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COMPUTER
COMMUNICATION
AND NETWORKS
 Recommended Books
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 Introduction to Broadband communications

 Gregory B.White Eric A.Fisch Udo W.pooch

 Data Communication and Networking

 Behrouz A. Forouzan

 Cryptography and
Network Security principles and
Practice
 William Stallings
 Content
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 Network ?
 Network selection criteria
 Network components
 Classification of Network
 OSI Model
 OSI Model Layers
 Application layer
 Presentation Layer
 Session Layer
 Transport Layer
 Network Layer
 Data Link layer
 Physical Layer
 Broadband and Digital Networks
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 Network ?
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 Advantages
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Sharing
resources

Easy Sharing
communication information

Networks

Flexible access Sharing files

Increased
storage
 Disadvantages
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o Cost
o Security concern
o Viruses
o Attacks
 Network selection criteria (1/4)
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 A network must be able to meet certain criteria, these are mentioned below:
 Performance
 Reliability
 Security
 Scalability
 Performance: rate of transferring error free data.
 It can be measured in following ways :
 Transit time : It is the time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
 Response time : It is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.
 Other factors to measure performance are :
 Number of users: more users on network, slower the network
 Transmission speed: the speed at which data will be transmitted (bps)
 Media Type: type of communication channel
 Hardware type: capabilities of connected hardware (slow computer)
 Efficiency of software: Network Operating System (NOS)
 Network selection criteria (2/4)
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 Reliability: how often a network is useable.

 It decides the frequency at which network failure take
place.
 More the failures are, less is the network's reliability.
 The reliability of the network is measured by following
factors:
 Frequency of failure - Determines how frequently the network
fails.
 Recovery time - time taken by a device or network to recover
from the failure.
 A network failure can be:
 hardware,
 data carrying medium (link / route breakages)
 Network Operating System.
 Network selection criteria (3/4)
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 Security: prevent resources from unauthorized access

 An important aspect for improving the network
performance.
 It refers to the protection of data from the unauthorized
user or access.
 Security measures:
 Restricted physical access to computers,
 password protection,
 limiting user privileges
 data encryption / decryption
 Anti-Virus monitoring programs to defend against computer
viruses.
 Firewalls can be implemented for detecting and preventing
unauthorized access
 Network selection criteria (4/4)
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 Scalability: ability to improve scale for future

growth
 scalability is the measure of how well a network can
grow to meet increasing performance demands.
 scalability is the ability to incrementally add devices
to an existing network when the overall load of the
network exceeds the network's ability to provide
adequate performance.
 Network components
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 Network Interface Card (NIC) or LAN card

 Network Components
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 Transmission cables
 Network components
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 Wireless transmission
 Network components
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 Switch and router

 Classification of Network
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 Type of network – geographical area
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 LOCAL AREA NETWORK(LAN)
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 LAN is a network which is designed to operate over

a small physical area such as an office, factory or a
group of buildings.
 LAN’s are easy to design and troubleshoot
 Exchange of information and sharing of resources
becomes easy because of LAN.
 In LAN all machines are connected to a single cable.
 Different types of topologies such as star, tree, bus,
ring, etc Can be used
 It is usually a privately owned network.
 WIDE AREA NETWORK(WAN)
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 When network spans over a large distance or when

the computers to be connected to each other are at
widely separated locations a local area network
cannot be used. A wide area network(WAN) is
installed.
 The communication between different users of WAN
is established using leased telephone lines, satellite
links and similar channels.
 It is cheaper and more efficient to use the phone
network for the link.
 Most WAN networks are used to transfer large
blocks of data between its users.
 PERSONAL AREA NETWORK(PAN)
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 A personal area network is a computer network

organized around an individual person.
 It generally consists of a mobile computer, a cell
phone or personal digital assistant. PAN enables
the communication among these devices.
 It can also be used for communication among
personal devices themselves for connecting to a
digital level network and internet.
 The PANs can be constructed using wireless or
cables.
 METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK(MAN)
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 It is in between LAN & WAN technology that

covers the entire city.
 It uses similar technology as LAN.
 It can be a single network such as cable TV
network, or a measure of connecting a
number of LAN’s o a large network so that
resources can be shared LAN to LAN as well as
device to device.
 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN LAN, WAN & MAN
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PARAMETERS LAN WAN MAN

Private or
Ownership of network Private Private or public
public
Geographical area
Small Very large Moderate
covered

Design and maintenance Easy Not easy Not easy

Twisted pair,
PSTN, satellite
Coaxial cables,
Communication medium Twisted pair or optical fibre
optical fibre, cables,
links
wireless

Bandwidth Low High moderate

Data rates(speed) Fastest Slowest Slower

Cost Low Highest High

 Network classification by their functions
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NETWORK

PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK CLIENT / SERVER NETWORK

 Client / server & Peer-to-peer NWs
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 Client / server Vs peer-to-peer
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 Peer-to-peer network
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 In peer to peer network each computer is responsible for

making its own resources available to other computers on the
network.
 Each computer is responsible for setting up and maintaining
its own security for these resources.
 Also each computer is responsible for accessing the required
network resources from peer to peer relationships.
 Peer to peer network is useful for a small network containing
less than 10 computers on a single LAN .
 In peer to peer network each computer can function as both
client and server.
 Peer to peer networks do not have a central control system.
There are no servers in peer networks.
 Peer networks are amplified into home group.
 Advantages & disadvantages of
peer to peer network
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Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Use less expensive  Not very secure

computer hardware  No central point of

 Easy to administer storage or file archiving

 No NOS required  Additional load on
computer because of
 Easy setup & low cost
resource sharing
 Hard to maintain
 Client/server network
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 In client-server network relationships, certain computers act

as server and other act as clients. A server is simply a
computer, that available the network resources and provides
service to other computers when they request it. A client is
the computer running a program that requests the service
from a server.
 Local area network(LAN) is based on client server network
relationship.
 A client-server network is one n which all available network
resources such as files, directories, applications and shared
devices, are centrally managed and hosted and then are
accessed by client.
 Client serve network are defined by the presence of servers on
a network that provide security and administration of the
network.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
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client-server network
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 More secure  requires professional
administration
 Better performance
 More hardware &
 Centralized backup
software intensive
 More reliable  More costly
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 Types of servers
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 Types of servers
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 File server: These servers provide the services for storing,

retrieving and moving the data. A user can read, write,
exchange and manage the files with the help of file servers.
 Printer server: The printer server is used for controlling and
managing printing on the network. It also offers the fax
service to the network users.
 Application server: The expensive software and additional
computing power can be shared by the computers in a
network with he help of application servers.
 Message server: It is used to co-ordinate the interaction
between users, documents and applications. The data can be
used in the for of audio, video, binary, text or graphics.
 Database server: It is a type of application server. It allows
the user to access the centralised database.
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OSIModel
• Stands for Open Systems Interconnection,
was an effort to standardize networking.
• Developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
the early1980's(1884).
• provide a logical framework for how
data communication processes should
interact across networks.
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Network complexities

 Different types of hardware and software

 Different operating systems
 Different types of data to be transferred – text,
images, audio, video, etc
 Data must be transferred without errors
 Many different paths may have to be taken
 Yet computers must communicate with each other in
a network
 Data formats and data exchange conventions vary
between manufacturers
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 E.g., ASCII, EBCDIC, etc.
 Why do wee need OSI model?
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 Over the past couple of decades many of the networks that were built used
proprietary protocols that were meant to work only with their software and
hardware, as a result they were incompatible and it became difficult for
networks using different specifications to communicate with each other.
 This caused many vendors to support multiple types of hardware and
software which was complicated, expensive and wasteful.
 To address the problem of networks being incompatible and unable to
communicate with each other, ISO researched various network schemes.
 The ISO recognised there was a need to create a NETWORK MODEL that
would help vendors create interoperable network implementations so
different vendor networks could work (communicate) with each other.
 “Open System” means it was intended to be used by all vendors.
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) Model
 The OSI model describes how data flows from one
computer, through a network to another computer
 The OSI model divides the tasks involved with moving
information between networked computers into 7 smaller,
more manageable sub-task, called layers .
 Each layer has a specific function
 The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of
networking into layers reduces complexity.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in
the protocol specification.
 Each layer communicates with the same layer’s
software or hardware on other computers.
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 OSI Model Layers
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The layers of the OSI model are divided into two groups: the upper layer and lower
layer.
 WORKS OF DIFFERENT LAYERS
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 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and

physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the
flow of data from end to end through the network.
 network engineers are more concerned with the lower layers.
 The upper three layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are
orientated more toward services to the applications.
 how files are represented on the computers prior to transport.
 Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol
information as it moves down the layers before network
transit.
 Data Encapsulation
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43
 Summary . . .
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 The OSI isn’t a not a protocol, hardware, software or

physical model. Rather, it’s a set of guidelines that
application developers can use to create and implement
applications that run on a network.
 It also provides a framework for creating and
implementing networking standards, devices, and
internetworking schemes.
 It provided vendors with a set of standards that ensured
greater compatibility and interoperability between the
various types of network technologies produced by
companies around the world.
 The OSI model is considered the best tool / major advance
available for teaching people about data networks their
concepts.
OSI Model - Memorize

All Please
Application
People Presentation Do

Seem Session Not

To Transport Tell

Need Network Secret

Data Data Link Passwords

Processing Physical Anytime

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 Application Layer
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 The application layer is closest to the end user.

 Provides a means/interface for the user to access information/interact with
the network through an application.
 Application layer functions typically include identifying communication
partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing
communication.
 identifying communication partners: the application layer determines the
identity and availability of communication partners with data to transmit.
 determining resource availability: the application layer must decide whether
sufficient network resources for the requested communication exist.
 synchronizing communication: all communication between applications requires
cooperation that is managed by the application layer.
 Prime examples are file transfer, e-mail, web browsers, Bit torrnet, remote
access, network management activities and client/server processes.
 Protocols: FTP, TELNET, HTTP/HTTPS, SMTP, POP3, SNMP, DNS, DHCP, etc
 Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is concerned with the presentation
of data.
 These functions ensure that information sent from the
application layer of one system would be readable by the
application layer of another system.
 Responsibilities of presentation layer are: data translation
and conversion, data compression and data encryption.
 Translation
 Convert data into a common format before transmitting (ASCII or EBCDIC).
 Compression – reduce number of bits to be transmitted
 Encryption – transform data into an unintelligible format at the
sending end for data security
 Decryption – at the receiving end

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 Session Layer
 Responsible for setting up, managing, and then tearing down sessions
 Also responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
 Dialog Control: allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
 It allows the communication between two processes to take place in
either half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a
time) mode.
 Synchronization: allows a process to add checkpoints (synchronization
points) into a stream of data.
 Example: If a system is sending a file of 800 pages, add checkpoints after
every 50 pages is recommended.
 This ensures that 50 page unit is successfully received and acknowledged.
 This is beneficial at the time of crash as if a crash happens at page
number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1 to100 pages.

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 Transport Layer
 Responsible for host-to-host delivery of entire message.
 ensures whole message arrives intact and in order, ensuring both error
control and flow control.
 breaks the message (data) into small units, called segments, so that they
are handled more efficiently by the upper layers.
 Flow control : prevents a sending host on one side of the connection from
overflowing the buffers in the receiving host—an event that can result in
lost data.
 Data flow is maintained in order to avoid congestion, overloading, and data loss.
 Segmentation and reassembly:
 A message is divided into segments, the segments delivered are acknowledged back
to the sender upon their reception. Any segments not acknowledged are
retransmitted.
 Each segment contains a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport
layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and
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to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
 Transport Layer
 Responsible for host-to-host delivery of entire message.
 Connection Control : It includes 2 types,
 Connectionless Transport Layer : Each segment is considered as an independent
packet and delivered to the transport layer at the destination machine.
 Connection Oriented Transport Layer : Before delivering packets, connection is
made with transport layer at the destination machine.
 Error control: The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire
message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage,
loss, or duplication).
 Service Point Addressing : Transport Layer header includes service point
address which is port address.
 Computers often run several programs at the same time (FTP, HTTP, etc).
 The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport
layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
 Transport layer protocols: TCP, UDP and SCTP 50
 Network Layer
 The Network layer manages device addressing, tracks the location of
devices on the network, and determines the best way to move data,
which means that the Network layer must transport traffic between
devices that aren’t locally attached.
 Routers (layer 3 devices) are specified at the Network layer and provide
the routing services within an internetwork.
 Routing: If a message is being sent between devices that are not on the
same network, then it must be passed between directly-connected
networks until it reaches its final destination.

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 Network Layer
 Datagram Encapsulation:
 The network layer normally encapsulates messages received from higher layers by
placing network layer header into datagrams , called packets.
 Logical Addressing: Every device that communicates over a network has
associated with it a logical address.
 For example, on the Internet, the Internet Protocol (IP) is the network
layer protocol and every machine has an IP address. IP is the backbone of
the Internet.
 Network layer protocols offer connectionless services for delivering packets
across the network.
 For example, in TCP/IP, the Internet Protocol (IP) is connectionless, while
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is connection-oriented.
 Two types of packets are used at the Network layer: data and route
updates.
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 Network Layer
 Data packets: Used to transport user data through the internetwork.
Protocols used to support data traffic are called routed protocols;
examples of routed protocols are IP and IPX.
 Route update packets: Used to update neighboring routers about the
networks connected to all routers within the internetwork. Protocols that
send route update packets are called routing protocols; examples of some
common ones are RIP, EIGRP, and OSPF. Route update packets are used
to help build and maintain routing tables on each router.
 Network layer protocols: IPv4/IPv6, IPX, ICMP, IPSec, RIP, IGRP, EIGRP,
BGP, OSPF etc
 Network Layer device: Router

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 Data Link Layer
 The data link layer, also sometimes just called the link layer, is where
many wired and wireless local area networking (LAN) technologies
primarily function.
 For example, Ethernet, and IEEE 802.11 (“wireless Ethernet” or “Wi-Fi’) are
all sometimes called “data link layer technologies”.
 The data link layer is concerned with local delivery of ”frames” between
devices on the same LAN.
 Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
 Physical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data
link layer handles the addressing problem locally.
 Each device on a network has a unique number, usually called a hardware
address or MAC address, that is used by the data link layer protocol to ensure that
data intended for a specific machine gets to it properly.
 Flow control. The data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism
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avoid overwhelming the receiver.
 Data Link Layer
 Error Detection and Handling: The data link layer handles errors that
occur at the lower levels. For example, a cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
field is often employed to allow the station receiving data to detect if it
was received correctly.
 Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link,
data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.
 The data link layer is often conceptually divided into two
sublayers: logical link control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC). This
split is based on the architecture used in the IEEE 802 Project.
 Logical Link Control (LLC): Logical link control refers to the functions
required for the establishment and control of logical links between local
devices on a network.

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 Data Link Layer
 Media Access Control (MAC): This refers to the procedures used by devices
to control access to the network medium.
 Since many networks use a shared medium (such as a single network
cable, or a series of cables that are electrically connected into a single
virtual medium) it is necessary to have rules for managing the medium to
avoid conflicts.
 For example. Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD method of media access control,
while wireless technologies uses CSMA/CA method for media access.
 Data Link layer device: Switch
 Data Link layer protocols: Ethernet (LAN), Frame relay, HDLC, IEEE 802.11
wireless LAN, LLDP, Spanning Tree Protocol, OpenFlow, etc

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 Physical Layer
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 The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the

transmission medium and commonly abbreviated as “PHY”.
 It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between end systems.
 This may for example be electrical signals, optical signals
(optical fiber, laser), electromagnetic waves (wireless networks)
or sound.
 Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes,
physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical
connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical
layer specifications.
 Physical Layer
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 The sharing of a transmission medium can be carried out on this layer by

multiplexing.
 Definition of Hardware Specifications: The details of operation of cables,
connectors, wireless radio transceivers, network interface cards and other
hardware devices are generally a function of the physical layer.
 Encoding and Signaling: The physical layer is responsible for various encoding
and signaling functions that transform the data from bits that reside within a
computer or other device into signals that can be sent over the network.
 Data Transmission and Reception: After encoding the data appropriately, the
physical layer actually transmits the data, and of course, receives it.
 Topology and Physical Network Design: The physical layer is also considered the
domain of many hardware-related network design issues, such as LAN and
WAN topology.
 Devices and network components that are associated with the physical layer, for
example, the antenna and the amplifier, plug and socket for the network cable,
the repeater, the transceiver, the T-bar
 other Examples :- EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.