Name: ______________________________ Class:

___________

Year 8 Topic 3a: Chemistry on Earth

(Chemistry Mastery)
This topic builds upon…
Key ideas you will have looked at in primary school:
 Properties and changes of materials □ The Earth
 Patterns and predictions □ Living things
Knowledge gained in earlier topics such as:
 Structure of an atom □ Word and symbol equations
 Respiration and photosynthesis □ Acids and bases
 Energy resources for electricity □ Greenhouse gases

This topic…
This topic brings together many strands of chemical reactions around us and helps
you to see how they all have similarities. It starts by going back over the
fundamentals of chemistry supporting you in remembering the structure of atoms,
compounds and balanced symbol equations.
The topic then looks at some common chemistry found in living things before
looking in more detail at fuels we use to generate electrical current.
Next, you will consider how some elements are more reactive than others, how the
Periodic Table can show this and how we might use this knowledge in our lives.
Finally, the topic gives you the chance to see how and why the atmosphere of the
Earth has changed over billions of years. It also looks at how recent actions by
humans might be changing our atmosphere even more.
Throughout the topic, scientific investigation skills will be taught, used and practiced
to support your understanding of the concepts in greater depth and help you ask and
answer important questions.

Tier 2 vocabulary Tier 3 vocabulary

 Biofuels  Atmosphere  Reactivity  Bioenergetics
 Stomach  Digestion  Displacement  Neutralisation
 Balanced  Indigestion  Renewable  Hydrocarbon
 Sustainability  Reaction  Respiration  Ore
 Extract  Greenhouse effect  Combustion  Fermentation

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Contents
Contents..............................................................................................................................................................2
Multichoice questions. Can be found at https://bit.ly/3iHyrsS...................................................................3
The fundamentals of chemical reactions............................................................................................................4
Elements and compounds; atoms and molecules............................................................................................4
Word equations and symbol equations...........................................................................................................6
How to name most simple chemicals made from two elements.................................................................6
Atoms need stable electron shells (2,8,8).......................................................................................................7
Symbol equations and mass..........................................................................................................................10
How to balance an equation......................................................................................................................13
‘Bioenergetics [‘bio’ living + ‘energetics’ energy transfers]..........................................................................16
Photosynthesis [‘photo’ light + ‘synthesis’ puts together]..........................................................................16
Respiration....................................................................................................................................................17
Aerobic Respiration..................................................................................................................................18
Anaerobic respiration................................................................................................................................18
Neutralisation in the stomach...........................................................................................................................20
Fuels for power.................................................................................................................................................23
Types of fuels as power sources...................................................................................................................24
Fossil fuels................................................................................................................................................24
Biofuels.....................................................................................................................................................26
How we gain agreement that an idea is correct in science...............................................................................30
Reactivity..........................................................................................................................................................31
Reactivity and displacement series of metals...............................................................................................33
Finding reactive and unreactive substances..................................................................................................37
Other uses of displacement reactions...........................................................................................................38
Using displacement reactions to relieve acid indigestion.........................................................................38
Using displacement reactions to weld metals...........................................................................................39
Other materials: Polymer, ceramics and laminates.........................................................................................39
Chemistry of the atmosphere............................................................................................................................40
Earth’s early atmosphere..............................................................................................................................40
Earth’s present atmosphere...........................................................................................................................41
Where did all the carbon go?....................................................................................................................42
Carbon cycle.............................................................................................................................................43
Greenhouse effect.....................................................................................................................................44
Sustainability....................................................................................................................................................46
Knowledge Organiser Questions......................................................................................................................47

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Multichoice questions. Can be found at https://bit.ly/3iHyrsS
1. The mass of the products must equal the mass of the reactants is known as the Law of Conservation of…
a) Particles b) Atoms c) Molecules d) Products e) Mass
2. The product of the reaction between fluorine and sodium?
a) Sodium b) Sodium c) No reaction d) Fluorine e) Fluorine
fluoride fluorate sodide sodate
3. The last part of the name of many alkalis?
a) Oxide b) Hydroxide c) Carbonate d) Nitrate e) Nitride
4. pH of a strong base?
a) pH 14 b) turns purple c) pH 7 d) turns red e) pH 1
5. One or more different types of element bonded together?
a) Atom b) Compound c) Element d) Molecule e) Product
6. Total mass of a molecule?
a) Relative b) Relative c) Compound d) Molecular e) Atomic
formula mass atomic mass mass weight number
7. Reaction that takes in energy?
a) Exothermic b) Neutralisation c) Combustion d) Respiration e) Photosynthesis
8. Reaction when a hydrocarbon burns?
a) Displacement b) Neutralisation c) Combustion d) Respiration e) Photosynthesis
9. When a more reactive metal takes the place of a less reactive one in a compound?
f) Displacement g) Neutralisation h) Combustion i) Respiration j) Photosynthesis
10. For the element 40
18 Ar what does the number 18 represent?

a) Atomic mass b) Number of c) Number of d) Number of e) Electrons in

protons electrons electron shells outer shell
11. What does the group number of an element in the periodic table tell us?
f) Atomic mass g) Number of h) Number of i) Number of j) Electrons in
protons electrons electron shells outer shell
12. Not one of the processes in the carbon cycle which continuously moves carbon around our ecosystem?
a) Freezing b) Respiration c) Combustion d) Photosynthesis e) Eating
13. The main gas in the atmosphere millions of years ago before life on Earth?
a) Oxygen b) Carbon dioxide c) Methane d) Helium e) Nitrogen
14. The main gas in the air we breathe today?
a) Oxygen b) Carbon dioxide c) Methane d) Helium e) Nitrogen
15. Term used to describe the increasing temperatures on Earth?
a) Ozone layer b) Greenhouse c) Global d) Climate e) Carbon cycle
effect warming change
Reflection
Before the topic End of the topic Score: / 15

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What were you pleased with? What were you pleased with?

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The fundamentals of chemical reactions
Elements and compounds; atoms and molecules
Chemical equations describe chemical reactions where one or more substances, are
changed into one or more different substances. When this happens, atoms rearrange
how they are chemically bonded.

The bonds holding atoms together in molecules are called chemical bonds and they
are strong forces of attraction (caused by electrostatic forces). Remember that forces
are measured in Newtons (N).
Elements have only one type of atom. They are listed in the ‘Periodic Table’ in order
of atomic number (number of protons). Most of the elements are metals. This means
that they have delocalised electrons.
Compounds have more than one type of element chemically bonded. All compounds
are molecules.
Molecules have more than one atom chemically bonded. Elements can be molecules
or individual atoms.

Atomic structure
Chemical reactions involve the electrons in the outer shell of an atom. The periodic
table gives us information on the structure of each type of atom.
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Here is an atom of Boron ( 5B ).

 Atomic mass of 11. So, has 11 nucleons in its nucleus.

 Atomic number of 5. So, 5 nucleons must be protons.
 All atoms are neutrally charged. So, if boron has 5 protons, it must have 5
electrons. Protons have a charge of +1 and electrons have a charge of -1.
 It is in Period 2 (rows ßà) so has 2 electron shells
 It is in Group 3 (columns â) so has 3 electrons in its outer shell

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16. Complete this table looking at the periodic table. The first row has been completed for you.
Element Lithium Fluorine Potassium Sodium Magnesium Carbon
Symbol 7
3 Li

Number of protons 3
Relative atomic mass 7
Group 1
Period 2
Electrons in outer shell 1
Electron shells 2
17. Consider the aerobic respiration reaction which all living things do. Oxygen and glucose are changed
into carbon dioxide and water within the mitochondria of a cell.
a) What are the reactants in respiration?
b) Write a word equation for respiration

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Word equations and symbol equations
Word equations can only contain words. No symbols or formulae are allowed.
Some common chemicals are not known by their chemical name. Such as water
(H2O), hydrochloric acid (HCl), glucose (C6H12O6), table salt (NaCl).

How to name most simple chemicals made from two elements

18. Water and carbon dioxide are made when methane reacts with oxygen.
a) What are the reactants in the reaction above?
b) What are the products in the reaction above?
19. Match the reactants to the correct products. Careful, three of the products do not match any reactants.
Lithium chloride
Oxygen + iron Iron oxygen
Carbon + oxygen Lithium chlorate
Iron oxide
Chlorine + lithium
Nitrogen aluminide
Sulfur + potassium
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen + aluminium Potassium sulfide
Aluminium nitride
20. Do metals or non-metals have delocalised electrons?
21. Complete these word equations
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 a) Copper + sulfur à _____________________________________
b) Iron + nitrogen à _____________________________________
c) Chlorine + carbon à _____________________________________
d) Calcium + fluorine à _____________________________________
e) Nickel + oxygen à _____________________________________

22. Complete the MCQs from Topic 7.1a. Can be found at https://bit.ly/37NywGv.

Atoms need stable electron shells (2,8,8)

All atoms need a full or empty outer shell. We call these full or empty shells stable.

Lithium (73 Li) is in Group 3 and Period 2 of the Periodic Table. This means it has 3
electrons in its outer shell and 2 shells in total. Here is an atom of Lithium.

Rather than drawing the whole atom, we often simplify in one of these ways.

23. Why does the nucleus of an atom always have a +’ve charge?
24. Complete the outer electron shells of the following atoms.

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 a) b) c) d) e)

f) g) h) i) j)

Chemical reactions: atoms getting stable outer shells

Chemical reactions are caused by atoms trying to gain full or empty outer shells.

Nitrogen is in Group 5 so has 5 electrons in its outer shell. The number 5 is closer to
8 than 0 so nitrogen will gain 3 electrons to get a full outer shell.
Aluminium is in Group 3 so has 3 electrons in its outer shell. The number 3 is closer
to 0 than to 8 so an aluminium atom will lose 3 electrons to get an empty shell.

Only three types of chemical bond

There are only three combinations of metals and non-metals possible. This means
there are only three types of bonds that can exist holding these atoms together.
Ionic bonds: Metals + non-metals
Metal gives electrons. Non-metal takes electrons.
Positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions.
Covalent bonds: Non-metals + non-metals
Non-metals share electrons. No ions.
Metallic bonds: Metals + metals
Metals give electrons to each other. Positive metal ions and delocalised electrons.
Points to remember:
 Non-metals tend to be Groups 5-8 so will gain electrons.

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  Metals tend to be in Groups 1 to 3 so will lose electrons.
 Group 4 atoms can behave like metals or non-metals as they will either gain or
lose 4 electrons. Hydrogen (has 1 shell) will either gain or lose an electron.
 Group 0 (also known as Group 8) atoms have full outer shells. This makes them
very unreactive. These non-metals are known as the Noble Gases.

25. Argon (40

18 Ar
) is in Period 3 and Group 0. It has an atomic mass of 40 and an
atomic number of 18. This means it has 18 electrons in total. Draw the
electrons in their shells around argon:
26. Why is argon not reactive?

27. Use a period table to complete the following table for these atoms:
7 19 27 39 88 40 24
3 Li a) 9 F b) 13 Al c) 19 K d) 38 Sr e) 18 Ar f) 12 Mg

Group 1

Electrons in outer
1
shell = Group
Wants to lose or
Lose 1
gain electrons?

28. Do we find metals on the left-hand or right-hand side of the periodic table?
29. Do metals or non-metals have delocalised electrons?
30. Why are protons generally far harder to move than electrons?
31. What do we call the type of chemical bonding involving metals and non-metals?
32. Which electrons in an atom are involved in chemical reactions?

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33. Match the chemical bonds to the correct descriptions
Ionic bonds Metal atoms only Electrons are free to move around

Covalent bonds Non-metal atoms only Electrons move to form ions

Metallic bonds Non-metal and metals bond Electrons are shared

34. Do non-metals lose or gain electrons during a reaction?
35. If an atom gains two electrons, what charge ion does it become?
36. This student has made some mistakes. Identify and correct them
Original with mistakes Corrected

37. Complete the MCQs from Topic 7.1b. Can be found at https://bit.ly/37S7jm8

38. Look at the KO questions on the last two pages of this booklet. Use Practice Look, Read, Cover,
Write, Check individually for 5 minutes. Then work with a partner, testing each other for another 5
minutes. An online version of the questions can be found at https://bit.ly/2OfDnHe.
Symbol equations and mass
Symbol equations are only allowed to contain symbols and formulae of chemicals.
Each element must have only one capital letter at the start.
Subscript numbers (small and low-down) following a chemical tell us how many of that atom
there are in a certain molecule. We do not need to write 1 to show there is only one
atom in something Eg:
 Magnesium oxide, MgO – has 1 magnesium atom and 1 oxygen atom
 Methane, CH4 – has 1 carbon atom and 4 hydrogen atoms
 Glucose, C6H12O6 – has 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms and 6 Oxygen atoms.
Misconception 1: Students often forget to write subscript numbers. The two most
common mistakes are: CO2 or CO2 both of which are incorrect versions of CO2.
Misconception 2: Students sometimes change the subscript numbers when they are
balancing equations. This is not allowed and is incorrect.

39. How many atoms are there in the following chemicals?

a) N2 b) O3 c) CaO d) F2 e) CH4
40. Are there more metal or non-metal elements?
41. How many different types of element are there in each of the following molecules?

a) Hydrochloric acid b) Ethane c) Hydrogen d) Table salt

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 (HCl) (C2H6) (H2) (NaCl)

e) Dihydrogen f) Ammonia g) Sulfuric acid h) Aluminium oxide

monoxide (H2O) (NH3) (H2SO4) (Al2O3)

i) Sodium hydroxide j) Ozone k) Adrenaline l) Glucose

(NaOH) (O3) (C9H13NO3) (C6H12O6)
42. Are there more metals or non-metals in the Periodic Table?
43. How many atoms are there in each of the following molecules?

a) Hydrochloric acid b) Ethane c) Hydrogen d) Table salt

(HCl) (C2H6) (H2) (NaCl)

e) Dihydrogen f) Ammonia g) Sulfuric acid h) Aluminium oxide

monoxide (H2O) (NH3) (H2SO4) (Al2O3)

i) Sodium hydroxide j) Ozone k) Adrenaline l) Glucose

(NaOH) (O3) (C9H13NO3) (C6H12O6)
44. Which of these is the correct symbol for the element cobalt?
Co CO co C c Cob

45. Describe the types of bonds formed when these reactants react together? The first is done for you.

Ionic bonding Covalent bonding Metallic bonding

Carbon + oxygen  carbon dioxide

Copper + zinc  brass

Copper + sulfur  copper sulfate

Sodium + fluorine  sodium fluoride

Oxygen + nitrogen  nitrogen dioxide

46. Label this atom of Beryllium (49Be )with as much information as you can.

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Relative formula mass (Mr)
The periodic table tells us the mass of an atom. It is called the relative atomic mass.
We can use these to calculate the total mass of a molecule. This called the relative
formula mass or Mr.
Here is how we would find the relative formula mass for lithium sulfide (Li2S).
 The Li2S molecule contains 2 lithium atoms and 1 sulfur atom.
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 Lithium (3 Li) has a relative atomic mass of 7
32
 Sulfur (16 S ) has a relative atomic mass of 32

The relative formula mass of Li2S is the mass of all the atoms in it combined.
Relative formula mass (Mr) of Li2S = 7 + 7 + 32
= 46

47. Carbon dioxide (CO2) has an Mr of 44. What does this mean?
48. Use the periodic table to find the relative formula mass of each molecule.
Sulfuric acid a) Ammonia b) Aluminium c) Glucose
(H2SO4) (NH3) oxide (Al2O3) (C6H12O6)
List different H:
elements S:
O:
Number of each H: 2
element S: 1
O: 4
Relative atomic H: 2 X 1
mass of each S: 1 X 32
element from
periodic table O: 4 X 16

Total mass of H: 2 X 1 = 2
each element in S: 1 X 32 = 32
molecule
O: 4 X 16 = 64
Relative formula
mass of molecule
2 + 32 + 64 = 98
= Total mass of
elements
d) Relative formula mass of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)?
e) Relative formula mass of Water (Dihydrogen monoxide) (H2O)?
Conservation of mass and balancing equations
In all chemical reaction atoms rearrange themselves in different ways.
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 Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in something. We measure mass in kg.
Law of conservation of mass: The mass of the products must equal the mass of
the reactants.
When we write symbol equations we need to ensure that both sides have the same
number of atoms of each element. We call his balancing equations.
When we do this, we can never change how a molecule is arranged.
 Never change subscript numbers after an element. E.g. H2O or CO2
 Only change the big number at start of each molecule. E.g.
3H2O - means 3 molecules of H2O. (6 H and 3 O atoms in total)
4H2O – means 4 molecules of H2O. (8 H and 4 O atoms in total)

How to balance an equation

49. What is the law of conservation of mass?

50. The symbol equation for respiration is C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O.If there are 36 atoms in total on
the reactants side of the equation, how many must be on the product side?
51. If 6 atoms of carbon are stored within the products of a photosynthesis reaction, how many must have
been in the reactants?

52. Complete the MCQs from Topic 7.2a. Can be found at https://bit.ly/3fPKEcW.
53. Which of these reactions are balanced? The first is done for you.
Reaction 2H2 + O2 2H2O a)CH4 + O2  H2O b) Mg + O2  c) Li + N2 Li3N
+CO2 MgO

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 Elements? H and O:
H:2x2=
Atoms on H: 2x2=4 4
both sides O: 2 O:2x1=
2
Balanced? Yes
54. Use these atomic masses to calculate the relative formula masses of the chemicals below.
Hydrogen mass = 1; Carbon mass = 12; Oxygen mass = 16; Magnesium mass = 24
a) CO2 b) H2 c) H2O d) CH4 e) MgO f) C2H4
55. Has the student correctly balanced this reaction using the method earlier?

56. This student has made a mistake when balancing an equation. Identify and correct.
Original with mistakes Corrected
Unbalanced: O2 + Ca à CaO
Balanced: O2 + Ca = CaO2
57. Use the method shown to balance these symbol equations.
a) Na + Cl2  NaCl b) C3H6 + O2  CO2 + c) Al + Fe3N2  AlN +
H2O Fe

d) O2 + H2  H2O e) Ga + N2  Ga3N2 f) Na + P Na3P

58. What is the law of conservation of mass?

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59. Balance these equations. Add the correct number of molecules below.
a) ….KOH + ….H3PO4  ….K3PO4 + ….H2O
b) ….SnO2 + ….H2  ….Sn + ….H2O
c) ….NH3 + ….O2  ….NO + ….H2O
d) ….KNO3 + ….H2CO3  ….K2CO3 + ….HNO3
e) ….B2Br6 + ….HNO3  ….B(NO3)3 + ….HBr HINT: [B(NO3)3] is [B(NOOO) (NOOO)
(NOOO)]
f) ….BF3 + ….Li2SO3  ….B2(SO3)3 + ….LiF
60. Complete the word equation for the combustion of iron
iron + ________________________  ________________________ ________________________

61. Draw and label an atom of helium (42He ). Add as much information as you can.

62. Which of these equations for the combustion of carbon are correct?
a) Carbon + oxygen à CO2 b) Carbon + oxygen à CO2 c) C + O2 à CO2
d) C + O2 à CO2 e) C + O2 à CO2 f) Carbon + oxygen à CO2
63. This student has made some mistakes. Identify and correct them
Original with mistakes Corrected

64. What does the arrow represent in a chemical equation?

65. Match the reactants to the correct products. Careful, three of the products do not match any reactants.
Lithium chloride
Oxygen + iron Iron oxygen
Carbon + oxygen Lithium chlorate
Iron oxide
Chlorine + lithium
Nitrogen aluminide
Sulfur + potassium
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen + aluminium Potassium sulfide
Aluminium nitride
66. Look at the rust word equation Iron + oxygen à iron oxide
a) What are the reactants of this reaction?
b) What are the products of this reaction?
67. How does using a barrier stop rusting happening?
68. What happens to limewater when carbon dioxide is bubbled through it?

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‘Bioenergetics [‘bio’ living + ‘energetics’ energy transfers]
Photosynthesis [‘photo’ light + ‘synthesis’ puts together]
Producers are able to make glucose using the photosynthesis reaction. It is an
endothermic reaction. It takes energy in via the radiation pathway (light).
Photosynthesis reaction: Carbon dioxide + water à oxygen +
glucose
Plants and green algae are producers. All organisms within an ecosystem rely on
producers to make glucose. Consumers cannot make their own glucose so must eat.
Producers also remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and add oxygen.
Food chains show us how the chemical energy store is passed through an ecosystem.
Producer à Primary Consumer à Secondary Consumer à Tertiary consumer

Photosynthesis is carried out by chlorophyll within chloroplasts. Chlorophyll is green

(khloros means pale greeny-yellow in Greek) A leaf cell contains lots of chloroplasts.

69. Label this plant cell

70. What two organisms are producers?

71. Where do producers get their energy from?
72. What does the arrow mean in a food chain?

Tropical rainforests are often called the lungs of the planet. Forests still
cover about 30 percent of the Earth’s land area, but they are disappearing at an
alarming rate. According to the World Bank the world lost 1.3 million square
kilometres of forest between 1990 and 2016—an area larger than South Africa.
Since humans started cutting down forests, 46 percent of trees have been felled,
according to a 2015 study in the journal Nature. About 17 percent of the Amazonian

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 rainforest has been destroyed over the past 50 years, and losses recently have been
on the rise.

73. What three things has a plant cell got that an animal cell does not?
74. This image has been used by the WWF to raise awareness of the impact of
deforestation. What message are they trying to convey?
75. What is the word equation for photosynthesis?
76. For each of the following say if they use respiration or not:
a) Stone b) Tree c) Bacteria d) Flower
e) Fungus f) Human g) Grass h) Fire
i) Bread j) Fly k) Jellyfish l) Virus
77. Complete the MCQs from Topic 7.2b. Can be found at https://bit.ly/2YpbeDH.

78. Look at the KO questions on the last two pages of this booklet. Use Practice Look, Read, Cover,
Write, Check individually for 5 minutes. Then work with a partner, testing each other for another 5
minutes. An online version of the questions can be found at https://bit.ly/2OfDnHe.
79. What sub-atomic particle do we think of when we hear the word electricity?
Respiration
All living things respire. It is one of the 7 life processes described by MRS GREN.
Misconception: Many students confuse respiration and breathing which is incorrect.
Breathing is the process of taking air into and out of the lungs.
Respiration is an exothermic chemical reaction. It transfers energy from the chemical
store of oxygen and glucose.
In cells, it is the mitochondria that perform respiration.
Animal cell Plant cell

Cells respire in one of two ways depending upon the amount of oxygen available.

80. Label this muscle cell using the key words and description
 Where all the chemical reactions
Nucleus □
happen
 Controls what goes into and out
Cytoplasm □
of the cell
Mitochondria □  Makes new proteins
Cell membrane □  Controls the cell
Ribosomes □  Performs respiration
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Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration is often referred to simply as ‘respiration’. ‘Aerobic’ means ‘air
to live’. It is the oxygen in the air that is essential for aerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration reaction: Oxygen + glucose à carbon dioxide + water
When animals exercise, their cells need to perform aerobic respiration more quickly:
 Cells need more oxygen so breathing rate goes up
 Cells need more glucose so we get hungry or our bodies use their fat stores.
 Cells need more oxygen and glucose to be delivered. Heart rate and pulse go up.
 Respiration is exothermic so thermal store of body goes up. Animal gets hotter.
Much of our bodies design is about supporting our cells in aerobic respiration.

81. What does aerobic mean? Why is this a good term to use?
82. How do our bodies get the oxygen they need for aerobic respiration?
83. How are the reactants for aerobic respiration carried to all the cells in our bodies?
84. Is respiration exothermic or endothermic? How can we tell during exercise?
85. If 12g of carbon is reacted during respiration, what mass of carbon is released in carbon dioxide?
86. Do metals or non-metals have electrons that can move easily?

Anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.

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 Some microorganisms only use anaerobic respiration. Animals (including humans)
use anaerobic respiration when they are exercising and cannot get oxygen to their
mitochondria quickly enough.
In animals: In yeast (fungus):
Glucose à lactic acid Glucose à alcohol + carbon dioxide
C6H1206 à 2C3H603 C6H1206 à 2C2H5OH + 2C02
In humans we feel lactic acid build up as muscle fatigue, muscle pain and cramps.

87. What does the term anaerobic mean?

88. Which part of a cell is responsible for most respiration?
89. Compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration using the visual organiser below.

Priestley’s mouse experiments

In 1744 Joseph Priestly discovered that “air is not an elementary substance,
but a composition," or mixture, of gases. Among them was the colourless and highly
reactive gas he called "dephlogisticated air". French chemist Antoine Lavoisier
would soon give the name "oxygen.

Priestley also invented carbonated water and the rubber eraser.

He famously conducted experiments involving mice looking into the nature of

air, combustion, respiration and photosynthesis.

90. What do the letters in MRS GREN stand for?

91. What are the units of energy? Why do we always use a capital letter?
92. Complete this table comparing neutrons, protons, and electrons
Location in atom Mass Charge

Neutron

Proton

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 Electron

93. What type of chemical has electrons that are free (delocalised) and can move easily?
94. What sub-atomic particles move as part of the current in mains electricity?
95. Which of these particles attract and which repel due to electrostatic force?
a) Two electrons b) A proton and an electron c) An electron and the nucleus of an atom
Neutralisation in the stomach
The stomach is part of the digestive system. It contains hydrochloric acid to kill
microbes, support its enzymes and to make digestion easier. It has a pH of around 2
which means it is strongly acidic.
Digestion is the process of breaking long molecules in our food into smaller ones
that can be diffused into our blood and carried around the body.
Most digestion actually happens in the small intestines. The small intestines are
weakly acidic or neutral.
Enzymes are biological catalysts. This means that they help reactions happen but are
not used up themselves. The lock-and-key model describes how specific molecules
fit perfectly into specific enzymes like a key into a lock.

96. What happens in digestion?

97. Describe how the lock and key model shows an enzyme working.
98. Where does most digestion happen in the human body?
99. What chemical does our digestive system pass to our cells for respiration?
100. There are some mistakes in the products of these chemical equations. Identify and correct.

a) Nickel + oxygen à oxygen nicklide

b) Chlorine + zinc à zinc chloride + water

c) Sulfur + iron à iron sulfate

d) Oxygen + hydrogen à carbon dioxide

101. Which of these may be evidence of a chemical reaction happening?

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 a) Bubbles b) Colour change c) Melting d) Dissolving
e) Heat released f) Light releases g) New smell h) Falling

Acids and bases are compounds. Compounds contain more than one element
chemically bonded together. [‘Com’ together or with + ‘pound’ to place]

The average human has over 400 different species of bacteria in their large
intestine. It takes around seven seconds for food to travel through the oesophagus
and reach the stomach via a process of muscles squeezing called peristalsis.

Reminder: Acids, bases and alkalis

Acids and bases are opposites. A substance that is neither acid or base is neutral. All
substances can be sorted into acid, base or neutral depending on their pH:
 Acids have a pH from 1-6 – bee stings are acid
 Neutral substances are pH 7 – pure water is neutral
 Bases are pH 8-14 – wasp stings are base
A base that is dissolved in water is called an alkali. Not all bases are alkalis, but all
alkalis are bases.

The two acids we use most often in science are hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid.
Bases and acids react together and neutralise each other (make each other neutral).
The bases we use most often in science are metal oxides and metal hydroxides. Metal
hydroxides are dissolved in water so are also called alkalis.
Neutralisation: When acids and bases react, they neutralise each other. This means
they make each other weaker.
Acid + base à salt + water
A salt is a compound formed during a neutralisation reaction. It has the hydrogen in
the acid replaced by the metal from the base.

102. Complete these neutralisation word equations:

a) Lithium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid à _____________ + _____________ _____________
b) Hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide à _____________ + _____________
_____________

23
 c) Lithium hydroxide + sulfuric acid à _____________ + _____________ _____________
d) Sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide à _____________ + _____________ _____________
e) Sulfuric acid + sodium hydroxideà _____________ + _____________ _____________
f) _____________ _____________ + _____________ _____________ à Tin chloride + water
g) _____________ _____________ + _____________ _____________ à Water + nickel sulfate
h) _____________ _____________ + _____________ _____________ à Zinc sulfate + water
i) _____________ _____________ + _____________ _____________ à Water + iron chloride
When would we use neutralisation in the stomach
Too much acid in our stomachs is normally caused by bad diet habits but can also be
a symptom of other issues such as stress. Symptoms can include:
 Vomiting, indigestion, flatulence, belching or burping
 Acid reflux (known as heart-burn) – acid moves up into your throat
When we neutralise stomach acid we must add a base. Medicines used to neutralise
stomach acid are often called antacids. Many antacid remedies include hydrogen
carbonates meaning they contain hydrogen, carbon and oxygen atoms.
The prefix ‘ant’ is short for ‘anti’ which comes from the Greek for ‘against’ or
‘opposite to’. An ‘antacid’ is ‘opposite to acid’ which is what we now call a ‘base’.

103. Stomach acid is very strong. What pH might it be?

104. What pH is pure water?
105. What colour would universal indicator turn in the following substances:
a) pH 14 b) pH 7 c) pH 2 d) Strong alkaline
e) Strong base f) Strong acid g) Neutral h) Pure water
106. What are the two products from a neutralisation reaction?
107. What two elements are in a carbonate?
108. What two chemicals are in a hydroxide?
109. What is the difference between a base and an alkali?
110. Is neutralisation exothermic or endothermic? How can we tell?
111. Extended writing challenge. You score points by using key words. You can use words more than
once.
Should you pee on a jellyfish sting? 1 Point:
 Acid
Some jellyfish stings are alkaline. Human
 Base
urine has an average pH of 6.0 but can vary 2 Points:
from 4.5 to 8.0.  Neutralise
According to The Scientific American, 2007:  Dissolve
3 Points:
"Peeing on a jellyfish sting is not advised”.
 Salt
Why do some people believe it might work?  Exothermic

112. Label this atom of Hydrogen (11 H )with as much information as you can.
24
Fuels for power
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It is only moved from one store to another.
When we talk about generating electrical power we are really talking about how we
transfer energy from one store into electrical work done (current).
Reminder:8 Energy Stores and 4 Energy Pathways
There are only 8 ways that energy can be stored.

Energy can move between the 8 energy stores using pathways. There are only 4
energy pathways. Energy cannot be stored in pathways.

Dissipation of energy and efficiency

In any activity, energy is always transferred to the thermal energy store of the
surroundings. We call this process dissipation. Every energy transfer diagram should
have thermal energy store of surroundings as an output. This is normally a ‘wasted’
energy store as it is usually not the one we are intending to increase.

113. What is the Law of Conservation of energy?

114. What energy transfer is needed to score a goal in the top corner? Tick the correct statement below.

a) A chemical store → kinetic store

b) B kinetic store → gravity store
c) C chemical store → gravity store + kinetic store
d) D kinetic store → gravity store + heat store
25
 e) E chemical store → gravity store + kinetic store + heat store
115. What are the units of electrical current? Why must we use a capital letter?
116. What are the units of energy? Why must we use a capital letter?
117. What is this energy transfer diagram showing?

118. Complete the MCQs from Topic 7.3a. Can be found at https://bit.ly/2YWwJLh.

Types of fuels as power sources

Trying to find new sustainable ways of generating electrical power is one of the
biggest modern challenges to human-kind.
 Non–renewable sources – will run out. Used quicker than they are replaced.
 Renewable sources – will not run out. Replaced quicker than they are used.
119. Nuclear power is described as non-renewable. What does this mean?
120. This student has made a mistake. Identify and correct it.
Original with mistake Corrected version
Wood is renewable because it can be
used again.
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources – these will eventually run out.
There are three types of fossil fuel and all were made in similar ways to each other.

Coal (and charcoal) is made from the remains of prehistoric trees – you can still see
the wood grain in lumps of coal.
Crude oil (sometimes just called oil) and natural gas (sometimes just called gas) are
made from remains of prehistoric animals, plankton and algae.
The fossil fuels are made from compounds known as hydrocarbons such as methane
(CH4) and ethane (C2H6). These molecules only contain hydrogen and carbon.
121. Here are four ways we model a methane molecule?

26
 a) In what ways are they similar?
b) In what ways are they different?
c) Which of these is the correct chemical formula for methane?
CH4 C4H CH4 C4H C4H C4H
122. What are the mnemonics we use to remember the different energy stores and energy pathways?
123. What are the different energy stores?
124. What are the different energy pathways?
Burning fossil fuels
The correct term for burning is combustion. Combustion is an exothermic reaction
with oxygen.
The fossil fuels all act as a chemical energy store. It is relatively easy to transfer this
energy into electrical work done by burning them and using this energy to boil water.
As the boiled water (steam) expands it pushes a turbine around which drives a
generator. Remember UK mains electricity is AC with a potential difference of 230V
and frequency of 50Hz.
When we burn hydro-carbons we release carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and contributes to global warming.
Methane + oxygen à carbon dioxide + water
CH4 + O2 à CO2 + H2O Not balanced
Other hydrocarbon molecules inside fossil fuels include:
 Ethane (C2H6)
 Propane (C3H8) – propellers have three blades
 Butane (C4H10)
 Pentane (C5H12) – from the Greek ‘pent’ meaning ‘five’ as in pentagon.

125. What two elements do all hydrocarbon molecules contain?

126. Complete these word equations for hydrocarbon combustion reactions:
a) Butane + oxygen à
b) Oxygen + propane à
c) __________ + pentane à ______________________ + water
127. What do you notice about the end of each hydrocarbons name?
128. What energy store to all fuels store?
27
129. When you burn a fuel which pathway is the energy transferred along?
130. When you burn a fuel which energy store does the energy eventually move to?
131. What does dissipate to the surroundings mean?
132. Why do we call fossil fuels non-renewable?
133. Label this energy transfer diagram for using a fossil fuel to generate electrical work done.

Biofuels
Biofuels are a renewable source. They are replaced more quickly than they are used.
‘Bio’ means life or living. Biofuels are fuels that have been grown or produced from
living organisms. There are lots of different types of biofuels:
 Wood
 Food waste
 Ethanol from plants and cereals
 Methane from bacteria
We burn biofuels in a similar way to fossil fuels. They also release carbon dioxide.
134. What are the two products of combustion reactions?
135. This student has made some mistakes. Identify and correct them.
Original with mistakes Correct version
Biofuels can be burned over and over
again which is also really good.
Another advantage is that they do not
release greenhouse gases.
136. Name four examples of biofuels.

137. Look at the KO questions on the last two pages of this booklet. Use Practice Look, Read,
Cover, Write, Check individually for 5 minutes. Then work with a partner, testing each other for another
5 minutes. An online version of the questions can be found at https://bit.ly/2OfDnHe.
138. What sub-atomic particle do we think of when we hear the word electricity?
Wood as a biofuel
Wood is often considered carbon neutral. This is because the amount of carbon
dioxide absorbed as a tree grows is equal to the carbon dioxide given off when it is
burnt. This often ignores the effects of planting, harvesting, processing and
transporting all of which can lead to more carbon dioxide being released.

28
139. What other word do we use that means combustion?
140. What does the prefix ‘bio’ in ‘biofuel’ mean?
Fermenting biofuels
Many microorganisms respire anaerobically. We can use products of this reaction.
Anaerobic respiration in microorganisms: Glucose à alcohol + carbon dioxide
Yeast is a fungus which will respire anaerobically. It makes carbon dioxide and
ethanol as a product. Ethanol is a very flammable liquid and is a type of alcohol.
Many power stations, homes and cars today burn ethanol.
We also use this reaction in brewing and making alcoholic drinks. We call this
anaerobic respiration reaction fermentation.

Yeast is used in bread-making. Cooking evaporates the alcohol and kills the
yeast.
Investigating yeast fermentation
Your teacher may demonstrate this experiment or you might watch it on https://tinyurl.com/mrs7rr5

141. In the reaction above, the yeast does not use oxygen when it respires. What type of respiration occurs
without oxygen?
142. What are the two products of the yeast fermentation reaction?
143. In the yeast investigation, why would the mass go down if one of the balloons had a hole?
144. This student is correct so far but did not balance this equation. Complete it for them.

29
145. Sketch diagrams of two atoms below. The first has been started for you.
Add as much further information to your diagrams as you can.

Lithium (73 Li) Group 1, Period 2 (115B )Boron Group 3, Period 2

146. Label this plant cell

Nucleus Cell wall

Cell membrane Chloroplast

Cytoplasm Vacuole

Mitochondria Ribosome

147. What type of chemical has electrons that are free (delocalised) and can move easily?

148. Complete the MCQs from Topic 7.3b. Can be found at https://bit.ly/2Yofmnq.

30
Investigating effectiveness of fuels

Use the structure strip below to write a method for this investigation and to assess the hypothesis.

149. Hypothesis being Different fuels have different chemical energy stores
tested? (simple statement
stating a relationship)
150. Independent
variable (you change)
151. Dependent variable
(you will measure)
152. 3 control variables 1)
(ensures only the IV
affects the DV –
makes it fair) 2)
Do not pick same
measuring device
(ruler)
3)

158. Step by step 1)

method (start each line
with a command verb
e.g. measure, set-up, 2)
record)

31
 3)

4)

5)

6)

170. Risk assessment 1)

(3 most obvious
hazards in your
experiment and how 2)
you will reduce their
risk)

3)

176. Add your results to this table

Temperature of water (oC)
Fuel Start End Change
Wood

Paper

Crisps

How we gain agreement that an idea is correct in science

We share our results and methods so that other people can check our
claims and ensure they are valid. We call this process peer review. There
are three main things we look for to gain confidence that something is
correct:
1. How reliable is the source? Some are bias or misleading.
2. Has the person repeated and got same results? If so, the results are
called repeatable.
3. Have different people get similar results using different methods? If
so, we call the results reproducible.
Results that have not passed these three checks may be incorrect.
177. What could you do now to increase your confidence that everyone agrees with your conclusion to the
effectiveness of fuels investigation? What would you hope to find discover?

32
178. If other people in your class got the same results as you using a different technique (e.g. different
way of measuring energy transferred) would that make your results repeatable or reproducible?
179. Extended writing challenge. You score points by using key words. You can use words more than
once.
From 2021 the burning of wet wood and coal in 1 Point:
UK homes is being phased out. They release  Carbon dioxide
harmful substances when burned. By 2023 people  Breathing issues
2 Points:
will only be able to use dry wood or
 Exothermic
manufactured solid fuels. These produce less
 Oxygen
smoke and are more efficient to burn. 3 Points:
This will have no impact on carbon dioxide levels  Waste less energy
Why has the government done this?  Combustion engines
180. Add as much information as you can to this diagram to explain how fossil fuels are created.

181. What are the two products of combustion reactions?

182. Complete the MCQs from Topic 8.1a. Can be found at https://bit.ly/2zT5ecZ.

Reactivity
Reactivity is a measure of how easily chemicals react. It is related to two things:
 the number of electrons in their outer shell (Group 2 in the Periodic Table)
 the number of electron shells they have in total (Period 1 in the Periodic Table)
Elements in the same group react in similar ways. Their period number gives us
information about how strongly each reacts.
 Group 1 elements (known as the alkali metals) are very reactive
 Group 7 elements (known as halogens) are all very reactive

Fluorine and Chlorine are both in group 7 of the periodic table.

The table below shows their reactions with cold iron.

Fluorine (199 F ) Chlorine (35.5

17 Cl )
Reaction with cold iron wool Burns explosively Burns vigorously
183. Which is more reactive fluorine or chlorine?

33
Demonstration of group 1 reactivity
A group 1 element reaction: lithium + water à lithium hydroxide + hydrogen
2Li + 2H2O à 2LiOH + H2
Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is an alkali (soluble base)

How easy to React React with

Soft
Element Electron structure remove outer with air water Observations
Y/N?
electron? Y/N? Y/N?

Lithium
7
3 Li

Sodium
23
11 Na

Potassium
39
19 K

The reactivity of the Group 1 elements is related to how easily the outer electron can
be removed. The more electron shells, then further it is from the +’ve nucleus and the
more –‘ve electrons are pushing it from beneath.
Group 1 elements properties clip: https://tinyurl.com/s9fw5ar
A longer clip of the Group 1 elements reactions: https://tinyurl.com/zwrvoey

184. What three elements are in sodium hydroxide?

185. Name three group 1 elements?
186. Are there more metal or non-metal elements in the periodic table?

34
187. Which of these properties have all the group 1 elements got in common?
a) Shiny when b) Soft – can cut c) Reactive d) Conduct e) Form an alkali when
cut with knife electricity they react with water
188. The group 1 elements are sometimes known as the alkali metals. Why is this a good name for them?
189. Which is the least reactive group 1 element?
190. What happens to the reactivity of the group 1 elements as they get bigger (more electron shells)?

Reactivity and displacement series of metals

A more reactive metal will ‘displace’ a less reactive metal compound during a
displacement reaction. The word ‘displace’ means ‘take the place, position, or role
of’. If we know which metals are more reactive, we can predict the outcome of
reactions.
The reactivity list shows the metals (and hydrogen and carbon) in order of their
reactivity. The most reactive metal in this list is potassium, the least is gold. This
means that potassium will take the place of any other metal during a reaction.
We use this mnemonic to remember the reactivity list.

35
 Example 1: Potassium + sodium oxide à ?

Two metals are potassium and sodium.

Potassium is above Sodium in the reactivity series so will
displace (take the place of) sodium in a compound.
Sodium is in a compound (Sodium oxide).
Potassium takes the place of Sodium (and vice versa).

Potassium + sodium oxide à sodium + potassium oxide

Example 2: Tin sulfate + calcium à ?

Two metals are Tin and Calcium.

Calcium is above Tin in the reactivity series so will displace
(take the place of) Tin in a compound.
Tin is in a compound (Tin sulfate).
Calcium takes the place of Tin (and vice versa).

Tin sulfate + calcium à calcium sulfate + tin

Example 3: Aluminium oxide + lead à ?

Two metals are Aluminium and Lead.

Aluminium is above Lead in the reactivity series so will displace
(take the place of) Lead in a compound.
Lead is not in a compound.
So no reaction happens.

Aluminium oxide + lead à No reaction

Investigating reactivity

36
Use the structure strip below to write a method for this investigation and how it helped you decide.

191. Hypothesis being Different metals have different reactivity

tested? (simple statement
stating a relationship)
192. Independent Metal reactants in the displacement reaction
variable (you change)
193. Dependent variable If there is a reaction or not
(you will measure)
194. 3 control variables 1)
(ensures only the IV
affects the DV –
makes it fair) 2)
Do not pick same
measuring device
(ruler)
3)

200. Step by step 1)

method (start each line
with a command verb
e.g. measure, set-up, 2)
record)

3)

4)

5)

6)

212. Risk assessment 1)

(3 most obvious
hazards in your
experiment and how 2)
you will reduce their
risk)
3)

218. For each reaction, indicate if there has been a reaction or not.

37
 Metals

Mg Zn Fe Cu

MgSO4
Metal salt
solutions

ZnSO4

FeSO4

A model for displacement and reactivity:

Potassium is more reactive than copper so will displace it from its compound (take its bone).
219. Why will copper not displace potassium from potassium sulfate?
220. Write a word equation for potassium + copper chloride à
221. Look at the table below.

a) What does the X represent in the table?

b) Which of these metals is the most reactive?
c) Which of these metals is the least reactive?
d) The student used aluminium, zinc and copper. Which metal might be A, B and C?
222. Complete these word equations:
a) Magnesium + zinc sulfate à
b) Zinc + iron chloride à
c) Magnesium + copper nitride à
d) Copper sulfide + sodium à

38
 e) Lead iodide + gold à
f) Hydrogen fluoride + tin à
223. 10g of iron burns in air. The mass of iron oxide measured is 14g. How has the mass increased?

224. Complete the MCQs from Topic 8.1b. Can be found at https://bit.ly/2W0XFIO.

Finding reactive and unreactive substances

Substances that are not very reactive are called unreactive and are often found in
their pure form.
 Gold, silver and platinum are unreactive metals.
 Group 0 are unreactive elements as they already have full outer electron shells.
Elements that are reactive are not usually found in their pure form as they react with
other atoms around them. They are often found in ores
An ore is a substance with metal compound naturally occurring in it. Ores can be
found in rocks or soils.
Some common ores are:
 Haematite – iron ore – red colour. Greek for ‘haema’ is ‘blood’. Red blood cells
are also called haemoglobin.
 Malachite – copper ore – green colour
We often use displacement reactions to extract a useful metal from an ore. This is
how we obtain iron and chromium from their ores.

How a blast furnace works. This used to be taught up to GCSE but with the
closure of most of the UK blast furnaces it is no longer in the syllabus.

225. Why is gold often found in its pure form as nuggets?

226. Why is potassium never found in its raw form?
227. What is an ore?

39
 56 16 12
228. What is the relative molecular mass of the following information ( 26 Fe 8 O 6C )
a) CO b) O2 c) CO2 d) Fe2O3
229. Extended writing challenge. You score points by using key words. You can use words more than
once.
Why gold and not iron? 1 Point:
 Reactivity
Iron is the most common element in
 Oxygen
the Earth making up around 36% of 2 Points:
the Earths mass. It is stronger and  Oxide
harder than gold.  Pure
3 Points:
So why do we not use iron for
 Displace
jewellery but we do use gold?  Ore
Some of the UK Crown Jewels
Other uses of displacement reactions
Using displacement reactions to relieve acid indigestion
Neutralisation reactions between acids and bases are examples of displacement
reactions. When we drink an antacid medicine for indigestion it is actually an alkali.
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydrogen carbonate à sodium chloride + carbonic acid
HCl + NaHCO3 à NaCl +
H2CO3
Sodium is more reactive than hydrogen so displaces it from the chlorine in the acid.

230. What happens to the pH of an acid when you react it with a base?
231. Name the elements described in the mnemonic for the reactivity series:
Please Instead
Stop Try
Calling Learning
Me How
A Copper
Helpless Saves
Zebra Gold
232. Consider the reaction of hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide
a) What salt would be produced?
b) What does the arrow represent?
c) What non-metal element was displaced by sodium in this reaction?
d) Are there more metal or non-metal elements in the periodic table?
e) What type of reaction do we call an acid + base? N___________________

40
Using displacement reactions to weld metals
Your teacher may show you this displacement reaction between iron oxide and
aluminium called the thermite reaction. This reaction is often used to weld railway
tracks together.
Teachers must follow strict safety protocols and practice this experiment with an
experienced member of staff beforehand. Instructions and video of the practical are
here: https://tinyurl.com/wxu5g74. The reaction is from 1:50 – 2:33 if replaying.

233. Consider the thermite reaction.

a) Complete the word equation for the reaction
b) Is it exothermic or endothermic? How can you tell?
234. Balance the word equation Al + Fe2O3 à Fe + Al2O3

Other materials: Polymer, ceramics and laminates

Polymer chains
Polymers have a repeating pattern of molecules all joined together in chains. Each
little part of a polymer is called a monomer.
The word ‘polymer’ comes from the Greek ‘poly’
meaning ‘many’ and ‘meros’ meaning ‘parts’.
The word ‘monomer’ includes the Greek term
‘mono’ which means ‘one’
Some common polymers:
 DNA –holds the instructions for all living
things. Found inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells do not
have a nucleus (bacteria are prokaryotic)
 Polyethene (lots of ethene monomers) – a type of plastic made from Crude Oil
 Polystyrene (lots of styrene monomers) – a type of plastic made from Crude Oil

Ceramics
Ceramics are non-metal, inorganic solids.
41
 ‘Inorganic’ comes from the prefix ‘in…’ meaning ‘not…’ and the term
‘organism’ which means ‘living’. Inorganic substances have not come from living
things. Ceramics can be pure like diamond or a mixture of elements like clay.

Ceramics have been used by humans for thousands of years. Pottery, glass,
and brick are all ceramics and are among the oldest human-invented materials. We
are still designing brand new ceramic materials today—things like catalytic
converters for today's cars and high-temperature superconductors for tomorrow's
computers.

Laminates ≡
The term ‘laminate’ comes from the Greek ‘lamina’ meaning ‘thin slice’ or
‘layer’.

Laminates have thin layers of material stuck together. This

changes the properties of the object, making them far stronger.

Plywood is a laminate. It is made from layers of wood glued

together. It is far stronger than normal wood of the same thickness.

235. Complete the MCQs from Topic 8.2a. Can be found at https://bit.ly/3ebuDN8.

Chemistry of the atmosphere

Earth’s early atmosphere
The atmosphere is a ball of gas surrounding Earth. It is a mixture of gases called air.
The term atmosphere comes from the Greek ‘atmos’ meaning ‘vapour’ or ‘gas’ and
‘sphere’ meaning ‘globe’ or ‘ball’. Atmosphere therefore is a ‘vapour ball’.

There are lots of spheres around the Earth. The lithosphere is the rock part
(‘litho’ is Greek for ‘rock’). The hydrosphere is the liquid water part.
Magnetosphere is the magnetic field around the Earth.
Earth is around 4.5 billion (4 500 000 000) years old. Scientists have estimated this
age using radioactive rocks. These rock samples also give us clues as to what the
atmosphere was like when the Earth was very young.
Millions of years ago the atmosphere was very different. There was no life of any
sort on Earth. There was very little oxygen. It was too hot for liquid water to exist in
liquid form (over 200oC). There were lots of volcanos releasing carbon dioxide.

236. Approximately how old is the Earth?

42
237. What is the atmosphere?
238. Use the visual organiser below to compare the atmosphere long ago with that of today.

Earth’s present atmosphere

Over time, the Earth cooled until eventually its temperature fell below 100oC and
water vapour (steam) condensed into liquid water. This caused oceans to form.
Between 2 and 3 million (2 000 000 – 3000 000) years ago the first plants appeared
in the oceans and started carrying out photosynthesis. This changed everything.
Photosynthesis reaction: Carbon dioxide + Water à Oxygen +
Glucose
Plants absorbed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and released oxygen. Over
millions of years this transformed the atmosphere into the one we know today.
Misconception: Many people think that air is the same as oxygen. It is not. Air is a
mixture of gases. Most of the air we breath in is actually nitrogen gas.

239. What organisms started removing carbon dioxide from Earth’s early atmosphere?
240. At what temperature does water boil into steam?
241. At what temperature does pure water freeze and melt?
242. Match the descriptions to the correct state of matter of water.

High speed Solid water Strong forces hold particles in

particles (Ice) fixed position

Particles vibrate
Liquid Weak forces of attraction
around fixed
water between particles
point

Particles able to Water Forces of attraction hold

slide past each vapour particles close, but not in fixed
other (gas) position
243. What is the most common gas in present-day air?
244. Circle the description that best describe the air we breathe?
A mixture of elements and compounds An element A mixture of compounds A compound

43
Where did all the carbon go?
Not all of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was absorbed by plants. Much was
dissolved in the oceans.
Over time, this carbon was removed from the atmosphere and became part of rocks
or fossil fuels. Scientists often say that the carbon was “locked up”.

245. What organisms were responsible for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere before it was
locked in rocks, coal, oil and gas?
246. Name the three fossil fuels?
247. How did the ocean remove some carbon dioxide from the atmosphere?
248. How can you tell if a reaction is endothermic?
249. Which of the following are elements, which are compounds?
a) Nitrogen b) Hydrogen c) Table salt d) Glucose e) Hydrochloric
molecule (N2) (H2) (NaCl) (C6H12O6) acid (HCl)
f) Oxygen g) Adrenaline h) Aluminium i) Ozone j) Fluorine atom
molecule (O2) (C9H13NO3) oxide (Al2O3) (O3) (F)
250. What type of chemical bonds form between two non-metals sharing electrons?
251. What types of chemical bonds involve metals and non-metal creating ions?
252. What two chemicals are the reactants in a neutralisation reaction?
253. What two chemicals are the products of a neutralisation reaction?
254. How many electrons can atoms have in full 1st, 2nd and 3rd electron shells?

44
Carbon cycle
Carbon is an element from Group 4 of the periodic table. It is a non-metal but
sometimes behaves like a metal – for instance graphite (a form of carbon) conducts
electricity.

The four stages of the carbon cycle:

1. Producers take carbon dioxide in during photosynthesis.
2. Consumers eat producers and use the carbon to build their own cells.
3. Living things (including plants and decomposers) release carbon dioxide during
respiration
4. Burning fuels releases more carbon dioxide during combustion.

255. What happens to limewater in the presence of carbon dioxide?

256. What happens when you put a burning splint in a small amount of hydrogen?
257. What are producers in a food chain?
258. What can producers do that consumers cannot?
259. What is the process by which producers remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere?
260. Which reaction is responsible for releasing lots of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from fuels?
261. Through which process do all living things release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere?

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Greenhouse effect
Global warming is a term for the Earth getting hotter over time. We measure average
annual temperatures and compare against previous years.
The greenhouse effect is the most agreed on theory for what is causing global
warming. It suggests that carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are creating an
insulating layer around Earth which prevent it from cooling as it should. Be careful
not to confuse it with the ozone layer which is very different.
Climate change describes the changing weather patterns which are happening due to
global warming.

262. What two things do we think global warming may lead to?
263. What is global warming?
264. Name one greenhouse gas?

The planet Venus is similar in size to Earth and NASA scientists believe it
may once have had shallow liquid-water oceans and a habitable surface.

Venus is closer to the Sun than Earth so was not able to cool down. As a
consequence, the water boiled into steam and carbon dioxide levels built up. This led
to a runaway greenhouse effect which now sees temperatures in excess of 460oC at
its surface.

265. Complete the MCQs from Topic 8.2b. Can be found at https://bit.ly/2ZP7r28.

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Evidence for global warming
Scientists have been collecting temperature information for a long time.
Most people now agree that the Earth is warming up although some people disagree
with the evidence as we cannot be sure how reliably information was collected in the
1800s.

There is also lots of evidence showing that carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere
are increasing. Most scientists agree that the increasing levels of carbon dioxide is
contributing to global warming because of the greenhouse effect.

266. What is the general trend in the average temperature across the world? Use this conclusion prompt:

{ }
increases
As ‘the years from 1850’ increase, the’ change in average temperature’ decreases .
stays the same

{ } { }
increases increases
The steepness of the graph decreases so the rate of change also decreases .
stays the same stays the same

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267. What is the general trend in atmospheric CO2 levels across the World? Use this conclusion prompt:

{ }
increases
As ‘the years from 1750’ increase, the atmospheric CO2 levels decreases .
stays the same

{ } { }
increases increases
The steepness of the graph decreases so the rate of change also decreases .
stays the same stays the same
268. This student has made some mistakes. Identify and correct them.
Original version with mistakes Corrected version
CO2 is a greenhouse gas and causes a hole in
the ozone layer.
One thing we can do is use energy efficient light
bulbs as they are more effective.
Sustainability
Sustainability considers the impact of decisions on future generations.
If a product or activity is sustainable then it will not run out or cause significant
problems in the future.
When considering sustainability, we must think about the whole life of the item.

269. What does sustainability mean?

270. Paper bags are thought of as being sustainable because they decompose (biodegrade) when thrown
away. What other factors have not been considered?
271. This student has made some mistakes. Identify and correct them.
Original version with mistakes Corrected version
Using wooden cutlery is the most sustainable way
to eat.
There are no bad environmental impacts at all.
The more wooden forks we can use, the more
sustainable it is.

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Knowledge Organiser Questions
KQ.1. A symbol meaning ‘turns into’ in a reaction à

KQ.2. The ‘ingredients’ used in a chemical reaction Reactants

KQ.3. The new chemicals made in a chemical reaction Products

KQ.4. Substances which have free electrons and form +’ve ions Metals

KQ.5. Substances which do not have free electrons. Form -’ve ions? Non-metals

KQ.6. One or more atoms bonded together? Molecule

KQ.7. One of more different type of element bonded together? Compound

KQ.8. Lots of different chemicals not chemically bonded together? Mixture

KQ.9. Mass of an electron? Almost 0 (negligible)

KQ.10. The number of hydrogen atoms in this product 4H2O 8

12
KQ.11. Number of hydrogen atoms in the glucose molecule (C6H12O6)?
15
KQ.12. Number of protons in phosphorus (31
15 P)?

16
KQ.13. Number of neutrons in phosphorus (31
15 P)?

31 15
KQ.14. Number of electrons in phosphorus (15 P)?

KQ.15. Total mass of a molecule? Relative atomic mass (Mr)

KQ.16. Part of the cell responsible for photosynthesis? Chloroplasts (or chlorophyll)

KQ.17. Part of the cell responsible for respiration? Mitochondria

KQ.18. A natural catalyst found in our digestive system? Enzyme

KQ.19. pH of a strong base? 14

KQ.20. pH of pure water (a neutral substance)? 7

KQ.21. pH of a strong acid? pH 1

KQ.22. Mnemonic for the energy pathways? 4 Mr He

KQ.23. Mnemonic for the energy stores? 8 kg cement

KQ.24. How long has it taken to form fossil fuels? Millions of years

KQ.25. Scientific term for burning? Combustion

KQ.26. Fuels that have been made or grown from living things? Biofuels

KQ.27. Why are some fuels called non-renewable? Will run out

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KQ.28. Why are some fuels called renewable? Will not run out

KQ.29. How the periodic table tell us the number of electron shells? Period

KQ.30. How the periodic table tell us the number of electrons in outer Group number
shell?

KQ.31. Which is least reactive out of Sodium, Lithium, Potassium? Lithium

KQ.32. Which is most reactive out of Sodium, Lithium, Potassium? Potassium?

KQ.33. A natural substance with a metal compound in it? Ore

KQ.34. Reaction that takes in energy e.g. photosynthesis? Endothermic

KQ.35. Reaction that gives of heat e.g. respiration? Exothermic

KQ.36. Reaction between an acid and a base? Neutralisation

KQ.37. Reaction where a more reactive metal takes the place of a less Displacement
reaction one in a compound?

KQ.38. Boiling point of pure water? 100oC

KQ.39. Main gas in the air we breathe today? Nitrogen

KQ.40. Main gas in Earth’s early atmosphere? Carbon dioxide

KQ.41. A process of removing carbon dioxide from Earth’s early Dissolved in oceans
atmosphere that did not rely on photosynthesis?

KQ.42. Process by which carbon locked in fossil fuels is released? Combustion

KQ.43. Process by which all living things release carbon dioxide? Respiration

KQ.44. Process by which producers absorb carbon dioxide from air? Photosynthesis

KQ.45. Describes the way that carbon is continuously moved around Carbon cycle
Earth’s ecosystem

KQ.46. Polluting gases creating an insulating layer around the Earth? Greenhouse effect

KQ.47. Impact on the oceans if the ice caps melt? Rising sea levels

KQ.48. Changing weather patterns due to global warming? Climate change

KQ.49. Term used to describe the increasing temperatures on Earth? Global warming

KQ.50. Something that will not run out or cause significant problems in Sustainable
the future?

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