Social Psychology Short notes

➢ What is Social Psychology?

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are
influenced by the presence of others. It examines how people interact with each other, how they
form and maintain relationships, how they perceive and interpret social situations, and how they
are affected by social norms and group dynamics. Social psychologists use a variety of research
methods, including experiments, surveys, and observations, to understand the complex ways in
which social factors shape human behavior.

➢ What are the factors that affect Social Psychology?

There are many factors that can affect social behavior, including:
1. Social norms: These are the unwritten rules that govern behavior in a particular social
group or culture. People tend to conform to these norms in order to fit in and be accepted.
2. Social roles: These are the positions that people occupy in a particular social group or
culture. People tend to behave in ways that are consistent with their roles.
3. Social identity: This refers to the way that people see themselves in relation to others.
People tend to behave in ways that are consistent with their social identity.
4. Attitudes and beliefs: These are the opinions and values that people hold about
themselves, others, and the world around them. People tend to behave in ways that are
consistent with their attitudes and beliefs.
5. Personal characteristics: These include factors such as personality traits, intelligence,
and emotional intelligence. These factors can influence how people behave in social
situations.
6. Environmental factors: These include factors such as the physical environment, the
presence of other people, and the social context. These factors can influence how people
behave in social situations.
7. Cultural factors: These include factors such as cultural values, beliefs, and practices.
These factors can influence how people behave in social situations.

➢ What is the role of Social Psychology in other disciplines?

Social psychology is a field of study that is closely related to several other disciplines,
including:
1. Sociology: Sociology is the study of human society and social behavior. It examines the
ways in which social structures, institutions, and culture shape human behavior.
2. Anthropology: Anthropology is the study of human culture and society. It examines the
ways in which culture and social structures shape human behavior.
 3. Psychology: Psychology is the study of human behavior and mental processes. It
examines the ways in which individual factors, such as personality and cognition, shape
human behavior.
4. Communication Studies: Communication studies is the study of how people
communicate with each other. It examines the ways in which communication affects
social behavior.
5. Political Science: Political science is the study of government and politics. It examines
the ways in which political structures and institutions shape human behavior.
6. Economics: Economics is the study of how people allocate resources. It examines the
ways in which economic structures and institutions shape human behavior.
Overall, social psychology is an interdisciplinary field that draws on insights from a wide range
of disciplines to understand the complex ways in which social factors shape human behavior

➢ What is the historical development of Social Psychology?

In the early 20th century, social psychology began to emerge as a distinct field of study. One of
the key figures in the development of social psychology was Kurt Lewin, who is often referred to
as the "father of modern social psychology." Lewin's work focused on the ways in which social
factors, such as group dynamics and social norms, influence human behavior.
During the mid-20th century, social psychology continued to grow and expand, with researchers
exploring a wide range of topics, including social influence, prejudice, and interpersonal
relationships. Some of the key figures in this period included Solomon Asch, who conducted
influential studies on conformity, and Muzafer Sherif, who studied the ways in which group
dynamics can influence individual behavior.
In the latter half of the 20th century, social psychology continued to evolve, with researchers
exploring new topics and using new methods to study social behavior. Today, social psychology
is a vibrant and diverse field that encompasses a wide range of topics, including social cognition,
social neuroscience, and cross-cultural psychology.

➢ Theories of Social Psychology.

1. Socio-cultural perspective:
The socio-cultural perspective is a theoretical approach in social psychology that emphasizes the
role of culture and social context in shaping human behavior and mental processes. This
perspective suggests that people's behavior and mental processes are influenced by the cultural
and social norms, values, and beliefs that are present in their environment.
The socio-cultural perspective emphasizes the importance of studying social behavior in its
cultural and historical context. It suggests that people's behavior and mental processes cannot be
fully understood without taking into account the cultural and social factors that shape them.
Some of the key concepts associated with the socio-cultural perspective include:
 • Cultural norms and values: These refer to the shared beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors
that are characteristic of a particular culture or society. Cultural norms and values
influence people's behavior and mental processes by providing a framework for
understanding and interpreting social information.
• Socialization: This refers to the process by which people learn the norms, values, and
beliefs of their culture or society. Socialization occurs through a variety of channels,
including family, peers, and media.
• Acculturation: This refers to the process by which people adapt to a new culture or
society. Acculturation can be a challenging process, as people must learn new norms,
values, and behaviors while also maintaining their own cultural identity.
• Cross-cultural psychology: This is a subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of
cultural differences and similarities in human behavior and mental processes. Cross-
cultural psychology emphasizes the importance of studying social behavior in a variety of
cultural contexts in order to gain a more complete understanding of human behavior.
Overall, the socio-cultural perspective emphasizes the importance of studying social behavior in
its cultural and historical context. It suggests that people's behavior and mental processes are
shaped by the cultural and social norms, values, and beliefs that are present in their environment,
and that these factors must be taken into account in order to fully understand human behavior.
2. Social Learning Perspective:
The social learning perspective is a theoretical approach in social psychology that emphasizes
the role of observation and modeling in shaping human behavior. This perspective suggests that
people learn new behaviors and attitudes by observing the behavior of others and the
consequences of that behavior.
The social learning perspective is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura, who
proposed that people learn through a process of observation, imitation, and reinforcement.
According to Bandura, people are more likely to imitate the behavior of others if they perceive
that the behavior is rewarded or leads to positive outcomes.
Some of the key concepts associated with the social learning perspective include:
• Observational learning: This refers to the process of learning by observing the behavior
of others. Observational learning can occur through direct observation or through media
such as television or the internet.
• Modeling: This refers to the process of imitating the behavior of others. Modeling can be
a powerful tool for learning new behaviors and attitudes, as people are more likely to
imitate the behavior of others who are perceived as successful or influential.
• Reinforcement: This refers to the process of rewarding or punishing behavior in order to
increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future.
Reinforcement can be positive (rewarding desirable behavior) or negative (punishing
undesirable behavior).
 • Self-efficacy: This refers to people's beliefs about their ability to perform a particular
behavior or achieve a particular goal. Self-efficacy is influenced by a variety of factors,
including past experiences, social support, and feedback from others.
Overall, the social learning perspective emphasizes the importance of observation and modeling
in shaping human behavior. It suggests that people learn new behaviors and attitudes by
observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior, and that reinforcement
plays a key role in shaping the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future.
3. Social cognitive perspective:
The social-cognitive perspective is a theoretical approach in social psychology that emphasizes
the role of cognitive processes in shaping human behavior. This perspective suggests that
people's behavior is influenced by their thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes, as well as by the social
and environmental factors that surround them.
The social-cognitive perspective is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura, who
proposed that people's behavior is shaped by a combination of environmental, personal, and
behavioral factors. According to Bandura, people's behavior is influenced by their cognitive
processes, including their beliefs, expectations, and self-efficacy.
Some of the key concepts associated with the social-cognitive perspective include:
• Self-efficacy: This refers to people's beliefs about their ability to perform a particular
behavior or achieve a particular goal. Self-efficacy is influenced by a variety of factors,
including past experiences, social support, and feedback from others.
• Observational learning: This refers to the process of learning by observing the behavior
of others. Observational learning can occur through direct observation or through media
such as television or the internet.
• Cognitive schemas: These are mental frameworks that people use to organize and
interpret social information. Cognitive schemas can influence people's perceptions,
attitudes, and behavior.
• Attribution: This refers to the process of assigning causes to behavior. People's
attributions can influence their attitudes and behavior towards others.
Overall, the social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes in
shaping human behavior. It suggests that people's behavior is influenced by their thoughts,
beliefs, and attitudes, as well as by the social and environmental factors that surround them. By
understanding these cognitive processes, social psychologists can gain insights into the ways in
which people interact with each other and the world around them, and develop interventions to
promote positive social behavior.
4. The phenomenological perspective:
The phenomenological perspective is a theoretical approach in social psychology that
emphasizes the subjective experience of individuals and the importance of understanding
how people interpret and make sense of their social world. This perspective suggests that
 people's behavior is influenced by their subjective experiences, perceptions, and
interpretations of the world around them.
The phenomenological perspective is based on the work of philosopher Edmund Husserl,
who proposed that people's experiences of the world are shaped by their subjective
perceptions and interpretations. According to Husserl, people's experiences are not objective
facts, but rather subjective interpretations of the world around them.
Some of the key concepts associated with the phenomenological perspective include:
• Subjective experience: This refers to people's personal and subjective experiences of the
world around them. Subjective experience is influenced by a variety of factors, including
past experiences, cultural background, and personal beliefs.
• Phenomenological reduction: This refers to the process of bracketing or setting aside
one's preconceptions and biases in order to focus on the subjective experience of the
individual.
• Intersubjectivity: This refers to the shared understanding that people have of the world
around them. Intersubjectivity is influenced by social and cultural factors, as well as by
individual experiences and interpretations.
• Existentialism: This is a philosophical movement that emphasizes the importance of
individual freedom and choice in shaping human behavior. Existentialism emphasizes the
subjective experience of the individual and the importance of personal responsibility and
choice.
Overall, the phenomenological perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding people's
subjective experiences and interpretations of the world around them. It suggests that people's
behavior is influenced by their personal experiences and perceptions, and that these factors must
be taken into account in order to fully understand human behavior.
5. The evolutionary perspective:
The evolutionary perspective is a theoretical approach in social psychology that emphasizes the
role of evolution in shaping human behavior and mental processes. This perspective suggests that
many aspects of human behavior and mental processes are the result of adaptations that evolved
over time in response to environmental pressures.
The evolutionary perspective is based on the work of Charles Darwin, who proposed that species
evolve over time through a process of natural selection. According to Darwin, organisms that are
better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their
advantageous traits to future generations.
Some of the key concepts associated with the evolutionary perspective include:
• Adaptation: This refers to the process by which organisms evolve traits that are better
suited to their environment. Adaptation can occur through natural selection, genetic drift,
or other mechanisms.
 • Sexual selection: This refers to the process by which certain traits become more common
in a population because they are preferred by members of the opposite sex. Sexual
selection can lead to the evolution of traits that are not necessarily adaptive in a survival
sense, but are attractive to potential mates.
• Parental investment: This refers to the resources and effort that parents invest in their
offspring. Parental investment can influence the evolution of traits that are beneficial to
offspring survival and reproduction.
• Environment of evolutionary adaptedness: This refers to the environment in which a
species evolved and adapted to over time. The environment of evolutionary adaptedness
can influence the evolution of traits that are adaptive in that environment.
Overall, the evolutionary perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding the role of
evolution in shaping human behavior and mental processes. It suggests that many aspects of
human behavior and mental processes are the result of adaptations that evolved over time in
response to environmental pressures, and that these adaptations can help us understand why
people behave the way they do.

➢ What is Natural selection?

Natural selection is a process by which certain traits or characteristics become more or less
common in a population over time, based on their ability to help individuals survive and
reproduce. It is a key mechanism of evolution, which refers to the gradual change in the genetic
makeup of a population over generations.
The basic idea of natural selection is that individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to
survive and reproduce than those with less advantageous traits. Over time, this leads to an
increase in the frequency of the advantageous traits in the population, as they are passed down
from one generation to the next.
For example, imagine a population of birds with different beak sizes. If the environment in
which they live has a lot of large seeds, birds with larger beaks may be better able to crack open
the seeds and obtain food. Over time, these birds may be more likely to survive and reproduce,
passing on their larger beak size to their offspring. As a result, the average beak size in the
population may gradually increase over time.
Natural selection is a powerful force that can lead to the evolution of new species and the
adaptation of existing species to changing environments. It is a key concept in biology and has
important implications for our understanding of the natural world.

➢ What are the 2 major dominant perspectives of social psychology?

1. Behavioral perspective Theories
a. Social modeling theory: Social modeling theory is a social psychological theory that
explains how people learn new behaviors and attitudes by observing and imitating others.
It suggests that individuals can acquire new behaviors and attitudes by observing the
behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior.
 According to social modeling theory, people are more likely to imitate the behavior of others
who are similar to them, who are perceived as competent or successful, or who are in positions
of authority or power. The theory also suggests that people are more likely to imitate behavior
that is rewarded or reinforced, rather than behavior that is punished or ignored.
Social modeling theory has been applied in various fields, including education, health, and
advertising. For example, in education, teachers can use social modeling to encourage positive
behaviors in students by modeling those behaviors themselves and reinforcing them when
students imitate them. In health, social modeling can be used to encourage healthy behaviors,
such as exercise and healthy eating, by showing others engaging in those behaviors and the
positive outcomes that result.
Overall, social modeling theory helps us understand how people learn new behaviors and
attitudes and how we can use this knowledge to promote positive behaviors and attitudes in
individuals and groups.
b. Equity theory: is a social psychological theory that proposes that people are motivated to
maintain a sense of fairness and equity in their relationships with others. The theory
suggests that people compare their own inputs (such as time, effort, and resources) and
outcomes (such as rewards, benefits, and costs) to those of others in their social group. If
they perceive that their inputs and outcomes are equal to those of others, they feel a sense
of equity and satisfaction. However, if they perceive that their inputs and outcomes are
unequal, they may experience a sense of inequity and dissatisfaction.
According to equity theory, people are motivated to restore a sense of equity when they perceive
that they are being treated unfairly. This may involve changing their own inputs or outcomes,
changing the inputs or outcomes of others, or leaving the relationship altogether.
Equity theory has been applied to a wide range of social situations, including romantic
relationships, friendships, and workplace interactions. It suggests that people are motivated to
maintain a sense of fairness and balance in their relationships, and that they will take action to
restore equity when they perceive that it has been disrupted.
c. Social exchange theory: is a social psychological theory that explains how people make
decisions in relationships based on the costs and benefits of those relationships. It
suggests that people engage in social relationships because they expect to receive more
benefits than costs from those relationships.
According to social exchange theory, people evaluate the costs and benefits of a relationship
based on their own personal standards and expectations. The theory suggests that people are
more likely to stay in a relationship if they perceive that the benefits outweigh the costs, and they
are more likely to leave a relationship if they perceive that the costs outweigh the benefits.
Social exchange theory also suggests that people are motivated by self-interest and seek to
maximize their rewards while minimizing their costs. The theory proposes that people engage in
a process of comparison level, where they compare the costs and benefits of their current
relationship to their expectations and to alternative relationships.
Overall, social exchange theory provides a useful framework for understanding how people
make decisions in relationships and how they evaluate the costs and benefits of those
relationships. It has been applied in various fields, including interpersonal relationships,
organizational behavior, and economics.
d. Role theory: is a social psychological theory that explains how people behave in social
situations based on their roles and the expectations associated with those roles. It suggests
that people's behavior is influenced by the social roles they occupy and the expectations
that others have of them in those roles.
According to role theory, social roles are sets of expectations and behaviors associated with a
particular position in society. These roles can be formal, such as a job title or a social status, or
informal, such as a family role or a group membership. The theory suggests that people learn to
perform their roles through socialization and that they are motivated to conform to the
expectations associated with those roles.
Role theory also suggests that people experience role conflict when they are expected to perform
conflicting roles or when the expectations associated with their roles are unclear or contradictory.
Role strain occurs when the expectations associated with a particular role are too demanding or
when the individual lacks the resources to meet those expectations.
Overall, role theory provides a useful framework for understanding how people behave in social
situations and how their behavior is influenced by the roles they occupy and the expectations
associated with those roles. It has been applied in various fields, including sociology,
organizational behavior, and education.

2. Cognitive perspective theories

➢ What is social cognition?
In social psychology, cognition refers to the mental processes involved in how people perceive,
interpret, and remember information about themselves, others, and the social world. It includes
how people form attitudes, beliefs, and stereotypes, and how they make judgments and decisions
about themselves and others. Social cognition also involves how people process and use social
information to guide their behavior and interactions with others. For example, social cognition
can help explain how people form impressions of others, how they make attributions about the
causes of behavior, and how they use social norms to guide their behavior in different situations.
Social cognition is an important area of study in social psychology because it helps us
understand how people think about and interact with each other in social situations.
a. Social comparison theory: is a social psychological theory that explains how people
evaluate themselves by comparing themselves to others. It suggests that people have a
natural tendency to compare themselves to others in order to evaluate their own abilities,
opinions, and emotions.
According to social comparison theory, people engage in two types of social comparison:
upward comparison and downward comparison. Upward comparison involves comparing oneself
to someone who is perceived as better or more successful, while downward comparison involves
comparing oneself to someone who is perceived as worse or less successful.
Social comparison theory also suggests that people are more likely to engage in social
comparison when they are uncertain about their abilities or opinions, when they are in a new or
unfamiliar situation, or when they are under stress. The theory proposes that social comparison
can have both positive and negative effects on self-esteem and well-being, depending on the
outcome of the comparison.
Overall, social comparison theory provides a useful framework for understanding how people
evaluate themselves and how they use social comparison to manage their self-esteem and well-
being. It has been applied in various fields, including social psychology, health psychology, and
marketing.
b. The theory of cognitive dissonance: is a social psychological theory that was first
proposed by Leon Festinger in 1957. The theory suggests that when people hold two or
more conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values, they experience a state of psychological
discomfort or dissonance. This discomfort motivates them to reduce the dissonance by
changing one of their beliefs, attitudes, or values.
According to the theory, cognitive dissonance arises when people are confronted with
information or experiences that challenge their existing beliefs or attitudes. For example, if
someone believes that smoking is harmful to their health but continues to smoke, they may
experience cognitive dissonance. To reduce this dissonance, they may either quit smoking or
change their belief that smoking is harmful.
The theory of cognitive dissonance has been applied to a wide range of areas, including
persuasion, decision-making, and attitude change. It suggests that people are motivated to
maintain consistency between their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, and that they will
experience discomfort when these are inconsistent. By reducing this discomfort, people can
restore a sense of cognitive harmony and consistency.
Overall, the theory of cognitive dissonance has had a significant impact on the field of social
psychology and has helped to explain many aspects of human behavior and decision-making.
c. Attribution theory: is a social psychological theory that explains how people make
judgments about the causes of behavior. It suggests that people try to understand the
reasons behind other people's behavior by attributing it to either internal or external
factors.
Internal factors refer to personal characteristics such as personality traits, abilities, and attitudes,
while external factors refer to situational factors such as the environment, social norms, and other
external factors.
Attribution theory proposes that people use two types of attribution: dispositional attribution and
situational attribution. Dispositional attribution refers to attributing behavior to internal factors,
while situational attribution refers to attributing behavior to external factors.
Attribution theory also suggests that people make attributions based on three dimensions:
consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. Consensus refers to whether other people would
behave similarly in the same situation, distinctiveness refers to whether the behavior is unique to
the situation or occurs in other situations, and consistency refers to whether the behavior is
consistent over time.
Overall, attribution theory helps us understand how people make judgments about the causes of
behavior and how these judgments can influence their attitudes and behavior towards others.

➢ Ethical Considerations in Social Psychological Research

1. Deception: refers to the act of intentionally misleading or withholding information from
someone. It can take many forms, including lying, concealing information, or providing
false information. Deception can be used for various purposes, such as to protect oneself,
gain an advantage, or manipulate others.
In psychology, deception is often used in research studies to study human behavior. Researchers
may use deception to create a situation that is not entirely truthful to observe how participants
react. However, ethical guidelines require that researchers inform participants of the deception
after the study is complete and ensure that no harm is caused to the participants.
Deception can also occur in everyday life, such as in interpersonal relationships, business
transactions, and politics. It can have negative consequences, such as eroding trust, damaging
relationships, and causing harm to others. Therefore, it is important to be aware of the potential
for deception and to practice honesty and transparency in our interactions with others
2. Informed consent: is a critical ethical principle in social psychology research that
requires researchers to obtain the voluntary and informed agreement of participants
before they participate in a study. Informed consent ensures that participants are fully
aware of the nature of the study, the potential risks and benefits of participation, and their
rights as participants.
In social psychology research, informed consent typically involves providing participants with a
written or verbal explanation of the study, including its purpose, procedures, and potential risks
and benefits. Participants must be given the opportunity to ask questions and have those
questions answered to their satisfaction before they agree to participate.
Informed consent also requires that participants be informed of their right to withdraw from the
study at any time without penalty. Participants must also be assured that their participation is
voluntary and that they will not be coerced or pressured into participating.
Informed consent is a critical ethical principle in social psychology research because it helps to
protect the rights and welfare of participants. By ensuring that participants are fully informed and
have given their voluntary consent to participate, researchers can help to minimize the risk of
harm and ensure that their research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner.
3. Confidentiality: is an ethical principle in social psychology research that requires
researchers to protect the privacy and confidentiality of their participants. Confidentiality
 means that the personal information and data collected from participants must be kept
confidential and not disclosed to anyone who is not authorized to have access to it.
In social psychology research, confidentiality is typically ensured by using procedures such as
coding data, removing identifying information, and storing data in secure locations. Researchers
must also take steps to ensure that the data is only accessible to authorized personnel and that it
is not disclosed to anyone who is not authorized to have access to it.
Confidentiality is a critical ethical principle in social psychology research because it helps to
protect the privacy and dignity of participants. By ensuring that participants' personal
information and data are kept confidential, researchers can help to minimize the risk of harm and
ensure that their research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner.
It is important to note that confidentiality is not an absolute principle, and there may be situations
where researchers are required to disclose information in order to protect the safety and well-
being of participants or others. In such cases, researchers must balance the need for
confidentiality with the need to protect the safety and well-being of those involved.
4. Safety: is to protect participants from both physical psychological and social harm.
5. Debriefing: is a process in social psychology research that involves providing
participants with information about the study after their participation has ended. The
purpose of debriefing is to inform participants about the nature of the study, to address
any concerns or questions they may have, and to ensure that they leave the study feeling
informed and satisfied with their participation.
In social psychology research, debriefing typically involves providing participants with a verbal
or written explanation of the study, including its purpose, procedures, and results. Participants
may also be given the opportunity to ask questions and have those questions answered to their
satisfaction.
Debriefing is a critical ethical principle in social psychology research because it helps to ensure
that participants leave the study feeling informed and satisfied with their participation. By
providing participants with information about the study and addressing any concerns or questions
they may have, researchers can help to minimize the risk of harm and ensure that their research is
conducted in an ethical and responsible manner.
It is important to note that debriefing is not just an ethical obligation, but it can also be an
important part of the research process. Debriefing can provide researchers with valuable
feedback about the study, including participants' reactions to the procedures and their
understanding of the study's purpose and results. This feedback can help researchers to improve
the study design and procedures for future research