RESEARCH IN DAILY LIFE 1 TRANSCENDENTAL PHENOMENOLOGY

- Focus less on researchers interpretation

and more on describing experiences of
PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH participants.
- Largely developed by Husserl, is a
- “The Lived Experience”
philosophical approach to qualitative
- Is describing events, situations, experiences,
research methodology seeking to
or concepts as it they are experiences by
understand human experience
people.
(Moustakas, 1994).
- It raises awareness and increases insights

PHENOMOENOGICAL QUESTIONS
THREE ELEMENTS OF PHENOMENOLOGY
KEY TERMS EXAMPLES
1. LIVED EXPERIENCE – phenomenology
 What is this lived a) What is it like to be
concerns/ helps researchers to apprehend
experience (of a bored?
lived experience within a specific group b) What is it like to
group) around
2. CONSCIOUS PROCESS – experience is a (specific experience a heart
conscious process phenomenon) like? transplant?
3. INTERPRETATIONS – the development of  What is it like to c) What is it like to
interpretation of the essence of this experience this experience
experiences. phenomenon or empathy?
event? d) What is it like to
experience pain?
 What are the
GOAL OF PHENOMENOLOGY
meanings,
1. TO DESCRIBE… – to describe the meaning structures, and
of this experience – both in term of “What was essence of (a
experienced” and “How it was experienced?” specific
2. TO EXAMINE… – by examining an experience phenomenon) by
as it is subjectively lived, new meaning and (individuals
appreciations can be developed to inform, or experiencing the
even re-orient, how understand that phenomenon)?
experience.

TWO TYPES OF PHENOMENOLOGICAL PHENOMENOLOGICAL PROCESS

RESEARCH
1. Determine phenomenology is best approach for
HERMENEUTIC PHENOMENOLOGY research question/ objective.
a) RESEARCHER AS INTERPRETER 2. Identify the phenomenon to study
- Reflecting on lived experience with 3. Recognize the philosophical assumptions of
interpretation by the researcher. phenomenology.
4. Describe researcher’s own experience with
b) EMPIRICAL RESEARCH phenomenon.
- Conducted through empirical (collection of 5. Bracket (or epoche) researcher’s assumptions
experiences) and reflective (analysis of their regarding phenomenon.
meanings) activities. 6. Collect data about experiences of
phenomenon. What and how is it experienced.
c) UNDERSTANDING
- Basic themes of hermeneutic
phenomenology are “interpretation,”
“textual meaning,” “dialogue,” “pre-
understanding,” and “tradition.”
CASE STUDY LIMITATIONS OF CASE STUDY

 Case study is a design in which the researcher  Labor intensive and generates large diverse
develops an in-depth analysis of a case. data sets which can be hard to manage.
Researchers collect detailed information using  Case studies are seen by many as a weak
a variety of data collection procedures over a methodology because they only look at one
sustained period (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009, person or one specific group and aren’t as
2012). broad in their participant selection as other
 A case study centers on an individual or a methodologies.
single issue. One advantage of this study is its  Case studies cannot always be replicated.
capacity to affect many factors to work out the
unique characteristics of the entity (Meng,
2012; Yin, 2016) TYPES OF CASE STUDY
 It is a research methods that allows a
researcher to explore and investigate
complex issues within a specific context DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDIES – used to describe
observing limited numbers of individuals in an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life
a small geographic area (Mendoza and context in which it occurred.
Melegrito, 2017) EXPLORATORY CASE STUDIES – used to
 Case study is an analysis of persons, events, explore those situations in which the intervention
decisions, periods, policies, institutions, or being evaluated has clear, single set of outcomes.
other systems that are studied holistically by
one or more methods; can be descriptive or INTRINSIC CASE STUDIES – the researcher has
explanatory and may be selected for their a personal genuine interest in the case.
uniqueness and not generally for
INSTRUMENTAL CASE STUDIES – used to
representativeness. It examines a
accomplish something other than
phenomenon within its real-life context,
understanding a particular situation. It provides
over an extended period, by doing several in-
insight into an issue or helps to refine a theory.
depth interviews and employing multiple data
sources. It is time-consuming and may be quite EXPLANATORY CASE STUDIES – used if you
costly. were seeking to answer a question that sought to
 Stake (1995) and Yin (2003) provided the explain the presumed causal links in real-life
foundation of case study as a constructivist interventions that are too complex for the survey or
approach depends on someone’s experimental strategies.
perspectives, making truth as relative.
COLLECTIVE CASE STUDIES – enables the
researcher to explore differences within and
SOURCES/ METHODS USED IN CASE STUDY between cases. The goal is to replicate findings
across cases. Because the comparisons will be
o Observation drawn, the researcher can predict similar results
o Interview across cases, or predict contrasting results
o Oral recording based on a theory.
o Documents

NOTABLE CASE STUDIES

STRENGTHS OF CASE STUDY
 GENIE WILEY – horrific abuse and isolation.
 Ability to explore and describe, in depth, an  PHINEAS GAGE – railroad accident.
issue or event.  ANNA O. – symptoms of hysteria; talk therapy
 Give researchers the chance to collect
information on rare or unusual cases.
 Develop an understanding of health, illness and HOW TO WRITE A CASE STUDY
health care in context.
 Single case can be used to develop or disprove
a theory.
PROSPECTIVE CASE STUDY – methods are those RELATIONAL ANALYSIS – the analysis involves
in which an individual or group is observed in order exploring the relationships between concepts.
to determine outcomes. Individual concepts are viewed as having no
inherent meaning and rather the meaning is a
RETROSPECTIVE CASE STUDY – methods
product of the relationships among concepts.
involve looking at historical information.

USES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

WHEN TO USE THE CASE STUDY DESIGN
 Identify the intentions, focus or communication
 The focus of the study is to answer “how” and trends of an individual, group or institution.
“why” questions.  Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to
 You cannot manipulate the behavior of those communications.
involved in the study.  Determine the psychological or emotional state
 You want to cover contextual conditions of persons or groups.
because you believe they are relevant to the  Reveal international differences and in
phenomenon under study. communication content.

ADVANTAGES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

CONTENT ANALYSIS
 Looks directly at communication via texts/
- A research method that provides a systematic transcripts, and hence gets at the central aspect
and objective means to make valid inferences of social interaction.
from verbal, visual, or written data in order to  Allows for both qualitative and quantitative
describe and quantify specific phenomena. analysis.
 Provides valuable historical and cultural insights
over time.
STEPS INVOLVED IN CONTENT ANALYSIS  Allows a closeness to data.
1. Read through or examine the data, becoming  Is an unobtrusive means of analyzing
familiar with it. interactions (Unobtrusive method is the
2. Identify coding units. collective term for ways of gathering data without
3. The data is analyzed by applying the coding intruding into the lives of the people being
units. studied.)
4. Summarize the data in a frequency table.  Provides insight into complex models of human
Include a tally of the number of times that a thought and language use.
coding unit appears.
CODE – label used to identify connections between DISADVANTAGES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
meaning units.
 Can be extremely time-consuming
CATEGORY – groups of related codes  Is subject to increased error, particularly when
relational analysis is used to attain a higher level
of interpretation
TYPES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS  Often attempting too liberally to draw meaningful
inferences about the relationships and impacts
implied in a study
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS – a concept is chosen
 Inherently reductive, particularly when dealing
for examination and the analysis involves
with complex texts
quantifying and counting its presence. It
 Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
examines the occurrence of selected terms in the
data.  Often disregards the context that produced the
text, as well as the state of things after the text is
produced
 Can be difficult to automate or computerize
o To analyze the text using content analysis, the STEPS, PROCEDURES, AND CONSIDERATIONS
text must be coded, or broken down, into IN USING GROUNDED THEORY
manageable code categories for analysis.
1. Identifying your problem
o Content analysis allows a closeness to data.
2. Approach to the source of the problem
o Using content analysis is a technique that allows
3. The research problem
us to study human behavior indirectly through
4. Participants
analyzing communications.
o Researchers use content analysis to find out 5. Role of the researcher
6. Primary method
about the purposed, messages, and effects
of communication content. They can also
make inferences about the producers and
audience of the text they analyze.
ETHNOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH
Ethnographic study is …

GROUNDED THEORY a) Observation and taking note of language in the

community, exposure of the researcher, the
- A method where a theory emerges from data ideology of the community, and cultural sharing
collected rather than taken from related literature is a must.
(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001). b) The researchers observe and interact with the
- A method that puts emphasis on the perceptions study participants in a real-life environment.
of the researchers in the research process c) The interests of the ethnographer are the
(Bryant, 2002). shared patterns created by behavior, language,
- A method of research where the researcher and beliefs.
attempts to derive a general, abstract theory of
process, action or interaction grounded in the
views of participants in a study (Cresswell, ADVANTAGES OF ETHNOGRAPHICAL
2003). RESEARCH
- A research methodology which operates
inductively (describe reasoning that involves  Ethnography can help identify and analyze
using specific observations; observed patterns.) unexpected issues.
 Ethnographic researcher’s in-situ presence
helps mitigate the risk because issues will
THEORY (hopefully) become directly apparent to the
researcher.
- Experience
- Actions and processes  Ability to deliver a detailed and faithful
- Interaction representation of users’ behaviors and
attitudes.
 It can be instrumental in uncovering and
analyzing relevant user attitudes and emotions.
WHENS AND HOWS OF GROUNDED THEORY
STUDY
If the researcher would like … DISADVANTAGES OF ETHNOGRAPHICAL
RESEARCH
o To create a novel discovery
o To explain experience, process, and action from  Will take longer to generate and analyze its data
a micro perspective up to its possibility of than other methods.
repetition if they happen in another setting  Participants may not act naturally during a short
o If current theories are found inadequate (or non- study. More extended studies normally counter-
existent) in constructing meaning of the act this because the subjects grow to trust the
experience or phenomenon under study. researcher and/or get tired of any pretense.
TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

REALIST ETHNOGRAPHY

 Focuses on the individual under study.

 Narration is in the third person’s point of view.
 Presents the data objectively utilizing the
information collected onsite.
 The researcher-participant boundary is very well
observed.
 There is no exposition of the researcher’s
biases, political ideologies, and prejudices.

CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY

 Focuses on the emancipation of the

marginalized group in society.
 It serves both method and output showing
equality among the barriers created by the old
society and social caste.
 Abides by the goal of being “the voice” of the
oppressed and the weak whose place in the
society is considered “in the periphery.”

STEPS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

1. Determine the feasibility of having ethnographic
work.
2. Identification of the location of the study.
3. Revie and find evidence of critical sociological
principles in the community.

CHALLENGES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

 It may be expensive.
 Open for biases since the prolonged exposure of
the researcher in the field may develop an
attachment between the researcher and the local
folks.
 May become an exposition of narratives rather
than a presentation of “cultural and societal
patterns.”

STEPS IN ETHNOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH

1. EXPLORE
2. GATHER AND NARROW DOWN
3. GROUP
4. REVISIT
5. WRITE
6. SYNTHESIS