Beginners Somali Grammar
Beginners Somali Grammar
BEGINNER’S
SOMALI GRAMMAR
Morgan Nilsson
Updated
06.01.2023
1
§ 9.2 Demonstrative pronouns 56 The inflection of yahay ’is’ 95
Demonstrative Forms in –aan, –aa 57 § 11.12.1a The use of yahay ‘is’ 97
Demonstrative Forms in –ii 58 § 11.12.1b Different equivalents of English ‘is’
Placeholder pronouns 59 98
The inflection of leeyahay ‘has’ 99
§ 9.3 Possessive pronouns 60
§ 11.12.2a Different equivalents of English ‘has’
Short possessive endings 61
100
Implied possessive relations 62
The inflection of yaallaa ‘lies, is’ 100
Partitive use of possessive suffixes 63
The inflection of yaqaannaa ‘knows’
Possessive + demonstrative suffix 63
101
§ 9.4 Interrogative pronouns 64 The inflection of yimaaddaa ‘comes’
Interrogative use of possessive forms 64 102
The inflection of yiraahdaa ‘says’
§ 10. Adjectives 66 103
2
§ 12.3 The Particle Phrase 121 § 14.3 The Conjunctions laakiín, -se and balse 156
Sentence particles 122
§ 14.4 The Conjunction waáyo 157
Short subject pronouns 124
Obligatory subject pronouns 124
§ 15. Subordinate clauses 158
Omission of the short subject
pronoun 124 § 15.1 The form of the verb in subclauses 158
The time realtion between verbs
§ 13. Simple clauses 126 159
Abbreviations
sb. somebody
sth. something
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§ 1. The Somali Speaking Areas
Somali is spoken by more than 25 million people, making it approximately
the 10th largest language in Africa and 70th largest in the world. Most
Somali speakers live in five states in the Horn of Africa, but there is also a
large diaspora that can be found practically all around the world.
1 Somaliland declared itself independent from Somalia in 1991, but no other country has
recognised Somaliland so far. In practice, however, Somaliland functions as an independent
state with its own parliament, currency, army etc.
2 Approximately like Swedish and Norwegian /rd/, similar to /d/, but pronounced with the tip
of the tongue touching a point higher up (farther back) on the roof of the mouth.
4
/dh/ normally doesn’t occur after a vowel, where /r/ is used instead of /dh/.
Both manners of pronunciation and spelling are considered equally
correct in standard Somali.
5
With respect to loanwords, the middle and southern parts of Somalia were
for many decades mainly influenced by Italian, whereas Somaliland was
instead influenced by English. In Ethiopia there has also been some
influence from Amharic, and in Djibouti from French. The largest
influences in all Somali speaking areas are however from Arabic, but
today the influence of English is rapidly growing in all Somali areas, just
like in many other parts of the world.
usbúuc (from Ar. ᾿usbuuc), wíigN (from En. week), sitimáanS (from
It. settimana) or toddobáad (purely Somali) all meaning week
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§ 2. The Script
Somali was introduced as the official language of Somalia on 1 January
1973 after a decision announced by the government on 21 October 1972. It
was decided that Somali was to be written with the Latin script. Earlier,
Arabic script as well as a few scripts especially invented for Somali had
also been used to some extent. The choice of the Latin script was mainly
due to economical considerations as most of the typewriters and printing
presses in the country had been used to write the previous colonial
languages, i.e. Italian in the south, middle and east, and English in the
northwest.
This is the order of the letters in the Arabic alphabet, and it should
probably be regarded as a symbolic remedy to those who in the 1950’s and
1960’s wanted to establish the Arabic script for Somali.
The traditional order isn’t, however, used very much for practical
purposes, e.g., when arranging the words in a dictionary or a list of names
in alphabetical order.
1. b) Muqdisho
t) Hargeysa
j) Boosaaso
2. b) Jabbuuti
t) Jigjiga
j) Kismaayo
x) Garoowe
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§ 2.2 Orthography
Somali spelling and the use of punctuation marks has never been
thoroughly regulated by any institution or in any reference book. There
are however quite a few rules scattered troughout different schoolbooks
as well as a fifty year old tradition to take guidance from. The spelling in
printed texts is after all relatively homogenous, and when it is not, it is
most often possible to find a consensus regarding which spelling of a
specific word should be considered the “best” one.
Soomáaliya Somalia
Soomaáli a Somali
af Soomaáli Somali (langauge)
Sábti Saturday
Abríil April
Jiiláal / jiiláal winter/summer (warm and dry season, Dec.‒Feb.)
Koonfúr / koonfúr south
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-gg-/-dd- in nouns with a suffix
If a masculine noun ends in –g, all forms with a determiner suffix will be
written (and pronounced) with a double (intense) –gg– due to assimilation
of the /k/ in the suffix with the /g/ in the stem.
If a feminine noun ends in -d, all forms with a determiner suffix will be
written (and pronounced) with a double (intense) -dd- due to assimilation
of the /t/ in the suffix with the /d/ in the stem.
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§ 3. The Sound System
Compared to many other languages, the Somali spelling reflects the
pronunciation in a very straightforward way.
§ 3.1 Vowels
Somali has five letters representing vowels: i, e, a, o, u. The most frequent
way of pronouncing each of these vowels is approximately the same as in
many other languages that have five vowels, e.g., Spanish or Czech. One
could also compare them to the pronunciation of the vowels in the English
words swim, bed, car, more, shoe.
Heavy vowels
The Somali vowel system is more complex than the spelling reveals, as
each vowel letter may be pronounced in two different ways. There is a
second, less frequent way of pronouncing each letter. Those sounds are
produce with larger tension in the throat, and they are traditionally
referred to as heavy vowels. They only occur in certain words.
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a apple
o appr. like French sœur
u appr. like French sur
Unfortunately, the reasearch into the Somali heavy vowels is very limited.
It is therefore not possible to present any exact principles for their use. The
vowel quality is also not noted systematically in any existing dictionary.
It is however very seldom the case that this subtle difference in vowel
quality would be the only difference between two different words.
Consequently, the best advice is simply to listen carefully to Somali
speakers and imitate their pronunciation as closely as possible.
Diphthongs
Somali has three diphthongs. Their spelling and pronunciation may vary
a bit: ey/ay, ow/aw, oy. It has never been regulated for standard Somali
whether one should write <ey> and <ow>, which often might be closer to
the pronunciation, or <ay> and <aw>. In the 1970’s the spelling with <ey>
and <ow> was somewhat more frequent than it is nowadays. At present,
especially <ay> has become evidently more common than <ey>.
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§ 3.2 Consonants
More than half of the 22 Somali consonants are pronounced in more or
less the same way as in English. This applies to b, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, s,
sh, t, w, y. The sounds /t/ and /k/ are accompanied by aspiration, i.e. a
distinct burst of breath, just like in English.
The sound /dh/ is very similar to the Swedish and Norwegian sound
written <rd>. It is similar to a /d/, but pronounced with the tip of the
tongue touching a point higher up, above the alveolar ridge. YouTube 3
and Wikipedia4 offer further helpful details.
Double <bb, dd, gg> are however pronounced more distinctly and with
more energy, quite similar to the corresponding English consonants in
words like hobby, sudden, beggar.
3 <dh> https://youtu.be/nU7H_aiG-kc
4 <dh> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_plosive
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The Somali /r/ differs from how it is usually pronounced in English. It is
quite similar to the trilled or rolled /r/ sound in Italian or Spanish, but
sometimes it becomes voiceless at the beginning and end of words.
Also double <ll, mm, nn, rr> are pronounced with some extra energy and
duration.
The letters <c, kh, q, x, ’> represent sounds that are correspond closely to
the Arabic counterparts: c = ع, kh = خ, q = ق, x = ح, ’ = ء.
The <c> is rather similar to a very voiced /h/. Pronouncing /h/ the air flow
is given a free passage through the throat, but when pronouncing /c/ the
tongue root is pushed backwards towards the back of the throat in order
to constrict the air flow into a narrow channel, thereby causing turbulence.
This sound is often perceived by Europeans as a ”creaky” /a/. For Somalis,
however, there is no doubt that this sound is a consonant. YouTube5 offers
a helpful explanation and sound illustration.
The <kh> is similar to <ch> in German Bach or Scottish Loch Ness. YouTube6
offers a helpful explanation and sound illustration.
The <q> is rather similar to /k/ or /g/, but the tongue is pushed backwards
towards the so called uvula instead of up towards the hard palate. Voiced
pronunciation (similar to /g/) is more common between vowels, whereas
voiceless pronunciation (similar to /k/) is more common at the beginning
5 <c> https://youtu.be/3057MbWmH1k
6 <kh> https://youtu.be/y5AizU69VOA
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and end of words. YouTube 7 offers a helpful explanation and sound
illustration.
The <x> is rather similar to a voiceless /h/, but in order to pronounce /x/
the tongue root needs to be pushed backwards against the back of the
throat (the pharynx), in order to constrict the air flow into a narrow
channel, causing friction or turbulence. This sound is often perceived by
European as a “breathy” version of /h/. YouTube8 offers a helpful
explanation and sound illustration.
The letters <p>, <v>, <z> are not used in Somali since the corresponding
sounds are not phonemes, i.e., used to differentiate between Somali
words. However, the sound [p] is sometimes pronounced as a voiceless
version of /b/ at the beginning or end of words, as well as before another
voiceless consonant, e.g. kab [khap] shoe, kabta [khaptha] the shoe. The letter
<z> and the sound [z] are sometimes encountered in words of Arabic
origin, such as the woman’s name Zamzam. Some speakers prefer to
pronounce it with a voiced [z], but the purely Somali pronunciation
[samsam] is more frequent, and the purely Somali spelling is of course
Samsam.
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Intense consonants
Some Somali consonants exhibit a ”double”, more ”intense” version
alongside the simple consonant. These more intense consonants are
pronounced more distinctly, with more energy, and with a slightly longer
duration. There is variation between regions as well as speakers. Listen
carefully to native speakers.
Only seven intense consonants are spelled as double: <bb, dd, gg, mm, nn,
rr, ll>. Also some of the other consonants are in some regions pronounced
intensely in certain words, but they are never written with a double
consonant in standard Somali.
The realisation of word stress in Somali differs from the way stress is
realised in most European languages, where it is mainly a question of
realising a certain syllable or vowel with more energy. In Somali the main
feature of a stressed vowel is that it is pronounced with a higher pitch or
a higher tone than the rest of the word.
The Somali stress gives the word a ”melody”, and the position of the high
tone in the word can sometimes serve to differentiate between words that
are otherwise identical. In English there are often stress differences
between nouns and verbs as in We're going to record a record. Also in
Somali stress often serves to distinguish between grammatical categories.
The pitch tracks below show the pitch level in some of these words. (The
pitch is measured by the speed of the vibrations creating the sound.)
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ínan inán bád wéyn badwéyn
boy girl a big sea ocean
§ 3.4 Phonotactics
The phonotactics describes the general principles that govern the ways
sounds may be combined into words in a certain language.
The Somali syllable structure is very limited. There may not be more than
one consonant + one vowel + one consonant in a Somali syllable. This
means that Somali words can only begin and end with a single consonant,
and inside words there may not be more than two consonants next to each
other between vowels.
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Aádan Adam, fílin film, macállin teacher (from Arabic mucallim)
tágsi taxi,
buskud biscuit, cookie
Another exception to this principle is that /m/, and not /n/, is pronounced
before /b/, since that is much easier to say. Today people usually write
–mb–, but in the 1970’s it was very common to write –nb–, probably due
to the fact that corresponding words are spelled < ( > ـﻧﺑـnb) in Arabic.
There are however a few words where –nb– is the absolutely predominant
spelling, above all balanbaális butterfly and baranbáro cockroach.
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§ 4. Morpho-phonology
Morpho-phonology deals with sound changes that occur when endings
are added to words, either to derive (i.e. create) new words, or to inflect
words (i.e. create different grammatical forms of words).
Both these consonants are altered in different way after certain sounds.
These alternations are very important for the defininte article as well as
the demonstrative and possessive endings, but they also occur in certain
verb endings as well as in some other morphemes.
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Since this consonant alternation affects both the adjective and the verb, the
two words have to be written as one in the feminine.
In the spoken form of words, one can often also hear the influence of a
following /e/ or /o/, but such sound changes are usually not reflected by
the orthography. The most frequent spelling is, e.g., ilká-hooda their teeth,
ilká-heeda her teeth, but some people sometimes reflect this type of
assimilation in writing, especially in certain expressions, e.g.
Sometimes some poeple also apply this type of assimilation in the stem of
masculine nouns when the stem ends in /x/ or /c/ and the definite,
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possessive and demonstrative suffixes are realised without any initial con-
sonant.
9 Simlar principles exist in numerous other languages, such as Swedish, where the inserted
vowel is normally /e/.
fingrar fingers /fing_r/- finger finger
vakna awake (pl.) /vaːk_n/- vaken awake (sg.)
gamla old (pl.) /gam_l/- gammal old (sg.)
10 The sound change /m/ > /n/ also occurs since /m/ cannot occur word finally. See § 3.4.2.
11 The sound change /k/ > /g/ also occurs since /k/ cannot occur word finally. See § 3.4.2.
20
In a small number of words an /i/ is inserted instead.
maalmó /maal_m/- maalín day
xubnó /xub_n/- xubín member; body part
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§ 5. Contractions
In Somali, two or even more words often merge into a single word under
certain circumstances. Sometimes this only means that the words are
written together without being separated by an empty space, but most of
the time it also means that some sound is altered or lost.
maxáa uu → muxúu
maxáa ay → maxáy
These contractions are pronounced as one word. Only the very last part is
stressed and pronounced with a high tone.
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Contracted prepositions
If there is more than one preposition in the same clause, they have to
merge with each other. Between vowels /k/ changes to /g/ and between
two occurrences of ú an extra /g/ is inserted as a ”buffer”.
Note that all the three possible combinations of the two prepositions ku/ka
all result in one and the same contraction: kagá.
The is also a contraction kugú, but that one consists of the pronoun ku you
and the preposition kú in/on.
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Also note that the form ugú has two different meanings.
ugú < ú + kú: Sideé baa aad biyáha gúriga nadiíf ugú kaydsataa?
In what manner do you keep the water clean in the house?
= How do you keep the water fresh at home?
ugú < ú + ú Maxaa aynu dabka ugú baahan nahay?
For what are we in need of the fire? = What do we need fire for?
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Cuntádu xóog baa ay inoó yeeshaa.
the.food strength FOC it us.for makes
Food gives us STRENGTH.
Longer contractions
Also more than two words are often contracted.
Example
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Contractions with the particles baa / ayaa
The focus particles baa / ayaa obligatorily merge with the two basic
interrogative pronouns.
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§ 6. Nouns
Somali nouns are divided into two groups or grammatical genders:
MASCULINE nouns and FEMININE nouns. This is similar to the situation in,
e.g., French or Arabic. The gender of a noun is an important key to its
grammatical behviour, since Somali nouns can take on many different
endings that have differing forms depending on the noun’s gender.
The most important endings are the plural endings, the definite article
endings as well as the possessive and the demonstrative endings. They
correspond to the English definite, possessive and demonstrative
determiners, which in English are independent words. Somali also has
subject endings (see § 13.1.1) that mark the subject of a clause.
For other nouns the written form unfortunately does not reveal the
gender. The position of the stress (realised as a high tone) does however,
in most nouns, reflect the gender of the word, hence for most nouns it is
possible to hear the gender.
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Stress in nouns
When discussing the position of the high tone (the realisation of Somali
stress), it is important to understand that long vowels consist of two vowel
positions, whereas a short vowel only consists of one vowel position. This
is straight-forwardly reflected by the Somali spelling.
The vast majority of masculine nouns have the high tone on the second
last vowel position, while the vast majority of feminine nouns have their
high tone on the last vowel position. Exceptions are mainly the nouns
ending in -e/-o/-a in the singular (see § 6.1.3).
Among nouns having a short final vowel, feminine words therefore have
their high tone on the last syllable, whereas masculine nouns have the
high tone on the second last syllable.
MASC. FEM.
ínan boy inán girl
kúrsi chair bisád cat
áqal house gabádh girl
In nouns that have a long vowel in the final syllable, both masculine and
feminine words have their high tone on that final syllable, but in different
ways. The reason for that is that only one of the two vowel positions in the
long vowel is pronounced with higher tone than the rest of the word.
In masculine nouns, the first part of the long vowel carries the high tone,
and then the tone falls through the long vowel up until the end of the
word.
In feminine nouns only the last part of the long vowel carries the high
tone, resulting in a rising tone through the long vowel until the tone
reaches it peak at the end of the word.
MASC. FEM.
géed tree, plant beér garden, field, farm
dukáan shop khudaár vegetables and fruit
míis table liín citric fruit(s)
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In words with only one short vowel, it is however impossible to hear the
gender. You simply have to memorise it.
MASC. FEM.
nál lamp, electric light káb shoe
Nouns in –e/–o/–a
The nouns that in the singular end in -o/-a (feminines) or -e (masculines)
follow different rules. When these words are pronounced in isolation,
without any context, they are most often pronounced with the high tone
on the second last vowel position. However, if the word is part of a phrase
or a sentence, it is most often pronounced with the high tone on the last
vowel position.
Exceptions
There are a few exceptions to the principles for the placement of tone
described above.
A small number of masculine nouns have the high tone on the final vowel
position. Such nouns often end in /aa/, /i/ or /r/.
Lúul, Máryan
The names of many cities as well as countries ending in ‒(i)ya have their
high tone on the fourth vowel position counting from the end.
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Áfgooye a city close to Mogadishu, Gároowe the capital of Puntland
Itóobiya Etiopien, Kéenya Kenya, Soomáaliya Somalia
The initial consonant of the definite article suffix changes its shape
according to the immediately preceding sound (see § 4.1).
After the sounds /g, aa, i, y, w/ the masculine article becomes –ga.
Also after /o/ the feminine article becomes –da and the /o/ changes to /a/.
After /dh/ the feminine article becomes just –a in writing, but /dh/ is
pronounced more intensely.
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gabádh (a) girl gabádha the girl
After /l/ the feminine article becomes –sha, and the /l/ disappears.
The high tone is generally not affected by the addition of the definite
article suffix.
Only in words that end in /e, o, a/, the high tone is “shifted” to the final
vowel position before the definite article suffix. At the same time, both /o/
and /e/ also change to /a/.
but
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Generic definite form
Generic use of a noun means that the noun is used in a generalising way
with reference to the whole category of such objects, not with reference to
any specific, existing object(s). In English the definite singular form is
sometimes used this way, e.g. Why does the spider have eight legs? It is as if
we treated one spider as a prototype for all the spiders in the world. This
is very common in Somali.
Díinku waxa uu léeyahay lugó gaagaaban. The turtle has short legs.
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§ 6.4 The Indefinite Plural of Nouns
There are four ways to create the plural of Somali nouns.
3. MASCULINE nouns with only one syllable in the singular usually form
their plural by reduplication. First the vowel –á‒ is added and then the
final consonant of the singular form is repeated.
If the stem ends in –i then a –y– is inserted before the plural ending –ó.
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More about masculine plural forms in –ó
Masculine nouns that do not end in –e in the singular and contain more
than one syllable take the ending –ó in the plural.
Before the ending –ó, the consonants /b/, /d/, /r/, /l/, /n/, and /m/ are
normally doubled, but not /g/.
After other sounds, which are not doubled, the consonant /y/ is added
before the plural ending.
The same holds for compounds that end in /d/ and several foreing
borrowings.
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sg. /xar_f/ > xáraf (m.) letter (of the alphabet)
pl. /xar_f/-/o/ > xarfó letters
(b) A few words have a stem ending in a consonant + /y/. In those words
the singular instead ends in the vowel /i/.
(c) If the stem ends in /m/ or /k/, this fact is not evident from the singular
form. These sounds may only occur if they are followed by a vowel. The
word’s stem is only evident in the plural, since the alternations /m/ > /n/
and /k/ > /g/ must occur word finally.
(d) In some words vowel insertion and consonant alternation occur at the
same time.
In a few words the inserted vowel is not a copy of the vowel already
present in the stem.
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§ 6.5 The Definite Plural of Nouns
The plural definite form depends on the gender of the noun and the final
sound of the word. For masculine nouns also the length of the word plays
a crucial role.
If the indefinite plural ends in –ó, the definite form will end in ‒áha.
36
(c) A small number of other masculine nouns have a plural form in –ó with
just two syllables. Their definite form ends in –áha.
(d) Masculine nouns with more than two syllables in the indefinite plural
form take the definite article –ta, ‒da, ‒sha.
(f) All other regular masculine nouns have a definite plural form ending
in –áda. The majority of masculine nouns belong to this type.
37
(c) A couple of words take the uncommon plural endings –yaabó / –yaaló.
(d) A few nouns do not form the plural according to the general rules for
their gender. Instead, the plural form is based on the rules for the opposite
gender.
Alongside sánnad, there is also a parallel form sáno, sanáda, pl. sanoóyin
–ka, which is feminine and completely regular.
(e) A small group of nouns have an irregular plural form alongside the
regular form.
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§ 6.7 Arabic Plural Forms
In Arabic it is common to form the plural through vowel alternation in the
stem of the word. Some such forms are used also in Somali. The definite
article is then –ta or –da.
saaxíib, saaxíibka the friend Arabic pl. asxaáb, asxaábta the friends
regular pl. saaxiibbó, saaxiibbáda the friends
kúrsi, kúrsiga the chair Arabic pl. kuraás, kuraásta the chairs
regular pl. kursiyó, kursiyáda the chairs
This Arabic pattern has sometimes also spread to borrowings from other
languages.
búug, búugga the book Arabic pl. buugaág, buugaágta the books
regular pl. (rare) buugág, buugágga the books
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§ 6.8 The Counting Form of Nouns
After numbers larger than hál one, Somali nouns are not used in their
plural form, but in a special counting form. Only feminine nouns with the
plural ending –ó have a separate counting form that ends in –ood. For all
other nouns the counting form is equal to the singular form.
MASCULINE FEMININE
búug book bisád cat
buugaág books bisadó cats
hál buug one book hál bisad one cat
labá buug two books labá bisadood two cats
The counting form is also used after certain other words that express
quantity, e.g. ímmisa how many, dhowr a few.
Examples
The numeral and the following noun constitute a noun phrase, and the
end of a noun phrase is often marked by a non-obligatory high tone.
No other endings can be added after -ood of the counting form. Other
endings must be added to the numeral which is the head noun of the
phrase.
For more details about noun phrases with numerals, see § 12.1.8 and
§ 12.1.9.
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§ 6.9 Countability
Some English nouns are very rarely used in the plural, e.g. childhood, flour,
Andrew, London. Also in Somali there are many such words. There are also
many words that are completely impossible to put in the plural.
Collective nouns
The typical trait of a collective noun is that the word form carries no plural
ending. The singular form refers to several persons or objects. English
collective nouns are e.g. police, staff, cattle. There is often a variation
between the singular and plural form of verbs used with such nouns, e.g.
The staff is/are very efficient.
Collective nouns cannot be used when referring to only one single person,
animal or object.
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Nouns with singular, plural & collective form
A number of Somali masculine nouns have a feminine collective form
alongside the regular plural form.
SINGULAR PLURAL
MASC. baabúur, baabúurka baabuurró, baabuurráda
car the car cars the cars
búug, búugga buugaág, buugaágta
book the book (buugág, buugágga)
COLLECTIVE books the books
FEM. baabuúr, baabuúrta
cars the cars
buúg, buúgta
books books
There are also a few cases where a singular form is derived from the
collective form with a suffix.
COLLECTIVE
MASC. digáag, digáagga
chicken, hens
SINGULAR PLURAL
FEM. digaagád, digaagádda digaagadó, digaagadáha
hen hens
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Nouns with only singular & collective form
Some nouns don’t have any plural form, only a masculine singular form
and a feminine collective form.
SINGULAR PLURAL
MASC. Soomaáli, Soomaáliga the Somali –
árday, árdayga the pupil –
askári, askáriga the soldier –
COLLECTIVE
FEM. Soomaalí, Soomaalída the Somalis
ardaý, ardaýda the pupils
or ardó, ardáda the pupils
askár, askárta the soldiers
There are also a few cases where a singular form is derived from the
collective form with a suffix.
COLLECTIVE
MASC. haweén, haweénka the women
SINGULAR PLURAL
FEM. haweéney, haweéneyda the woman –
Group nouns
There are also collective nouns that denote a group of objects, e.g. family.
These groups are however countable and can be put in the plural in the
ordinary way.
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Plural Only Nouns
(a) Two Somali nouns denoting substances only have a plural form.
English nouns of this type are leftovers and oats.
(b) The plural forms habló girls, idó sheep and xooló cattle also lack a
corresponding singular form, but as expected they do denote several
living beings. The exceptional thing about them is that if you want to say
something about a single individual, you have to choose another,
synonymous word, e.g. gabádh / gabár or inán for girl and sác cow or díbi
bull, ox etc.
44
§ 7. Formation of Nouns
Somali nouns are formed in similar ways as English nouns. There are both
compounds and words which are formed by adding different endings.
§ 7.1 Persons
The ending –e is used to form many words that denote a person who
carries out a certain task.
Other, less common endings with the same meaning are –aá and –áal.
The ending –le denotes an owner or somebody who has a job related to an
object. A vowel immediately before the suffix -le usually becomes long.
The same ending sometimes denotes a person with some kind of problem.
45
Female persons
The ending –ád is commonly used to form feminine nouns denoting a
person.
MASCULINE FEMININE
macállin macallimád teacher
árday ardayád student, pupil
MASCULINE FEMININE
adeége adeégto servant < adéeg service
kalkaalíye kalkaalíso nurse
karíye karíso cook < kariyaa cooks
Collectives
The two feminine endings –ley and –to/–so are also used to form collective
nouns.
46
The suffix –áal is used to form nouns denoting the result of an action.
Just like the English word smile may be both a verb and a noun, Somali
also has many pairs of a verb and a noun where it is not clear which word
is derived from the other. Both consist of only a root and grammatical
endings.
The most common endings serving to derive nouns from verbs are:
–íd (or sometimes –ís) if the imperative (see § 11.9) ends in a consonant,
qoraa writes, qór! write!, qoríd -da (f.), qorís -ta (f.) (the) writing
–n (or sometimes –s) if the imperative ends in –i,
akhriyaa reads, ákhri! read!, akhrín -ta (f.), ákhris -ka (m.) (the) reading
–n if the imperative ends in –ee (which changes into ‒ay‒ / ‒ey‒),
sameeyaa makes, samée! make!, samaýn/sameýn -ta (f.) (the) making
–sho if the imperative ends in –o (which changes into ‒a‒).
booqdaa visits, booqó! visit!, booqásho -da (f.) (the) visit(ing)
bartaa learns, baró! learn!, barásho -da (f.) (the) learning
47
Some other, less frequent endings are, e.g.
–itaan
furaa opens, furitáan -ka opening (ceremony)
besides furíd -da opening (in general)
baaraa investigates, baaritáan -ka, baarís -ta, baaríd -da investigation
§ 7.4 Compounds
There are several different types of compound nouns. The common trait
is that a compound noun only has one high tone (one stress) and only one
definite article at the end of the whole compound.
Many are formed just by joning two roots, as in the example above. Others
are formed with the addition of a suffix, often –éed or -e.
Notice that verbal nouns are often compounds consisting of e.g. a verb
and its object, and that such compounds only have one high tone (stress).
48
If prepositions or other preverbal particles precede a verbal noun, they
become prefixes, hence part of the noun, and loose the high tone (stress)
that they have before a verb form.
49
§ 8. Numerals
(a) In Somali, numerals are not a separate word class. They are simply
nouns, just like pair, trio or dozen are nouns in English. When an ending is
added to a phrase beginning with a numeral, the ending is added to the
numeral, not to the following noun (see also § 12.1.8). The noun after the
numeral is in the counting form (see § 6.7). The counting form does not
permit the addition of any further endings.
(b) The Somali numbers 2–8 are feminine nouns, whereas all higher
numbers are masculine. Ków (1) is feminine, whereas hál (1) and éber (0)
are masculine. The numbers 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, and 100 have a high tone that is
exceptional with respect to the gender of the word.
0 éber (m.)
1 ków (f.) / hál (m.) 10 tobán (m.)
2 lábo / lába (f.) 20 labaátan (m.) (–tan < toban)
3 sáddex (f.) 30 sóddon (m.)
4 áfar (f.) 40 afártan (m.)
5 shán (f.) 50 kónton (m.)
6 líx (f.) 60 líxdan (m.)
7 toddóbo / toddóba (f.) 70 toddobaátan (m.)
8 siddéed (f.) 80 siddeétan (m.)
9 sagaál (m.) 90 sagaáshan (m.) /l+t/ > /sh/
100 boqól (m.)
200 labá boqol
300 sáddex boqol …
1000 kún
4000 áfar kun
1000000 milyan (or malyuun)
50
(c) In complex numbers, ków is always used. It is also used when simply
counting one, two, three, four…
sáddex, hál, áfar, siddéed three, one, four, eight (e.g. a PIN code)
hál buug one book
hál i síi give me one
51
§ 9. Pronouns
Somali has fewer genuine pronouns than English. Nouns dominate in
Somali and they are also used as the equivalents of many English
pronouns or pronominal adverbs. In such pronominal functions, these
nouns are often used with demonstrative endings such as -kan / -tan this,
-kaa(s) / -taa(s) that (see § 9.3), the interrogative endings -keé / -teé? / -má?
which? (see § 9.5), or the negative particles -ná or -bá.
52
§ 9.1 Personal Pronouns
SHORT SUBJECT FORMS SHORT OBJECT FORMS
1 p. sing. aan I i me
2 p. sing. aad you ku you
3 p. sing. m. uu he, it – him, it
3 p. sing. f. ay she, it – her, it
LONG FORMS
1 p. sing. aníga I, me
2 p. sing. adíga you
3 p. sing. masc. isága he, him (it)
3 p. sing. fem. iyáda she, her (it)
53
This also applies if there is a preposition in the clause, but no noun for that
preposition to refer to.
Example
The long personal pronouns are mostly used to refer to people. The third
person long pronouns may also be used to refer to animals, but quite
seldom to inanimate objects or abstract nouns. In those instances
demonstrative pronouns are preferred instead of personal pronouns.
Example
54
An example of the distinction might be when some parents tell their
children that We are going to a party on Saturday. This might mean that the
children have to stay at home (excluding them from the we) or that they
can also come (including them in the we). In standard Somali it is possible
to express this distinction through the choice of pronoun.
INCLUDING EXCLUDING
Long personal pronoun innága annága
Short subject pronoun aynu aannu
Short object pronoun ina na
Short object pronoun + ú inoó noó
Possessive pronoun kéenna, téenna kaayága, taayáda
55
The reflexive object pronoun is
The pronoun is corresponds to both oneself and each other, i.e. it has both a
reflexive and a reciprocal meaning.
It is used in the 1st and 2nd person just as well as in the 3rd person.
The singular forms of these pronouns are also added as endings to nouns,
both in the singular and in the plural. The initial consonant of the
demonstrative ending is always identical to the consonant of the definite
article. See § 4.1 and § 6.3.
56
káb mindí (a) shoe, knife
kábta mindída the shoe, knife
kábtan mindídan this shoe, knife
kábtaas mindídaas that sjhoe, knife
kábtii mindídii that shoe, knife, you know
12 /i/ in the suffix spreads across /h/ so that a preceding /a/ becomes assimilated. See § 4.2.1.
57
básan / báskaanS gúrigan / gúrigaanS this bus, house
basáskan / basáskaanS guryáhan / guryáhaanS these buses, houses
Examples
(a) The basic function is to refer to objects that are not present, but are
considered to be known from before to both the speaker and the listener.
Example
(b) Sometimes the speaker only pretends that the object is known to the
listener, or implies that it ought to be known to most people. This is often
the case with main characters in stories or prominent characters in real
life.
Example
Example
58
Waa immisadii? What time is it?
Waa shantii. It’s five o’clock.
Waa saddexdii iyo badhkii. It’s half past three.
Example
Placeholder pronouns
MASC.SING. FEM.SING PLURAL
the ka ta kúwa
a ku tu kúwo
59
§ 9.3 Possessive pronouns
The idependent possessive pronouns have two different gender forms in
the singular and a one common form in the plural.
The singular forms of these pronouns are also added as endings to both
singular and plural nouns. The initial consonant of the possessive ending
is always identical to the consonant of the definite article. See § 4.1 and
§ 6.3.
60
báska the bus gúriga the house
báskayga my bus gúrigayga my house
báskaaga your bus gúrigaaga your house
báskiisa his bus gúrigiisa his house
báskooda their bus gúrigooda their house
Notice that at the end of the possessive pronouns and endings, there is
actually a definite article, e.g., gúrigayga my house. Also in many other
languages the possessive pronouns are used together with the definite
article, e.g. Italian la mia casa = gúrigayga my house.
13 /i/ in the suffix spreads across /h/ so that a preceding /a/ becomes assimilated. See § 4.2.1.
61
Words that are used with the short possessive endings are above all hoóyo
mother, aábbe father, waálid parents, walaál sibling, habaryár maternal aunt,
abtí maternal uncle, eéddo paternal aunt, adeér paternal uncle, ayeéyo grand-
mother, awoówe grandfather, saaxíib friend, saaxiibád female friend.14
The full possessive endings are however used with nouns that do not
exclusively denote denote a relationship between two persons, such as nín
man; husband, wíil boy; son, gabádh/gabár girl; daughter, as well as the
collective noun carruúr children.
saaxiibádday my (girl)friend
saaxiibáddayda cusub my new (girl)friend
walaálkay my brother
walaálkayga weyn my older brother
Aaminá aabbáhood
Amina’s father (lit. Amina their father, i.e. her and and her siblings’ father)
Rooblé fásalkooda
Roble’s class (lit. Roble their class, i.e. his and his classmates’ class)
14 Also in Italian there is a similar distinction between, e.g., la mia casa ‘my house’, with the
article, and mia sorella ‘my sister’, without it.
62
adíga dériskiinna
your neighbours (lit. you (SG) your (PL) neighbours, i.e. your and your
family’s neighbours)
With certain other nouns the short possessive suffixes are preferred.
63
§ 9.4 Interrogative pronouns
Almost all interrogatives in Somali contain one of the two interrogative
morphemes /ee/ and /ma/.
The singular forms keé and teé may also be added as endings to nouns,
both in the singular and in the plural. The high tone then disappears from
the stem of the noun. The initial consonant of the possessive ending is
always identical to the consonant of the definite article. See § 4.1 and § 6.3.
64
Magacáa? 15 (What’s) your name?
Magacéed? (What’s) her name?
Magacíis? (What’s) his name?
15 Notice that /k/ in the possessive suffixes is lost after a stem that ends in /c/.
65
§ 10. Adjectives
Somali doesn’t have as many basic, non-derived adjectives as English.
Some of the most frequent ones are:
Many adjectives are also derived from nouns through the suffix –eéd.
Ordinal Numbers
Ordinal numbers are adjectives. They are all formed in a regular way by
adding the adjectival suffix –aád to the cardinal noun.
66
3 = sáddex three 3aad = saddexaád third
4 = áfar four 4aad = afraád / afaraád fourth
5 = shán five 5aad = shanaád fifth
Phrasal adjectives
Often phrases consisting of a noun + an adjective behave like adjectives,
not like noun phrases. Compare:
They most often contain one of the adjectives badan much, weyn big, yar
small, e.g. qurúx badan beautiful, dá’ weyn old. The main high tone is on
the noun, and the adjective usually has a less prominent high tone or no
tone at all.
Just like in the above example, the modifier noun (dhágaxa) has to be in
the defininte form if the head noun (meeláha) is in the definite form or if
it has a demonstrative or possessive ending.
67
§ 10.2 The Inflection of Adjectives
Somali adjectives have very few inflectional forms. The gender and
definiteness of a noun has no effect on an accompaying adjective.
68
Sound alternations in the stem
Some adjectives exhibit sound alternations in the stem, so that the base
form of the adjective differs from other forms with an ending.
69
§ 11. Verbs
Almost all Somali verbs are inflected in a completely regular and
predictable way. There are only six irregular verbs.
Just like in French, German, Finnish, Russian, Arabic and many other
languages, there are different verb forms in Somali for the first person (I,
we), the second person (you) and the third person (he, she, it, they) in the
singular as well as in the plural. In the third person singular there are also
different forms for the masculine (he) and the feminine (she), as in Arabic.
The suffix /t/ expresses the 2nd person (you), both singular and plural, as
well as the feminine 3rd person singular (she).
70
§ 11.2 The Past Tense
The past tense is expressed by the suffix /ay/ word finally, and by /ee/
when followed by /n/. The suffixes expressing person and number are
exactly the same as in the present tense.
In the examples below, only the present tense forms are given, but of
course, the exact same alternations also occur in the past tense.
71
Conjugation 1
This group mainly contains verbs with a stem that ends in a consonant.
(a) If the stem ends in /d, y, w, c, h, x, kh, q, ´/ a following /t/ becomes /d/,
just like it does in the different suffixes that are added to nouns. See § 4.1.
(b) The /t/ in the suffixes merges with a preceding /l/ in the stem. The result
is /sh/.
72
(c) The /t/ in the suffixes merges with a preceding /dh/ in the stem. The
result is a long /dhdh/. This is however not reflected in the spelling, since
the letter <dh> is never doubled.
Such forms with non-initial /dh/ occur mainly in the north-west. In the
nort-east, the centre and the south, /dh/ is usually replaced by /r/, which
does not lead to any sound alternations.
(d) If the stem ends in /k/ or /m/, this consonant alternates with /g/ and /n/
before endings beginning with a consonant. The reason is that /k/ and /m/
can only occur when directly followed by a vowel.
73
(e) If the stem ends in two consonants, they must be separated by an
inserted vowel when the following ending begins with a consonant. A
cluster of three consonants is impossible in Somali. Usually, it is the vowel
already present in the stem that is copied.
(f) Some verbs exhibit both vowel insertion and consonant alternation.
The inserted vowel in the last verb is unexpected, since it is not a copy of
the vowel in the root.
74
(g) If the stem ends in /aab/, an alternation with /ow/ occurs before endings
beginning with a consonant.
Conjugation 2
This group contains mainly verbs with a stem ending in /i/ or /ee/.
When the ending begins with a vowel, the consonant /y/ is inserted as a
buffer between the vowel of the stem and that in the suffix.
(a) A /t/ in the ending changes to /s/ after the vowel /i/.
Between vowels the /n/ in the 1st person plural ending becomes /nn/.
75
(b) A final long /ee/ in the stem changes to the diphthong /ey/ when the
ending begins with a consonant. Spelling with <ay> is more common.
According to conjugation 2 we find the alternation /t/ > /s/ after /i/.
According to conjugation 1 we find the alternation /t/ > /d/ after /i/.
76
Conjugation 3
This group contains mainly verbs with a stem ending in /t/. As a beginner
it is easy to mistake such masculine 3rd person singular forms for feminine
forms. This /t/ is used to derive new verbs, especially autobenefactive16
verbs, from other verbs or nouns.
Verbs in conjugation 3 have two different inflectional stems, one when the
ending begins with a vowel and another when the ending begins with a
consonant.
Before an ending that begins with a consonant, the stem ends in a vowel
and that stem is therefore called the vowel stem.
Before an ending that begins with a vowel, the sem ends in a consonant
and that stem is therefore called the consonant stem.
Notice that the 1st person plural always ends in –nnaa in conjugation 3.
(a) In the most basic cases, the consonant stem ends in /t/ whereas the
vowel stem ends in /a/.
Autobenefactive verbs express actions that have some positive effect for the person carrying
16
77
(b) After the consonants /d, y, w, c, h, x, kh, q, ´/, the stem final /t/ is
replaced by /d/. See § 4.1.
1 sg booqd-aa visits
2 sg booqa-taa
3 sg.m. booqd-aa
3 sg.f. booqa-taa
1 pl. booqa-nnaa
2 pl. booqa-taan
3 pl. booqd-aan
78
(d) Several verbs in conjugation 3 have a consonant stem ending in /aad/,
whereas the vowel stem just ends in /aa/. This mainly happens in verbs
that are derived from adjectives.
This verb is derived from the adjective dhan whole, all, which has the
stem /dhamm/.
79
(f) A few verbs in conjugation 3 have a consonant stem that in the north-
west ends in /dhdh/ [dh:], whereas in the south and east it ends in /rt/ (and
inflects in the most basic way). The intense pronunciation of /dhdh/ [dh:]
is of course not reflected by the spelling. The vowel stem ends in /dha/ in
the north-west and /ra/ in the south and east.
(g) A couple of verbs have a vowel stem ending in /o/ instead of /a/.
1 sg socd-aa walks
2 sg soco-taa
3 sg.m. socd-aa
3 sg.f. soco-taa
1 pl. soco-nnaa
2 pl. soco-taan
3 pl. socd-aan
80
§ 11.4 The Infinitive
The infinitive has two different endings depending on the conjugation, i.e.
whether the stem ends in a consonant or in a vowel. Verbs in conjugation
1 take the ending –i, which is the used after a consonant, whereas verbs in
conjugation 2 and 3 take the ending –n, used after a vowel. In the
infinitive, there is always a high tone on the last vowel position of the
stem, before the ending.
PRESENT INFINITIV
CONJUGATION 1 –i qor-taa qór-i write
CONJUGATION 2 –n akhri-saa akhrí-n read
samay-saa samaý-n do, make
CONJUGATION 3 –n haysa-taa haysá-n have, hold
soco-taa socó-n walk
A handful of verbs with a stem ending in a vowel has two infinitive forms,
since they exhibit a variation between conjugation 1 and 2, e.g.
The Somali infinitive form is far less frequently used than the English
infinitive. It only occurs together with a few auxiliary verbs such as
doonaa, doontaa will, jiray, jirtay used to, karaa, kartaa can, lahaa, lahayd
would (have), rabaa, rabtaa intends, waayaa, waydaa is unable…
81
§ 11.5 Progressive verb forms
Somali, just like English, has simple and progressive verb forms, but only
in the present and the past tense. The progressive forms contain the
progressive suffix /ay/. It precedes the person, number and tense endings.
In all progressive forms a following /t/ changes to /s/ since the progressive
suffix ends in /y/.
There is always a high tone on the last vowel position before the
progressive suffix /ay/.
82
In conjugation 2 and 3, the progressive suffix is always preceded by an
/n/, since the progressive forms are based on the infinitive.
Also, the verb stem doon‒ has developed a meaning difference between
the simple and the progressive forms. The simple forms doonaa, doontaa
are used as future tense auxiliary, corresponding to English will, whereas
the progressive forms doónayaa, doónaysaa are have the modal meaning
wants (to).
83
§ 11.6 The Habitual Past Tense
The habitual past consists of the infinitive of the main verb followed by
the auxiliary jiray, jirtay used to in the simple past.
The habitual past tense expresses actions that occurred repeatedly in the
past.
84
§ 11.7 The Future Tense
The future tense consists of the infinitive of the main verb followed by the
auxiliary doonaa, doontaa will in the simple present tense.
85
§ 11.8 Survey of tenses and aspects
ASPECT:
TENSE: SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE HABITUAL
PAST I sang I was singing I used to sing
1 sg heesay heésayay heési jiray
2 sg heestay heésaysay heési jirtay
3 sg.m. heesay heésayay heési jiray
3 sg.f. heestay heésaysay heési jirtay
1 pl. heesnay heésaynay heési jirnay
2 pl. heesteen heésayseen heési jirteen
3 pl. heeseen heésayeen heési jireen
86
§ 11.9 Reduced verb forms
The full inflection of Somali verbs generally consists of five distinct forms
representing: he=I; she=you(SG); we; you(PL); they.
Alongside the full inflection, there is also a reduced inflection with only
three distinctive forms representing: he=I=you=they; she; we.
The reduced verb inflection only has the suffix –t– in the feminine
3rd person sg. (she) och the suffix –n– in the 1st person pl. (we). Further-
more, the reduced present tense forms have a short –a instead of the long
–aa that is found in the full forms.
There are reduced forms for all the tenses and aspects.
ASPECT:
TENSE: SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE HABITUAL
PAST heesay heésayay heési jiray
3 sg.f. heestay heésaysay heési jirtay
1 pl. heesnay heésaynay heési jirnay
87
The reduced forms are used in two contexts:
– in positive main clauses, if the subject of the clause is focused,
– in positive relative clauses, if the clause does not contain any word
expressing the subject, i.e. the subject of the subclause is the head noun
(the antecedent) of the subclause.
Examples
88
§ 11.10 The Subjunctive Mood
The subjunctive mood forms express actions that are not taking place in
the real world. They may be imaginary, wished for, hoped for, or simply
not occurring at all. These forms are therefore mainly used
- in negative clauses,
- in subordinate clauses containing a subject word and
- in wishes and indirect commands (optative constructions).
ASPECT:
TENSE: SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE HABITUAL
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
heesin heésayn(in) heési jirin
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
1 sg heeso heésayo
2 sg heesto heésayso
/ heestid / heésaysid
3 sg.m. heeso heésayo
3 sg.f. heesto heésayso
1 pl. heesno heésayno
2 pl. heestáan heésaysáan
3 pl. heesáan heésayáan
FUTURE SUBJUNCTIVE
1 sg heési doono
2 sg heési doonto
/ heési doontid
3 sg.m. heési doono
3 sg.f. heési doonto
1 pl. heési doonno
2 pl. heési doontáan
3 pl. heési doonáan
89
present tense. However, the subjunctive –áan has a high tone on the
second to last vowel position, pronounced as a falling tone over the
duration of the long /aa/.
In the 2nd person singular, there are two alternative endings: –to or –tid.
The longer one has a somewhat higher stilistic value.
In the past subjunctive there aren’t different forms for the different
persons and numbers, only one common form that generally ends in –(i)n.
SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE
CONJUGATION 1 –in –aynin / –ayn
CONJUGATION 2 & 3 –nin / –n –naynin / –nayn
90
Reduced Subjunctive Forms
When there are at the same time two reasons to use the subjunctive forms,
special reduced forms are used instead of the full forms presented above.
ASPECT:
TENSE: SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE HABITUAL
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
heesin heésayn(in) heési jirin
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
heesin heésayn(in)
FUTURE SUBJUNCTIVE
heési doonin
Example
91
1 sg aan heéso let me sing
2 sg aad heésto / aad heéstid you should sing
3 sg.m. há heeso let/make him sing
3 sg.f. há heesto let/make her sing
1 pl. aan heésno let’s sing
2 pl. aad heéstaan / aad heésteen you should sing
3 pl. há heesaan / há heeseen let/make them sing
Instead of the subjunctive forms in –aan, the past tense forms in –een are
frequently used.
92
§ 11.11 The Imperative Mood
The imperative singular form has no ending. It therefore equals the stem
of the verb.
In most imperative forms, the high tone is always on the second to last
vowel position. The only exception are verbs in conjugation 3, whose
imperative singular form ends in a high-toned –ó.
Conjugation 1
In conjugation 3, the vowel stem is used in the singular and the consonant
stem in the plural. However, the final /a/ of the vowel stem changes to /o/
in the imperative, since it becomes word final.17
The same type of alternation is found in feminine nouns like hoóyo mor, hooyáda modern,
17
with /o/ in word final position, but /a/ when a suffix is added.
93
bilaab-aa bilow-daa begins bilow bilaab-a begin!
ogaad-aa ogaa-taa finds out ogow ogaad-a find out!
In most forms the tone goes on the second to last vowel position, just like
in the imperative.
CONJUGATION 1
CONJUGATION 2
CONJUGATION 3
94
§ 11.12 Irregular verbs
Somali has six irregular verbs. They are partly inflected through prefixes.
The two most irregular verbs are yahay is and leeyahay has. The other four
are yaallaa lies, yaqaannaa knows, yimaaddaa comes, and yiraahdaa says.
PRESENT is REDUCED
1 sg. ahay 1 pl. nahay all persons
2 sg. tahay 2 pl. tihiin ah
3 sg. m. yahay 3 pl. yihiin
3 sg. f. tahay
NEGATIVE isn’t
1 sg. má ihi (ahi) 1 pl. má ahin (ihin)
2 sg. má tihid 2 pl. má tihin
3 sg.m./f./pl. má aha
PAST was
1 sg. ahaa 1 pl. ahayn
2 sg. ahayd 2 pl. ahaydeen
3 sg. m. ahaa 3 pl. ahaayeen
3 sg. f. ahayd
NEGATIVE wasn’t
all persons má ahayn
INFINITIVE be
ahaán
IMPERATIVE be!
2nd sg. ahów
2nd pl. ahaáda
95
Lägg till alla foremr, dvs. konjunktiv och progressiva former av alla oreg.
verb, optativ, prohibitiv, negativ, även (waa in uu) ahaadaa, (waa in ay)
ahaataa, ha ahaado (madaxweyne), ahaado, ahaato, ahaanno, ahaataan,
ahaadaan, se p. 53 So3
All forms that begin with ah– as well as all negative forms are contracted
with a preceding adjective. Since ah– disappears, the reduced present
tense form lack any trace of the verb, leaving the adjective on its own.
NEGATIVE wasn’t
all persons má yarayn
INFINITIVE be small
yaraán
IMPERATIVE be small!
2nd sg. yarów
2nd pl. yaraáda
Lägg till konjunktiv och progressiva former av alla oreg. verb, optativ,
prohibitiv, negativ, noolaan nool yahay noolaadaa nool
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ahaadaa, weynaan, weyn yahay weynaadaa, Ha murugeysanaan(in)! , Ma
murugeysan-aan , ma weyn-a
The verb yahay doesn’t have present subjunctive forms in the way regular
verbs do. Instead three different forms are used in different functions.
In subclauses, the basic main clause forms are normally used, i.e. ahay,
yahay, tahay, nahay, tihiin, yihiin.
Finally, there are subjunctive forms ending in –o, which are mainly used
in the optative construction, ha ahaado, ha ahaato…, and after waa in
must, ought to.
(iii) The reduced verb form ah, used with focused subjects, is omitted after
an adjective. The symbol is used to represent the omitted verb.
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§ 11.12.1b Different equivalents of English ‘is’
yahay is (mainly describing some kind of quality)
jiraa exists, dwells, is present. This verb is mainly used to express the
existence of something as opposed to non-existence. A place is often
expressed in clauses with this verb. The place is usually expressed without
any preposition before the verb.
joogaa stands, stays, is located, is present. This verb is mainly used when
telling the place where a living being is. It is mostly used without a any
preposition.
yaallaa is positioned, lies, is situated. This verb is mainly used when telling
the place where an object is. This verb is mostly used with the preposition
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ku to refer to a position inside a room or space, but without a preposition
when refering to a position on a surface.
NEGATIVE hasn’t
1 sg. má lihi 1 pl. má lihin
2 sg. má lihid 2 pl. má lihidin
3 sg. m./f./pl. má laha
PAST had
1 sg. lahaa 1 pl. lahayn
2 sg. lahayd 2 pl. lahaydeen
3 sg. m. lahaa 3 pl. lahaayeen
3 sg. f. lahayd
NEGATIVE hadn’t
all persons má lahayn
INFINITIVE have
lahaán
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§ 11.12.2a Different equivalents of English ‘has’
leeyahay – is used to express that you own something or have a relation
to something or somebody; you don’t need to have it with you.
haystaa – is used to express that you have something with you; you have
it, you hold it or you use it, but you are not necessarily the owner of it.
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The inflection of yaqaannaa ‘knows’
1 SG. aqaannaa / aqaan
2 SG. taqaannaa / taqaan
3 SG.M. yaqaannaa / yaqaan
3 SG.F. taqaannaa / taqaan
1 PL. naqaannaa / naqaan
PRESENT
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The inflection of yimaaddaa ‘comes’
1 SG. imaaddaa
2 SG. timaaddaa
3 SG.M. yimaaddaa
3 SG.F. timaaddaa
1 PL. nimaadnaa
PRESENT
2 PL. timaaddaan
3 PL. yimaaddaan
1 SG. imid / imi (imaadday)
2 SG. timid / timi (timaadday)
3 SG.M. yimid / yimi (yimaadday)
3 SG.F. timid / timi (timaadday)
1 PL. nimid / nimi (nimaadnay)
2 PL. timaaddeen
PAST
3 PL. yimaaddeen
IMPERATIVE kaálay, kaaláyaN
imów, imaádaS
INFINITIVE imanN / imaanS
PROGRESSIVE imanayaaN / imaanayaaS
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The inflection of yiraahdaa ‘says’
1 SG. iraahdaaS / idhaahdaaN / dhahaaS
2 SG. tiraahdaa / tidhaahdaa / dhahdaa
3 SG.M. yiraahdaa / yidhaahdaa / dhahaa
PRESENT
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§ 11.13 Formation of verbs
A verb and a noun often have exactly the same stem. It is then difficult to
says which is derived from the other.
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yar small yareeyaa, yaraysaa sb. makes sth. small, reduces
wasakh dirt, filth wasakheeyaa, wasakhaysaa sb. akes sth. dirty, pollutes
Notice that the /i/ of the suffix influences an /a/ in the root of certain verbs.
If the root ends in /x/, /c/ or / ’/, the /a/ tends to change to /i/.
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If the root ends in another consonant, the /a/ tends to change to /e/.
/g/ and/q/ change into /j/ before the causative suffix /i/.
In a few verbs also /l/ changes into /j/ before causative /i/.
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Verbs in ‒siiyaa
These verbs are also causatives. They are formed through the addition of
the simple verb siiyaa gives and they express that a person carries out
some action that has an impact on another person or an object.
An /l/ in the root merges with the /s/ and gives /sh/.
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waan dhisnaa waan dhisannaa
waad dhistaan waad dhisataan
way dhisaan way dhistaan
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§ 12. Phrases & Word Order
A simple Somali clause consists of three types of phrases:
– NOUN PHRASES,
– A PARTICLE PHRASE,
– A VERB PHRASE.
Often there is only one distinct high tone per phrase, namely the first one,
and the following potential high tones are pronounced less distinctly.
The end of a noun phrase is often marked by a high tone, but doing so is
not obligatory. Often, there is only one distinct high tone per noun phrase,
while other ”potential” high tones are not realised distinctly.
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magaálo a city
magaaló wéyn a big city
báre a teacher
baré wanaagsan a good teacher
Nouns as modifiers
Modifiers follow after the noun that they modify.
(a) In Somali the owner of an object may simply be placed after the owned
object. The owned object is generally in the definite form.
The end of the noun phrase is often marked by a high tone on the final
vowel position of the modifier, but they may also be pronounced without
any distinct high tone.
For masculine modifier nouns this generally means that their high tone is
shifted from the second to last vowel position, or that they are pronounced
without any distinct high tone at all.
Áxmed Ahmed
gúriga Axméd or gúriga Axmed Ahmed’s house
(b) Women’s names that do not end in –o/–a often have their high tone on
the second last vowel position. Such an ”irregular” feminie tone generally
remains unchanged also as a modfier.
(c) If the owner is in the definite form, the high tone remains in its original
position, but sometimes an additional high tone may be heard at the end
of the phrase.
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(d) Also other types of phrases where one noun functions as a determiner
of another noun have the same sturcture and word order. In the vast
majority of cases both nouns occur in their definite form.
(f) When the construction describes a close family or friend relation, only
the construction with the possessive ending can be used.
You cannot have two modifying words referring back to the SAME noun without using ee/oo.
But you can have a long row of nouns, if each noun modifies the immediately preceding
noun. Sometimes we can find contrasting examples of different meanings with and without
the conjuntion:
Xarunta Dhaqanka Hargeysa the center of the culture of Hargeysa, which would be an
institution dealing with the culture that is typical of Hargeysa, i.e Hargeysa is a modifier or
Dhaqanka
Xarunta Dhaqanka ee Hargeysa the Hargeysa center of culture, which would be an
institution dealing with culture in general and situated in Hargeysa, i.e. Hargeysa is a modifier
of Xarunta
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Modifier phrases with ah ‘being’
Somali doesn’t have as many adjectives as English. Instead, nouns are
often qualitatively modified by other nouns. The two nouns are then
usually connected through the reduced verb form ah being.
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Agreement in definiteness
When a noun is used as a modifier of another noun, also when connected
through, e.g., ah being, that is, leh having, that has, with or badán much, both
nouns in the phrase must be either indefinite or definite. In other words
the two nouns agree in definiteness.
maalínta Jimcáha ah (on) Friday (lit. (on) the day that is the Friday)
nín Soomaáli ah a Somali man (lit. a man that is a Somali)
nínka Soomaáliga ah the Somali man (lit. the man that is the Somali)
baaskíilka qurúxda badan the beautiful bicycle
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toddobá nácnac ah seven candies (eg. seven items that are candy)
sáddex carruúr ah three children (eg. three items that are children)
(b) The same is true for the question word ímmisa? how many?, how much?
(c) It is also common to add a noun that is typically used for counting the
kind of objects in question. A very general such word is xábbo seed which
is used similiarly to English pieces, units before a great variety of words.
Since the head noun sáddex/áfar now have two modifiers after each other,
the connector oo has to be added between the two modifiers. See § 12.1.10.
If the head noun is indefinite, the conjunction oo and is used between the
modifiers.
Numerals are nouns and that they function as the head of their noun
phrase.
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labá gabdhood oo walaaló ah two sisters (lit. two girl siblings)
two.items girls and siblings being
sáddex wiil oo walaaló ah three brothers (lit. three boy siblings)
three.items boys and siblings being
labá waxtar oo kale two other benefits
two.items benefits and other
sáddex kun oo qof three thousand people
three.items thousand and person
Sheeg ilaha biyaha ee aad ku aragto sawirrada. Tell the sources of water that you can see
in the pictures.
The head noun is 'ilaha' and it is followed by two modifiers 'biyaha' and 'aad ku aragto
sawirradda'. Therefore a conjuntion is needed, and 'ee' is a good choice since the relative
clause is primarily 'defining' which sources, not 'describing' them.
If we got rid of the modifier 'biyaha', then the conjunction is no longer needed.
Sheeg ilaha aad ku aragto sawirrada. Tell the sources that you can see in the pictures.
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Maxáa uu ahaa dhárka cusub ee Faadumó loó iibiyay?
What were the new clothes that they bought for Faduma?
Without the relative clause it would be impossible to tell what new clothes
are meant in a family where all the children have been given new clothes.
Therefore, under the circumstances, the relative clause is essential.
After an indefinite head noun, the second modifier, i.e. the relative clause,
is preceded by the conjunction oo and.
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digaagáddii yarayd that hen (you know) that was little
rootigii fiicnaa that bread (you know) that was good
wíilkeedii yaraa her son/boy (you know) that was little
gabádhiisii weynayd his daguhter/girl (you know) that was big
Such prepositions do not have a high tone since they actually serve as a
prefix in a derived, complex noun. Therefore the prepositon is sometimes
also written together with the verbal noun, but usually it is not.
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§ 12.2 The Verb Phrase
The verb phrase constitutes the predicate part of a clause. Besides the finite
verb also the following words are maximally included in the verb phrase:
The word order within the verb phrase is fixed according to the above list.
The elements 1‒7a are obligatorily contracted into one word. In these
contractions certain sound changes occur. See § 5.2.
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Prepositions
Somali and English prepositions are not used in the same way, but they
still have very much in common. The difference is that English has a large
number of prepositions, and they are mainly used before nouns, whereas
Somali has only four genuine prepostions, expressing four very basic
meanings, and these four prepositions must be placed in the predicate
phrase, normally before a verb or an adjective. They indicate the kind of
relation that holds between this verb or adjective and a noun or noun
phrase. This makes perfect sense, since prepositions serve to connect two
other words and express their relation to each other. To put the
preposition before one of those words (the noun) in English really isn’t
more “natural” than to put it before the other word (the verb) in Somali.
The Somali prepositions are always part of the predicate/verb phrase, and
from that position they point to one of the noun phrases in the clause. It is
however only the context that makes clear which noun (phrase) a specific
prepositions is referring to. Grammar gives no clues at all.
119
Wáxa aynu guryáha kú cunnaa cuntó kala duwan.
In the homes we eat different (kinds of) food.
The negation má
The negation má comes directly after possbile object pronouns and
prepositions, and they all merge into one word.
Viewpoint particles
The basic function of the particle soó is to express a motion towards the place
where the subject of the clause is located.
Examples
The basic function of the particle sií is to express a motion away from the
place where the subject of the clause is located.
Examples
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This motion is not always concrete. It may also refer to time and other
phenomena that in an abstract way may be perceived as moving closer or
moving away, e.g. the expression soó socdá coming, following, next.
The particle soó is often also used to express the completion of an action.
Distribution particles
kala, wada
Examples
Position particles
A dozen nouns or so have developed into particles that can occur in the
verb phrase in order to describe the place or position where the action is
carried out.
121
and also if the clause is affirmative or negative. These little words are
called SENTENCE PARTICLES. Together with a subject pronoun they
constitute the paticle phrase.
Sentence particles
(a) Sentence particles expressing TYPE OF CLAUSE:
122
emphasised. In English that is most often achieved by pronouncing
focused words with extra energy or prominence. In Somali, focus is not
expressed with the voice, but through three special function words, called
FOCUS PARTICLES.
ayáa / báa express that the noun phrase immediately preceding the
particle is focused. Ayaa and baa are synonymous and
mutually exchangeable, even though ayaa is often perceived
as a bit more formal, and baa as slightly more colloquial.
wáxa / waxáa express that the noun phrase at the end of the clause is
focused.
It depends on the context: which word would you give slightly more
emphasis in English?
The focus particle báa or ayáa is optional after the interrogative suffix ‒eé.
One could say that the suffix ‒eé itself is able to expresses focus.
Example
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Short subject pronouns
The following subject pronouns occur in the particle phrase. See § 9.2.
aan I / we
aad you
uu he / it
ay she / it / they
aannu we (excluding you)
aynu we (including you)
aydin you (pl.)
NB!
La one occurs at the beginning of the verb phrase.
Anigu waa aan weyn ahay, adiguna waa aad yar tahay.
I am big and you are little.
(b) In questions and negative clauses, the short subject pronouns are
optional.
Example
124
(c) If the predicate contains no verb, i.e. only a noun phrase, short subject
pronouns are never used.
(d) In clauses with the particle waa the 3rd person short subject pronouns
uu he, it and ay she, it, they are often omitted if the predicate consists of an
adjective + the verb yahay/tahay/yihiin is, are.
(e) Also in other clauses with the particle waa, the 3rd person short subject
pronouns are sometimes omitted, thus putting more emphasis on the verb
itself.
(f) The short subject pronouns are also optional whenever a subject noun
phrase occurs between the particle phrase and the verb phrase.
Example
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§ 13. Simple clauses
A Somali simple clause or main clause normally contains a particle phrase
and a verb phrase. The particle phrase always precedes the verb phrase.
One or more noun phrases may occur anywhere in the clause, sometimes
also between the particle phrase and the verb phrase.
Besides the fact that the particle phrase always precedes the verb phrase,
there are no simple rules for the order of the phrases in a clause. The order
depends on how one chooses to structure and present the information. It
is common to start with facts that are already familiar and finish with new
information.
(b) A declarative clause with focus on one of the noun phrases contains
one of the three focus particles baa, ayaa or waxa(a).
If the focused noun phrase goes before the verb phrase baa or ayáa is used
and the particle occurs immediately after the focused noun phrase.
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If the focused noun phrase occurs at the end of the clause, the particle
wáxa/waxáa 19 is used and the particle phrase occurs before the verb
phrase.
Cali wáxa uu rabaa ín uu fuuló baaskíilka. Ali wants to RIDE THE BIKE.
Ali the.thing he wants that he rides the.bike
Subjects
In clauses where the subject is not focused, it has to be grammatically
marked with a subject ending. It is only the last word in the subject noun
phrase that is marked.
If the subject is not focused there is normally also a short subject pronoun
in the particle phrase.
The last word of the subject noun phrase is marked by tone and/or the
endings –u, –i, –aa in the following ways.
Notice that nouns with a base form in -aha have a subject form in -uhu.
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(b) The high tone is missing on the last (or only) morpheme of the subject.
(c) Adjectives take the ending –i. Also, the high tone on the adjective’s
stem disappears, as stated in (b) above.
Example
(d) Pronouns and corresponding suffixes, not ending in –a, take the
ending –i. A high tone on the morpheme preceding ‒i usually disappears.
(e) Verb forms not inflected for person and ending in a consonant (ah
being, leh having, and reduced subjunctive forms) take the suffix –i.
(f) Feminine nouns with an indefinite form that ends in a consonant often
take the ending–i, especially in a more formal style.
With proper nouns this ending is less frequent than with common nouns.
(g) Verb forms ending in a short –a/–o take the long vowel ending –aa.
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Wiilka jiifaa wuu bukaa. The boy that is lying down is ill.
Sideé baa ay dádka sawirráda ká muuqdaa ú isticmaalaan biyáha?
How do the people showing in the pictures use the water?
(h) Also in the adjective kasta each, every the final vowel becomes –aa.
(i) Short possessive endings take over the high tone from the preceding
morpheme, hence these endings are not affected by the rule in (b) above.
Predicate Agreement
If a clause contains a subject noun phrase, the short subject pronoun and
the predicate verb must agree with it in grammatical number, and in the
singular also in gender. In some cases, however, there is a discrepancy
between the subject’s grammatical form and its meaning. The most
common case are collective nouns which grammatically are singular, but
have a ”plural” meaning, e.g. carruur children, dumar women, qoys family
etc. The verb and the short subject pronoun, which are always in the same
form, may then be in the singular or in the plural. In the following
example, the subject is a feminine singular collective noun, followed by a
plural subject pronoun and verb in the first clause, and by a feminine
singular subject pronoun and verb in the second clause.
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Carruúrtaydu áad baa ay ú fiicán tahay.
My children are VERY good.
There are also instances where a word’s grammatical gender and biolo-
gical sex do not coincide, e.g. xaas (m.) wife, sac (m.) cow. If the noun
denotes a human being, the biological sex generally determines the form
of the short subject pronoun and the verb, whereas if the noun denotes an
animal, the word’s grammatical gender generally takes precedence.
In clauses with the focus particle waxa where the subject comes after the
verb, the verb may agree with either the real subject or with the focus
particle waxa which is originally a definite masculine noun meaning the
thing.
Focused subjects
If the subject noun phrase of a clause is focused,
1) the subject phrase is not marked with a subject ending,
2) there is no short subject pronoun,
3) the predicate verb appears in the reduced form (see § 11.9).
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Saaxíibkiis <> baa <> kú riíxaya <> baaskíilka.
HIS FRIEND pushes the bike.
Saaxiibkiís <> wáxa uu <> kú riíxayaa <> baaskíilka.
His friend pushes THE BIKE.
A focused subject may also occur at the end of the clause. It is then focused
with the particle waxa(a). Such clauses are often translated in the passive.
Objects
In Somali there is no formal difference between object noun phrases and
adverbial noun phrases. If one still wishes to make this distinction, it has
to be based on either the meaning of the phrases or the presence of an
associated preposition in the verb phrase. Noun phrases that are
associated with a preposition may then be regarded as adverbial phrases,
whereas noun phrases that are directly associated with the verb, without
a preposition, are considered object noun phrases.
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Did mother ask you something?
Maxamed carruúrta waxa uu siínayaa lacág.
Mahamed is giving the children MONEY.
Other such verbs are tusaa shows sth. to sb., and baraa teaches sth. to sb.,
introduces sb. to sb.
saaran yahay is on, stands on, lies on, is positioned on, is situated on (no
prepositions needed)
Buug baa miiska saaran. There is a book on the table. Det ligger en bok på
bordet.
Seefta galka ka saar! Take the sword out of the cover / sheath.
Magacyadan u kala saar lab iyo dheddig. Divide these nouns into
masculine and feminine (ones).
132
Xayawaannadan u kala saar dab-joog iyo duur-joog. Divide these animals
into tame and wild (ones). (lit. those living by the fire and those living in
the woods)
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Adverbials
Noun phrases that are associated with a preposition are referred to as
adverbial complements. The preposition is always found in the verb
phrase, and from there it refers to one of the noun phrases in the clause.
Which noun phrase it points to can only be inferred from the context.
Wáxa aynu <> guryáha <> kú cunnaa <> cuntó kala duwan.
In the homes we eat DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD.
134
Warkii Cali baa aan u sheegay.
I told the news to Ali.
To express manner, the preposition ú is very often used together with the
noun si manner, way corresonding to English in a … way or in a … manner.
Sometimes the noun hab manner, method, order is used instead of si.
Laba-labo u shaqeeya.
Work in pairs.
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U baxa dibedda, ka dibna u ciyaara kooxo kala duwan.
Go outside, and then play in different groups.
Ú fiirsó nínka.
Look at the man.
ú ég yahay is similar to
136
Xasan waxa uu ku nool yahay Boosaaso.
Hassan lives in Bosaso.
Also the money used to buy something for (with), as well as the languages
a person speaks, are expressed as tools in Somali.
137
Dabka waxa aan ku karsannaa cuntada.
the.fire FOC we with/on cook THE.FOOD
In this sentence two interpretations are eauqally possible, but one would
probably prioritise the 'tool' interpretation in Somali.
(iii) circumstance
138
Qoraalkani waxa uu ku saabsan yahay qoyskayga.
text.this FOC it about regarding is FAMILY-MY
In Somali, just like many other languages, certain abstract actions (t.ex.
buys, finds, is seen) are perceived as originating from a certain place,
whereas in English they are generally perceived as more static, happening
in a certain place.
(ii) Material: of
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(iii) Topic: about
Ka hadal sawirrada.
Talk about the pictures.
Ká jawáab su'aaláhan.
Answer these questions.
140
Waxa uu la socdaa saaxiibkiis.
He walks together with his friend.
Which of the three forms to choose depends on the gender and number of
the noun that the ”position noun” refers to.
141
Saýnab qoýskoodu wáxa uu kú nóol yahay bádda ágteeda.
Saynab their.family.SUBJ FOC it in living is the.sea its.vicinity
Saynab’s family lives in THE VICINITY OF THE SEA = NEAR THE SEA.
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§ 13.1.5h Indirect Object or Recipient
Most verbs express an indirect object or recipient through the proposition
u to, for, but a few verbs take two objects without the preposition, e.g.
siiyaa gives.
Waxa uu <> Aamina <> siiyay <> siddeed neef oo geel ah.
He gave Amina EIGHT CAMELS.
Diinka iyo xaaskiisu <> waxay <> tageen <> guriga Maroodiga.
The turtle and his wife went to Elephant’s house.
Also a few verbs that take an object, such as saaraa puts, are accompanied
by an adverbial of place without any preposition.
143
Waxa uu <> tágayaa <> masaájidka <> maalínta Jimcáha.
He is leaving for the mosque on Friday.
Noun phrases that express time and refer to the past most often take the
demonstrative ending ‒kii/‒tii.
Vocatives
Many languages have special grammatical forms expressing that a word
or a phrase is used in order to address a person (or even a thing). In Somali
this function is expressed by a high tone on the initial vowel position.
At the end of a phrase with a feminine singular head noun the ending –ey
(only –y after –o/–a) is added. It may be written with a long or a short
vowel, i.e. –ey, –eey, –ay, –aay, –oy, –ooy. If one gets very emotional even
more than two vowels may sometimes be written.
144
The vocative ending for phrases with a masculine head noun is –ow/–oow.
145
§ 13.2 Clauses with the verb to be
Declarative clauses that contain the verb yahay is differ in some respects
from ordinary declarative clauses.
(a) If the predicative complement does not contain a noun, but just an
adjective, the adjective goes in the verb phrase, immediately before the
verb yahay is. The short subject pronoun is often omitted.
This type of clause lacks a verb phrase. Instead the paticle phrase relates
to and has a fixed position relative to the predicative complement NP.
146
Dád badan <> baa <> kú nóol <> magaaloóyinka.
MANY PEOPLE live in (the) cities.
Comparison
When two items are compared, the words like or as are often used in
English. In Somali the noun sida the way, the manner is most often used as
the head of a noun phrase. This noun phrase often becomes a predicative
complement.
Example
§ 13.3 Questions
147
Two of the wh-words are obligatorily contracte with the following focus
particle into one word.
Yaa ay siisay hooyo hilibkii? WHO did mother give the meat to?
As always, the short subject pronoun can of course be contracted with the
focus particle in a more colloquial style. Notice especially the irregular
form muxúu WHAT … he? < maxaý + baa / ayaa + uu.
If the focused wh-word phrase at the same time is the subject of the clause,
there will of course not be any short subject pronoun and the verb will be
in its reduced form. The form ah being is omitted after an adjective.
After the pronoun kee/tee? which? and nouns with this ending, the focus
particle baa or ayaa is often omitted, but the question word is still focused.
One could say that this interrogative pronoun and ending has inherent
focus, and in clauses where such question words are the subject, there is
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therefore no short subject pronoun and the verb is used in its reduced
form. The form ah being is omitted after adjectives.
Yes/no-questions
In a qustion that requires yes or no as an answer, the sentence type particle
ma 20 is used together with the ordinary forms of the verb. The short subject
pronoun is optional.
The question particle ma has a high tone if the following phrase doesn’t
have a high tone. This is above all so for the simple aspect of verbs and the
object pronouns.
Má <> i aragtaa?
Do you see me?
Adígu <> má <> tahay <> hooyáday?
Are you my mother?
20A similar particle exists in many other languages, such as Arabic (hal), Finnish (-ko/-kö),
French (est-ce que), Persian (āyā), Polish (czy) and Russian (li), but in most languages it is not
obligatory, like in Somali.
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The question particle ma does not have a high tone if the following phrase
has a high tone. This is above all so for the progressive and habitual aspect
of verbs as well as prepositions and nouns.
If instead ayáa is used, ma goes after the focused noun or noun phrase
and ma + ayáa are contracted into miyáa.
Without focus the verb yahay is functions just like any other verb.
150
Multiple choice questions
In questions where one is expected to choose one of the alternatives mise
or is used between the two phrases.
If mise is used between clauses, the first clause contains the question
particle ma whereas the second clause is a declarative clause with the
particle waa.
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§ 13.4 Commands
Commands are mainly expressed by the verb’s imperative form.
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§ 13.5 Negative clauses
In negative declarative clauses the sentence type particle má not is used. It
always has a high tone. The verb is in the subjunctive. See § 11.10. The
short subject pronouns are not obligatory, but frequently used by some.
There are two negations, ma and aan. Ma is a sentence particle, and replaces waa.
Aan is not a sentence particle, and it can be added in sentences that already contain a sentence
particle, e.g. a focus particle. It is also used in subclauses, since a subclause can never contain
a sentence particle.
And finally, both are often used together in main clauses in the past tense, as in the example
above.
Negative progressive (see 11.10.1) either negation + progr. subj. OR inf. + neg. progr. aux.
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§ 14. Coordination
There are three words in Somali that correspond to English and, namely
iyo, oo and –na.
(a) The conjunction iyo and is used between nouns or noun phrases.
Most subclauses begin with a noun. This means that subclauses are noun
phrases and such subclauses are therefore joined by iyo.
Example
It can also be used between full main clauses or fragments of main clauses
as long as there is a predicate verb in the fragment that follows.
ariga uu raaco waxay ka kooban yihiin riyo iyo ido oo wuxuu soo
daajiyaa guriga agtiisa. Markaii duhurka la gaaro ayaa waxaa loo
geeyaa cunto iyo biyo. Markay qorraxdu dhacdo ayuu ariga guriga
ku soo celiyaa. Habeenkii geedi waxaa loo lisaa caano oo wuxuu
jecelyahay caanaha lo’da iyo geela,
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It may also be used to introduce follow-up questions.
(d) The conjunction –na and is used between main clauses. It is attached
to the first phrase of the second clause.
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Ma magaalo baa aad ku dhalatay mise miyi?
Were you born in a city or in the countryside?
If mise is used between clauses, the first clause contains the question
particle ma whereas the second clause is a declarative clause with the
particle waa.
If you are not expected to make a choice, ama is used also in questions.
Digaagad ayaa biyaha ku dhex jirta ee waa in aad noo soo gurmataa.
There is a hen down in the water, so you must come and help us.
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Soomaáli báan ahay, laakiín wáxaan kú dhashay Itóobiya.
I am SOMALI, but I was born in ETHIOPIA.
The conjunction –se is added to the first phrase of the second clause. It
puts less emphasis on the contrast than do laakiín and balsé.
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§ 15. Subordinate clauses
A Somali subordinate clause can straight-forwardly be identified by its
lack of a sentence particle. Only main clauses contain a sentence particle.
(a) If the subclause contains a word denoting the subject, then the verb
will be in the present or future subjunctive, describing an imagined event,
or in the ordinary past tense, describing a real event.
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The two irregular verbs yahay is and leeyahay has are however used in
the ordinary present tense.
(b) If the subclause does not contain any subject word, the verb is in the
reduced form. Then, the subject of the subclause is the head noun that the
subclause modifies. The head noun is part of the main clause.
Example
22Often, a verb in a relative clause like this may be omitted in English if it does not really
contribute anything to the meaning that is not evident from the context. The reason for this
syntactic difference between the two languages is that a preposition may connect two nouns
in English, whereas in Somali prepositions always connect a verb (or adjective) and a noun.
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tense is used in the subclause to express simultaneity. It doesn’t matter if
the main clause is in the past, simultaneity still makes the subclause occur
in the present tense.
Past tense in subclause means that the event of the subclause preceded the
event in the main clause, which will often correspond to the past perfect
tense in English.
In a temporal subclause, SIMPLE present tense means that the action in the
subclause has come to an end before the action in the main clause starts.
Sometimes both present and past may be used in English if the time
relation is clear from the context.
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Markii Qur’aanka akhriskiisu uu dhammaado carruurtu waxa ay
aadayaan guriga adeerkood.
When the Quran reading ends / has ended, the children go to their
uncle’s house.
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§ 15.2 In-clauses
The only frequent subordinating conjunction in Somali is ín that.
Example
162
The construction waa ín…
The phrase waa ín corresponds to English should, has to, must, need to. In
this construction ín that may be followed by either the present subjunctive
or the ordinary present tense.
One possible explanation for this variation could be that this construction
is not straight-forwardly felt to be a subclause, since there isn’t much of a
main clause preceding it.
The short subject pronoun may also go before the verb or be omitted.
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And, very importantly, a relative clause never contains any sentence
particle. This is an important characteristic of subclauses in general.
The factor that is decisive for the choice of the subjunctive is the presence
of a subject word in the subclause.
If there is no subject word, the ordinary reduced verb forms are used.
Both subclauses are relative clauses, adding information about the word
waxyaabaha the things. The first subclause contains the subject word la
one, the second contains aad you.
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Sawirkani waxa uu ina tusayaa meelaha aynu biyaha ka helno.
This picture shows us the places (that) we get water from.
= This picture shows us the places where we find water.
a. Kani waa Rooble iyo ardaydii fasalkooda oo soo booqday Saynab dugsigooda oo
xeebta ku yaalla.
b. Kani waa Rooble iyo ardaydii soo booqday dugsiga xeebta ku yaalla.
Subclauses that define don't need any conjunction if the follow directly after the head noun,
othewise they are preceded by 'ee'
This means that in your sentence (b) both subclause 'define' their head noun. There are many
students, but these ones are exactly those student who have been to the school at the coast.
In sentence (a) there is probably only one group of students, and they have all been to
Saynab's school, so that information is purely descriptive.
In sentence (a), we know exactly what school we are talking about, namely Saynab's school,
so that fact that it is at the coast is just descriptive.
In sentence (b) however, 'at the sea' is the only piece of infromation that helps us identify the
school, hence it is definitional.
But we could of course also have 'oo soo booqday' in sentence (b), if all the 'available'
students have participated in the trip to the coast.
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Magacow cuntada kala duwan ee sawirka ka muuqata.
Give the names of the different kinds of food shown in the picture.
The sentences are not about any clothes, surces or kinds of food, but precisely
those one bought for Faduma, those that are close to your school, and those
shown in the picture. In order to know that, the relative clause is absolutely
necessary.
(b) After proper nouns oo must always be used before a relative clasue.
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The subject noun phrase has a yellow background.
The use of this subject marker is not very widespread in colloquial Somali,
and it is therefore frequently lacking also in writing.
The noun the moment does the same job as the subordinating conjunction
when. To use nouns as connecting words between clauses in this manner
is extremely common in Somali. Actually, subordinating conjuntions are
167
quite scarce, with the exception of the very frequent subordinating
conjunction ín that and a few others borrowed from Arabic.
Temporal clauses
The most common word that introduces temporal subclauses is the noun
marka, markii the moment. It corresponds to English when.
The form marka is mainly used for general reference and with reference
to the present and the future, whereas the form markii is mainly used with
reference to a specific occasion in the past.
inta while
Example
168
Conditional clauses
The most common connecting word in conditional subclauses is the noun
haddií the occasion. It corresponds to English if.
Haddií aad erayó iskú darto waxa aad héli doontaa weér.
If you put words together you will get a clause.
Final clauses
(a) Final subclauses are mostly introduced by the noun si manner, way,
accompanied by the prepositionen ú in (a way) in the verb phrase of the
subclause. This contruction corresponds to the English conjunctional
phrases in order to or so that.
Concessive clauses
Concessive subclauses are introduced by the connecting phrase in kasta
oo corresponding to English even though. The contracted form in kastoo /
inkastoo is also very frequent.
169
Axmed waa yimid in kasta oo uu soo daahay.
Ahmed came, even though he was late.
Causal clauses
Causes are usually not expressed as subordinate clauses in Somali.
Instead, the phrase sababta oo ah / sababtoo ah the reason being,
corresponding to English since, because, or the coordinating conjunction
waáyo since, because is used. In both cases a complete main clause
containing a sentence particle follows.
Circumstantial clauses
A special type of relative clauses are used to express different kinds of
circumstances. A long personal pronoun, or sometimes a noun, is
followed by the conjunction oo and a relative clause. This type of
construction may express time, manner, reason etc. and the interpretation
depends only on the context.
MANNER:
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Comparativ clauses
Subclauses that express a comparison are usually introduced by the noun
sida as.
171
§ 15.5 English indirect questions
English indirect questions are generally introduced by the same question
word as the corresponding direct question, e.g., when, where, how, what.
xaggee? – xagga
maxay? – waxa
Wáxa the thing isn’t always a focus particle. Sometimes it is a definite noun
used to introduce an object subclause in the same way as English what.
Indirect yes/no-questions
English indirect yes/no-questions are usually expressed as subclauses
beginning with if or whether. In Somali they usually begin with ín that.
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§ 15.6 Direct speech as object clause
Direct speech may occur as the object of a verb in a main clause. Both
clauses are then main clauses and will contain a sentence particle. It is very
common that the main clause contains a focus particle pointing to the
object clause.
173
§ 16. Colloquial Somali
Examples
Examples
174
This phenomenon is especially common at the very end of a clause.
Examples
Examples
175