molten or in
aqueous solution, by the passage of an electric current.

In an electric cell, there is the anode, cathode, and the electrolyte. The anode
is the negative electrode, the cathode is the positive electrode, and the
electrolyte is the molten or aqueous substance that undergoes electrolysis.

The transfer of electrons during electrolysis is by:

- The movement of electrons in the external circuit
- The loss/gain of electrons at the electrodes
- The movement of ions at the electrolyte.
Electrolysis of molten lead(Ⅱ) bromide.

When lead(Ⅱ) bromide is heated, it acts as an electrolyte. It allows electricity

to pass through it and the bulb lights up. When this happens, an orange-red
vapour is seen at the anode and lead is produced at the cathode.

molten lead(Ⅱ) bromide → bromine + lead

PbBr2 (l) → Br2 (g) + Pb (l)
At the anode:
bromide ion → bromine atom + electron
Br- (l) → Br + e-
At the cathode:
lead ion + electrons → lead atom
Pb2+ (l) + 2e- → Pb (l)

Oxidation takes place at the anode and reduction takes place at the
cathode.
Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride.

When NaCl is dissolved in water, the ions are free to move. When
concentrated aqueous NaCl is electrolysed, the 2 gases, hydrogen and
chlorine, are produced.

In the water, H+ and OH- ions are present and in the sodium chloride, Na+ and
Cl- ions are present. The H+ and Na+ ions are attracted to the cathode. The H+
ions accept electrons more easily than the Na+ ions so hydrogen gas (H2) is
produced at the cathode.

hydrogen ions + electrons → hydrogen molecules

2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2 (g)

Reduction is taking place here.

OH- and Cl- ions are attracted to the anode. The Cl- ions give up electrons
more readily than the OH- ions so chlorine gas (Cl2) is produced at the
anode.

chloride ions → chlorine molecules + electrons

2Cl- (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e-

Oxidation is taking place at the anode.

Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid.

To enable water to conduct electricity, some dilute sulfuric acid is added.

When the power is turned on, an electric current flows through this solution
and gases can be seen to be produced at the 2 electrodes. The gas collected
at the cathode burns with a squeaky pop, showing it to be hydrogen gas.

hydrogen ions + electrons → hydrogen molecules

4H+ (aq) + 4e- → 2H2 (g)
The gas collected at the anode relights a glowing splint, showing it to be
oxygen.

hydroxide ions → water + oxygen + electrons

4OH- (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e-

Electrolysis of aqueous copper(Ⅱ) sulfate solution using copper/graphite

electrodes

CuSO4 can be electrolysed using inert graphite electrodes. When the solution
is electrolysed, oxygen gas is produced at the anode and copper metal is
formed at the cathode.
The H+ and OH- ions are present in the water and Cu2+ and SO42- ions are from
the copper(Ⅱ) sulfate solution. The H+ and Cu2+ ions are attracted to the
cathode. The Cu2+ ions accept electrons more readily than the H+ ions so
copper metal is deposited at the cathode.

copper ions + electrons → copper atoms

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu (s)

OH- and SO42- ions are attracted to the anode. The OH- ions release electrons
more easily than the SO42- ions, so oxygen gas and water are produced at the
anode.
hydroxide ions → oxygen + water + electrons
4OH (aq) → O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e-

The copper/graphite electrodes can be replaced by copper electrodes for

copper refining.

The anode is the impure copper and is typically 1 m square, 35-50mm thick
and 330kg in weight. The cathode is the pure copper and is 1mm thick and
weighs about 5kg. The electrolyte is the aqueous copper(Ⅱ) sulphate
solution, acidified with a 2 mol/dm3 solution of sulfuric acid to help the
solution conduct electricity.

The copper moves from the impure anode to the pure cathode. Any
impurities fall to the bottom of the cell and collect below the anode in the
form of a slime.

H+ and OH- ions are present in the water and Cu2+ and SO42- ions are present
in the electrolyte.

During electrolysis, the impure anode loses mass because the copper atoms
lose electrons and become copper ions.

copper atoms → copper ions + electrons

Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-

The ions go into the solution and are attracted to the cathode where they
gain electrons and form purified copper atoms.

copper ions + electrons → copper atoms

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu (s)

Metals or hydrogen are formed at the cathode and non-metals, other than
hydrogen, are formed at the anode.

During the electrolysis of a binary compound, the products formed at the

anode are non-metals and the products formed at the cathode are metals.

Electrolysis of a halide compound in a dilute solution:

- Oxygen gas is formed at the cathode
 - At the anode, if the metal is below hydrogen in the reactivity series,
hydrogen is produced. But if the metal is above hydrogen, hydrogen
will be produced.

Electrolysis of a halide compound in a concentrated solution:

- Oxygen gas is produced at the cathode
- The halide will be produced at the anode.

4.2 Electroplating
Metals are electroplated to improve their appearance and resistance to
corrosion.

The electroplating process is carried out in a cell. The anode is made from
the metal used to coat the object. The metal being used to coat is less
reactive than the metal being coated. The cathode is the object to be
electroplated. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of a soluble salt of the
pure metal at the anode.
4.3 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells
A hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce
electricity with water as the only substance produced.

Advantages of using hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells:

- It is similar to a battery but does not require any external charging
- It is capable of producing electricity as long as hydrogen fuel and
oxygen are supplied
- It uses hydrogen and oxygen and makes non-polluting water in the
process of generating electricity, whereas petrol and diesel engines
produce many pollutants.

Disadvantages of using hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells:

- Fuel cells are very expensive
- Fuel cells and electric motors are less durable than petrol or diesel
engines, which means they do not last as long
- Hydrogen is in the gas state at room temperature and pressure, so it is
difficult to store in a car
- The infrastructure does not yet exist, as it does for fossil fuels, for
example, the number of refuelling stations.
 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

5.1 Exothermic and Endothermic reactions

An exothermic reaction transfers thermal energy to its surroundings, leading
to an increase in the temperature of the surroundings.

An endothermic reaction transfers thermal energy from the surroundings

leading to a decrease in the temperature of the surroundings.

Exothermic reaction pathway diagram

 Endothermic reaction pathway diagram

The transfer of thermal energy during a reaction is called the enthalpy

change, ΔH. ΔH is negative for exothermic reactions and positive for
endothermic reactions.

Activation energy, Ea , is the minimum energy that colliding particles must

have to react.
Bond breaking is an endothermic process and bond making is an exothermic
process. Breaking down the chemical bonds in the reactants requires energy
and thus, it is an endothermic process. When the new bonds in the products
are formed, energy is given out. This is an exothermic process.

In this, there are 6 C-H, 1 C-C, and 1 Cl-Cl bonds in the reactants. We need to
calculate the amount of energy needed to break this bond.

413 x 6 = 2478
2478 + 239 + 347 = 3064

Then, calculate the amount of energy needed to form the bonds in the
products. There are 5 C-H, 1 C-Cl, and 1 H-Cl bonds.

413 x 5 = 2065
2065 + 339 + 427 = 2831

Then, subtract.

3064 - 2831 = 233

Since the final answer is a positive value, this reaction is an endothermic

reaction.
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

6.1 Physical and chemical changes

Physical changes do not produce any new chemical substances. These are
reversible and easy to separate. Examples of physical changes include
melting of ice or mixing iron with sand.

New chemical products are formed during chemical changes. The products
have very different properties to the reactants. Most chemical reactions are
impossible to reverse. Chemical changes are accompanied by energy
changes as well and energy can be taken in or given out. Examples of
chemical changes include frying an egg or burning wood.

6.2 Rate of reaction

If the number of frequency of collisions between particles increases, the
number of successful collisions increases, thus increasing the rate of
reaction.

If the kinetic energy of the particles increases, this increases the number of
successful collisions, thus increasing the rate of reaction.

If the number of particles per unit volume increases, this increases the
number of successful collisions, thus increasing the rate of reaction.

For products to be formed, the collision must have a certain minimum

amount of energy associated with it. This energy is activation energy, Ea.

Increasing the concentration of solutions will increase the rate of reaction.

This is because there are more particles in a more concentrated solution,
which leads to more frequent collisions between reactant particles. The more
often the particles collide, the greater the chance they have of having
sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy, so it is more likely that a
successful collision occurs.

An increase in the pressure of gases will increase the rate of reaction. This is
because the gas particles are being pushed closer together, increasing the
number of particles per unit volume. This means that they collide more
frequently and so the rate of reaction increases.

An increase in the surface area of an object will increase the rate of reaction.
This is because more particles are exposed to the other reactant if the
surface area of a reactant increased. The particles will have an increased
amount of surface with which to collide.

An increase in the temperature increases the rate of reaction. This is because

the kinetic energy of the reactant particles increases. Some particles will
have an energy greater than the Ea , and they move faster. The faster
movement results in more frequent collisions between the particles. This will
increase the number of successful collisions as well.

A catalyst increases the rate of reaction and is unchanged at the end of a

reaction. A catalyst increases the rate of reaction by providing an alternative
reaction path which has a lower Ea . This means that a catalyst decreases the
Ea of a reaction. A catalyst does not increase the number of collisions
between the particles but it causes more of the collisions to become
successful collisions.

The rates at which reactions occur can be found by measuring either:

- The volume of the gas produced
- The change in mass of the reaction mixture with time
6.3 Reversible reactions and equilibrium
Some chemical reactions are reversible as shown by the symbol ⇌ .

A reversible reaction in a closed system is at equilibrium when:

- The rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse
reaction
- The concentrations of reactants and products are no longer changing

Copper(Ⅱ) sulfate is available in 2 forms: hydrated and anhydrous. Hydrated

copper(Ⅱ) sulfate is a blue solid and anhydrous copper(Ⅱ) sulfate is a white
solid. If hydrated copper(Ⅱ) sulfate is heated, water is removed and the
colour changes from blue to white, as anhydrous copper(Ⅱ) sulfate is
formed. If water is added to the white solid, it changes back to a blue colour
and hydrated copper(Ⅱ) is formed.

hydrated copper(Ⅱ) sulfate ⇌ anhydrous copper(Ⅱ) sulfate + water

It happens in cobalt(Ⅱ) chloride as well, which is pink in its hydrated form

and blue in its anhydrous form. Adding water to anhydrous cobalt(Ⅱ)
chloride changes the colour from blue to pink, as hydrated cobalt(Ⅱ)
chloride is produced. If hydrated cobalt(Ⅱ) chloride is heated, the colour
changes from pink to blue, as anhydrous cobalt(Ⅱ) chloride is formed.

anhydrous cobalt(Ⅱ) chloride + water ⇌ hydrated cobalt(Ⅱ) chloride

An increase in temperature will result in the equilibrium moving in the

endothermic direction to reverse the change. A decrease in temperature will
result in the equilibrium moving in the exothermic direction to reverse the
change.
An increase in pressure will result in the equilibrium shifting in the direction
that produces the smaller number of molecules of gas to decrease the
pressure. A decrease in pressure will result in the equilibrium shifting in the
direction that produces more number of molecules of gas to increase the
pressure.

An increase in the concentration will result in the equilibrium shifting to the

right to reduce the effect of increase in the concentration of a reactant. A
decrease in the concentration will result in the equilibrium shifting to the right
to reduce the effect of decrease in the concentration of a reactant.

The use of a catalyst increases the rate of both the forward and reverse
reactions to the same extent, so the position is not affected. It just produces
the product more quickly.

Equation for the production of ammonia in the Haber process:

N2(g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)

The source of hydrogen used in the Haber process is methane, and nitrogen
gas is obtained from the air.

The typical conditions used in the Haber process are 450℃, 20000 kPa, and
an iron catalyst

Equation for the production of sulfur trioxide in the Contact process:

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)

Burning sulfur or sulfide ores in air is the source of sulfur dioxide and air is the
source of oxygen in the Contact process.
The typical conditions used in the Contact process are 450℃, 200 kPa, and
vanadium(Ⅴ) oxide catalyst.

6.4 Redox
Roman numerals (Ⅰ, Ⅱ, Ⅲ, …) are used in writing the oxidation number of an
element.

Redox reactions involve simultaneous oxidation and reduction.

Oxidation is the gain of oxygen.

Reduction is the loss of oxygen.

Oxidation involves loss of electrons. This also results in an increase in

oxidation number.

Reduction involves gain of electrons. This results in a decrease in oxidation

number.