PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT AND ETHICAL STANDARDS

Foundations of Ethics and Values

A: Introduction to Ethics, Morality, Values and Virtues

The English word “ethics” derived from an Ancient Greek word ETHIKOS and Latin word ETHICUS,
which means “customary”. Greek word ETHIKOS also means “relating to one’s character”. The Greek
word ETHIKOS is itself derived from another Greek word, ETHOS, meaning “character, disposition”.

*ETHICS

 As a field of study, ethics is a branch of philosophy which studies the principles of right and
wrong in human conduct.
 Ethics is the discipline and practice of applying value to human behavior (as well as to the
constructs of human culture particularly to morality, customs and laws) resulting in
meaningfulness.
 The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word “ethics” is “commonly used
interchangeably with ‘morality’ and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral
principles of a particular tradition, group or individual.”
 The philosophical science that deals with the morality of human conduct or human acts
(Babor, Ethics, 2008)
 It seeks to resolve the questions of how morality by defining concepts such as good and evil,
right from wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.
 Study of human motivation, and ultimately of human rational behavior.
 It answers the question” What do I do/ How should I live?”

Ethics outlines theories of right and wrong, Morality translate these theories into action.
Therefore, morality is nothing else but it is doing of ethics.

Ethics is, in essence, doing the right thing, whatever that may be. The “right thing” is based on those
values’ society holds dear. Ethical principles are premised on the notion that right is always rights
and wrong is always wrong.

Ethical Foundations

“Ethics is concerned with the questions that have no ultimate answers, yet are important to planning
one’s life, justifying one’s activities and deciding what one ought to do.”

Importance of Ethics

 Indispensable knowledge
 Without moral perception, man is only an animal.
 Without morality, man as rational being is a failure.

Ethics is a requirement for human life

 It is our means of deciding a course of action.

  Without it, our actions would be random and aimless.
 There would be no way to work towards a goal because there would be no way to pick
between a limitless number of goals.
 To the degree which rational ethical standard is taken, we are able to correctly organize our
goals and actions to accomplish our most important values.

Moral integrity is the only true measure of what man ought to be. The most successful professional,
is nothing unless he too is morally upright. Thus, philosophers speak of ethics as the “only necessary
knowledge”.

Morality is the foundation of every human society. Without civic morality, communities perish;
without personal morality their survival has no value.

Ethics or Moral Philosophy comprise the branch of philosophy called Axiology.

The word philosophy is derived from two Greek words. The first word, philo, means “love”. The
second word, sophy, “wisdom.”. Literally, then, philosophy means, “love of wisdom”.

Four main branches of Philosophy

1. Metaphysics- considers the physical universe and the nature of ultimate reality. It asks
questions like, what is real? What is the origin of the world? What is beyond the stars?
2. Epistemology- considers how people come to learn what they know. It refers to the nature
and origin of knowledge and truth.
3. Logic- it seeks to organize reasoning. Students of logic learn how to think in structurally
sound manner. Logic has two types: deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning
involves examining general case, deducing a general set of rules or principles, and then
applying these rules to specific case. Inductive reasoning involves taking specific examples
and considering the general principles, rules, or cases that caused them.
4. Axiology- considers the study of principles and values. These values are divided into two
main kinds: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the questioning of morals and personal values.
Aesthetics is the examination of what is beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful. In axiology
education is more than just about knowledge but also quality of life.

*MORALITY- is the quality of human acts by which they are constituted as good, bad, or, indifferent.

Moral Distinctions

“Dictates of Reasons” stands for the norm of morality which is the standard by which actions are
judged as to their merits or demerits.

Classification of Actions According to Norms of Morality/Moral Distinctions:

1. Moral (Good) actions

2. Immoral (Bad) actions
3. Amoral (Indifferent) actions
 Moral actions- are those actions which are in conformity with the norm of morality.
 Immoral actions- are those actions which are not in conformity with the norm of morality.
 Amoral actions- are those actions which stand neutral in relation to the norm of morality. They
are neither good nor bad in themselves. But certain amoral actions may become good or bad
because of the circumstance’s attendant to them.

Bases of Morality

1. Social Norms- unwritten standard of acceptable behavior in society

a. Customs
b. Tradition- the handing down from generation to generation of opinions and practices
c. Culture
2. Laws of Society- written rules of behavior
a. laws created by people to maintain harmony and order
3. Religion- a system of beliefs and practices based on faith and truths revealed to man by God.
4. Conscience- the practical judgment of reason telling us what should be done and should not
be avoided; reflection is one’s character.
Character- refers to the traits of a person shown through thoughts, actions, values and
virtues.

The Modifiers of Human Acts

1. Ignorance- absence of knowledge which a person ought to posses

Classification of Ignorance

a. vincible ignorance can easily be reminded through ordinary diligence and reasonable
efforts
b. invincible ignorance is the type which a person possesses without being aware of it,
or, having awareness of it, lacks the means to rectify it.

“Ignorance of the Law excuses no one”- implies that no one should not act in the state of ignorance
and that no one who has done wrong may not claim ignorance as a defense.

2. Passions- either tendencies towards desirable objects, or tendencies away from undesirable
or harmful things.
Classification of Passions
a. Positive emotions- love, desire, delight, hope, and bravery.
b. Negative emotions- hatred, horror, sadness, despair, fear, and anger.

Passions are psychic responses. As such, they are neither moral or immoral, however, a person is
bound to regulate his/her emotions and submit them to the control of reasons.

3. Fear- disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by an impending danger or

harm to himself/herself or loved ones.

Fear is an instinct for self-preservation. We even fear new experiences or situations such as,
embarking on a long journey, being left alone in a strange place, or being asked to speak before a
group of people.

4. Violence- refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the
purpose of compelling said person to act against his will.
 Bodily torture, maltreatment, isolation, and mutilation are examples of violence against
person.
5. Habits- is a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a
certain manner. They are acquired inclinations towards something to be done. They assume
the role of a second nature, moving one who has them to perform certain acts with relative
ease.
The word “habit-forming” that we use to refer to certain experience shows how easy it is to
for one to acquire habit. It also implies that a habit is not easy to overcome or alter. It
requires a strong-willed person to correct a habit successfully within a limited period of time.

*VALUES is the term given to those ideas, behaviors, and actions that are important to us. Values are
those things worth fighting for and those things worth sacrificing for. They are what we hold most
dear. Our values strongly influence our decision making and helps determine where we place our
emphasis on our personal and professional lives. Values are the basis for our understanding of
ethics.

It comes from the Latin word “valere” which means “to be strong or to be worth”.

There are some values that are essentially universally held by the society. These societal values are
those ideals that are held most dear by culture or group, and these are the values from which we
derive our understanding and expectations of ethics and ethical behavior. Such ideal include:

 Integrity- the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles; moral uprightness.
 Honesty- honesty is when you speak the truth and act truthfully. An honest person does not
do things that are morally wrong.
 Hard work- a great deal of effort or endurance. Working intelligently and vigorously at a
given task to complete it with maximum efficiency.
 Kindness- is defined as the quality of being friendly, generous, and is considerate. Affection,
gentleness, warmth, concern, and care are words that are associated with kindness. While
kindness has connotation of meaning someone is naïve or weak, that is not the case. Being
kind often requires courage and strength.
 Compassion- sympathetic pity and concern for the sufferings or misfortunes of others.
Compassion motivates people to go out of their way to help the physical, mental, or
emotional pains of another and themselves.
 Sympathy- is a shared feeling, usually of sorrow, pity or compassion for another person. You
show concern for another person when you feel sympathy for them.
 Justice- is morally fair and right state of everything. To have justice as a person’s character
trait means that they are just and treat everyone the same, or how they would like to be
treated.
 Bravery- the quality or state of having or showing mental or moral strength to face danger,
fear, or difficulty: courageous behavior or character.

These ideals, these so-called universal values, help us guide us toward ethical behavior and ethical
decision making. They help inform us of what is expected of us and what actions we should take.

Moral Values- a person who knows the difference between right and wrong and chooses right is
moral. A person whose morality is reflected in his willingness to do the right thing even if it is hard or
dangerous is ethical. Ethics are moral values in action.
Are those that directly pertain to the function od intellect and will: those choices, decisions, and
actions, by which a person’s national faculties are involved and perfected.

Characteristics if Moral Values

1. Moral Values are goods having intrinsic qualities of desirability

2. Moral values are universal- they appeal to man as specific individual.
3. Moral values are obligatory- they come as natural duty, because possession of them is
expected as an integral quality to man rational creature directed by natural powers towards
truth and goodness.

*VIRTUE

The ancient Romans used the Latin word virus (derived from vir, their word for man) to refer to all
“excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude. The
French words vertu nad virtue was borrowed from into English.

Is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued
as a foundation of principle and good moral being.

Aristotle describes virtue as a habit, a tendency of character to act in accordance with practical
reason toward worthy ends.

Four Moral Virtues according to scholastic Philosophy

1. Prudence- treats how you handle yourself. It is characterized by “being careful about one’s
decision, not taking undue risk, and not saying or doing things that might later be regretted.”
Prudence’s roots back to Aristotle’s writings on practical wisdom, in which he hails it as a
crucial. Linking virtue.
Described as an intellectual habit (virtue) enabling the person to deliberate properly in order
to choose the virtuous course, the right means of an action in any here and now situation.
2. Justice- treats your interactions with other people. It is the concept of moral rightness based
on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, fairness, or equity, along with the
punishment of the breach of said ethics.
3. Fortitude/courage- treats your aversion. Enables a person to stand firm against and endure
the hardships of life, to restrain fear, or to moderate fear in the face of danger, all done in
accordance with reason.
a. Patience- the ability to be calm in enduring situations
b. Perseverance- the ability to go on despite obstacles
c. Endurance- the ability to last
4. Temperance/moderation- treats your desire. (Sophrosyne) in Greek is defined as
“moderation in action, thought, or feeling; restraint.” It is the habit of moderation in the use
of pleasurable things.
Temperance is generally defined by control over excess, so that it has many classes, such as
abstinence, chastity, modesty, humility, prudence, self-regulation, and forgiveness and
mercy; each of these involves restraining some impulse, such as sexual desire, vanity, or
anger.
 Desires
(Moderation)

Yourself
(Prudence) Virtues Others
(Justice)

Aversions
(Courage)

B. Human Acts and the Acts of Man

Human act is an act which proceeds from the deliberate free will of man. In a wide sense, it means
any sort of activity, internal or external, physical or spiritual, performed by a human being.

Kinds of Human acts

1. Elicited Acts- are those human acts that are complete or adequate cause. They begin and
perfected in the human will itself such as:
a. Wish
b. Intentions
c. Consent
d. Election
e. Use
f. Fruition
2. Commanded Acts- are those which are done in relation to the dictates of reasons. They
begin in the will but are perfected by other faculties under the control of the will.
a. Internal actions- mind
b. External actions- body
c. Combination- mixed

Elements of Human Acts:

1. Knowingly- when the person fully understands what he is doing and has the capability to
appreciate the consequences of his/her actions.
2. Deliberately- when the person did his/her actions intentionally
3. Freely- the person performs his/her acts voluntarily
Classification of Voluntariness:

1. Perfect- fully knows and intend the act

2. Imperfect- without fully realizing the act
3. Conditional- forced by the circumstances
4. Simple- act willfully, either positive or negative
5. Direct- accompanies an act which is primarily intended
6. Indirect- accompanies an act or situation which is the mere result of a directly willed
situation

HUMAN ACTS ACTS OF MAN

Actions performed by a person, knowingly and Actions which happen in a person

freely

Deliberate or intentional actions, or, voluntary Instinctive and are not within the control of the
will

Actions are result of conscious knowledge and Biological and physiological movement such as
are subject to the control of the will. metabolism, respiration, fear, anger, love, and
jealousy.

Voluntariness comes from the Latin word “voluntas”, referring to the Will. Voluntariness is essential
to an act. Without it, an act is a mere act of man.

C. Ethics and Law

Legal history confirms that customary ethics, rather than laws, have been the prime source of social
conformity. For instance:

1. The Code of Hammurabi (1726-1686 BC) did not in essence introduce new rules but merely
reaffirmed prevailing customs,
2. The practice of chivalry, common among English noble men at the time, needed no legal
support, because it was “law unto itself”

It is necessary to clarify the relationship between the areas of ethics and law.

The purpose of ethics is not to undermine law or to replace it, but to complement it by deferring to
the spirit of the law and to rules of equity.

ETHICS LAW

Study of human motivation Concerned with what we do, not what we feel

Study external actions. It explores thoughts and Concerned with the externality of the act.
feelings.
 Requires that man desires that of which is good Requires that we perform the required action
and act in accordance with that desire, regardless of our feelings towards such action.

Addresses all human activities. Applies to behaviors that lawmakers choose to

regulate.

Seeks to change people from the inside Attempt to change people from outside inward.
outward.

Ethical principles are constant, universal and Laws are frequently changing
everlasting.

Solidly based on the reasoning process “Logical instrument” of social control that, for
essential to appropriate discretion. the most part, are not necessarily products of
wisdom.

Prescriptive in nature Basically, reactive in nature

Dependent upon knowledge, rationality and Dependent for their effectiveness upon legal
goodwill procedures and complex rules of evidence.

Morality therefore, has a wider implication than law, because law can either be moral or immoral.
Thus, what is legal is not necessarily moral; but what is moral is worth legalizing.

Ethics is not simply a body of do’s and don’ts in the manner laws are.

Ethics is a personal commitment to uphold what is true and good. Ethics aims to develop “right
disposition and inner spirit” for accepting what is lawful.

D. Rights and Duties

Man is born with rights and duties and having rights is an attribute of a person. That is why we have
Commission on Human Rights that addresses violations of such rights. We insist our rights but ignore
our duties. Duties however are more fundamental than rights.

“The duty to do good and to avoid evil is above all rights”

Definition of Rights

 is defined as the supreme, inherent, and inalienable rights to life, to dignity, and to self-
development. It is concerned with issues in both areas of civil and political rights and
economic, social and cultural rights founded on internationally accepted human rights
obligations.

Kinds of Rights

1. Natural Rights- are God-given rights, acknowledge by everybody to be morally good. They
are unwritten but they prevail as norms of the society.
 2. Constitutional Rights- are those rights which are conferred and protected by the Constitution
and which cannot be modified or taken away by the law-making body. Most of these rights
are found in the Bill of Rights. Since it is the constitution that grants these rights, no
congressional, executive and judicial act can ever take it away.
3. Civil- are those rights which the law will enforce at the instance of private individuals for the
purpose of securing to them the enjoyment of their means of happiness.
4. Political- are those rights which enable us to participate in running the affairs of the
government either directly or indirectly.
5. Economic and Social rights- are those rights which the law confers upon the people to
enable them to achieve social and economic development, thereby ensuring them their
well-being, happiness and financial security.
6. Cultural- are those rights that ensure the well-being of the individual and foster the
preservation, enrichment, and dynamic evolution of national culture based on the principle
of unity in diversity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual expression.

Kinds of Duties

1. Natural duties- are those imposed by natural law such as, the duty to care for our health.
2. Positive duties- are those imposed by human positive law such as the duty to pay the taxes.
3. Affirmative duties- are those which require the performance of a certain act, such as casting
a ballot during elections; applying for a business license.
4. Negative duties- are those which require the omission of a certain act such as not carrying
illegal firearms, or not destroying the property of others.

E. Approaches of Ethics

From the earliest moments of recorded human consciousness, the ethical discipline has exhibited
four fundamental "approaches" These four approaches are often called "ethical decision-making
frameworks:"

1. Utilitarian Ethics (outcome based)- Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right
from wrong by focusing on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism.

2. Deontological Ethics (duty based)- Deontology is an ethical theory that says actions are
good or bad according to a clear set of rules. Its name comes from the Greek word deon,
meaning duty. Actions that align with these rules are ethical, while actions that don’t aren’t. 
3. Virtue Ethics (virtue based) - It defines good actions as ones that display embody virtuous
character traits, like courage, loyalty, or wisdom. A virtue itself is a disposition to act, think
and feel in certain ways. Bad actions display the opposite and are informed by vices, such as
cowardice, treachery, and ignorance.
4. Communitarian Ethics (community based)- is a philosophy that emphasizes the connection
between the individual and the community. Its overriding philosophy is based upon the
belief that a person's social identity and personality are largely molded by community
relationships, with a smaller degree of development being placed on individualism.

Each has a distinctive point of departure as well as distinctive ways of doing the fundamental ethical
task of raising and answering questions of value. It is also important to understand that all four
approaches have both overlaps and common elements.
Some of the "common elements" of all four approaches are the following:

 Impartiality: weighting interests equally

 Rationality: backed by reasons a rational person would accept
 Consistency: standards applied similarly to similar cases
 Reversibility: standards that apply no matter who "makes" the rules

1. The Utilitarian approach is perhaps the most familiar and easiest to understand of all the
four approaches to ethics. Whether we think about it or not, most of us are doing utilitarian
ethics a much of the time, especially those of us in business. The Utilitarians asks a very
important question: "How will my actions affect others?" And they go on to attempt to
"quantify" the impact of their actions based on some "least common denominator," like
happiness, pleasure, or wealth. Therefore, Utilitarians are also called "consequentialists"
because they look to the consequences of their actions to determine whether any particular
act is right or wrong. "The greatest good for the greatest number" is the Utilitarian motto. Of
course, defining "good" has been no easy task, and what some people think of as good
others think of as worthless.

Consequentialism- is an ethical theory that judges an action’s moral correctness by its consequences

2. Enter the Deontological Ethicists. Immanuel Kant is the quintessential deontological (duty
based) ethical theorist. Kant, who lived in 18th Century Prussia (1724-1804), was one of the
most amazing intellects of all time, writing books on astronomy, philosophy, politics and
ethics. He once said, "Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and
awe . . . the starry heavens above and the moral law within." For Kant there were some
verities as eternal as the stars.
"Deontological" simply means the study (or science) of duty. Kant did not believe that
humans could predict "outcomes" (future consequences) with any substantial degree of
certainty. Ethical theory based on a "guess" about future consequences appalled him. What
he did believe was that if we used our unique (unique among the higher animals) facility of
reason, we could determine with certainty our ethical duty, but whether or not doing our
duty would make things better or worse (and for whom), he was agnostic. Duty-based ethics
is enormously important for, though consistently ignored by, at least two kinds of folks:
politicians and business people. It is also the key to understanding better our responsibilities
as members of teams. Teams (like workgroups or political campaign committees) are
narrowly focused on achieving very clearly defined goals: winning the election, successfully
introducing a new product, or winning a sailboat race. Sometimes a coach or a boss will say,
"Look, just do whatever it takes." Ethically, "whatever it takes" means the ends justify the
means. This was Kant's fundamental criticism of the Utilitarians.
For Kant, there were some values (duties) that could never be sacrificed to the "greater
good." "So act", he wrote, "as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of
any other, in every case as an end withal, never as a means only." Fellow team members,
employees, campaign staffs, customers, partners, etc. are always to some extent "means" to
our various goals (ends), but they are also persons. And persons, Kant believed, cannot be
"just used," they must also be respected in their own right whether or not the goal is
achieved. He called this absolute respect for persons a "Categorical Imperative."
 3. For Aristotle, ethics was a key element of human flourishing because it taught people how
to differentiate between virtues and vices. By encouraging examination, more people could
live a life dedicated to developing virtues. But it’s one thing to know what’s right – it’s
another to actually do it. How did Aristotle advise us to live our virtues? By acting as though
we already have them.

Excellence as a habit
Aristotle explained that both virtues and vices are acquired by repetition. If we routinely
overindulge a sweet tooth, we develop a vice, – gluttony. If we repeatedly allow others to
serve themselves dinner before us, we develop a virtue – selflessness.
Virtue ethics suggests treating our character as a lifelong project, one that has the capacity
to truly change who we are. The goal is not to form virtues that mean we act ethically
without thinking, but to form virtues that help us see the world clearly and make better
judgments as a result.

All three of the approaches to ethics described above are principally focused on the individual: the
singular conscience, rationally reflecting on the meaning of duty or responsibility, and in the case of
Virtue Ethics, the ethical athlete practicing and inculcating the capacity to fulfill that duty.

4. Communitarian Ethics has a quite different point of departure, not the individual, but rather
the community (or team, or group, or company, or culture) within which the individual
places him/herself is the critical context of ethical decision-making. The Communitarian asks
the important question, "What are the demands (duties) that the community(ies) of which I
am a part make on me?" The Scottish ethicists W. D. Ross (himself a student of Aristotle)
focused his own ethical writings on the question of, "Where do duties come from?" And his
answer was that they come from relationships. We know our duties toward our fellow
human beings by the nature and quality of our relationships with them. The duty we owe a
colleague in the workplace is different from the duties we owe a spouse, and those duties
different from the duties we owe our country. The Communitarian asks us not simply to look
within to understand how values should be applied to human conduct, but to look out, and
to face up to the duties of being a creature for whom social interactions are definitive. We
define ourselves and our responsibilities by the company we keep.
Communitarians are quite critical today of the attitude of so many in our society who while
adamant about their individual rights are negligent of their social duties. The "me, me, me
generation" has given rise to a new breed of ethicists who insist that from family and
neighborhood to nation and global ecosystem, the communities in which we live require of
us substantial responsibilities. Environmentalists, neighborhood activists, feminists,
globalists are some of the groups loosely identified today with the Communitarian
Movement.