Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-022-02449-w

REPORT

Surface-water/groundwater exchange in a sand dune lake in the Dry

Pampean Plain, Argentina: stable isotopic evidence
C. V. Echegoyen1,2   · V. A. Campodonico1,2 · K. L. Lecomte1,2 · E. G. Jobbágy3 · P. A. Yaciuk1,2 · L. D. Sepulveda1,2

Received: 23 July 2021 / Accepted: 30 December 2021 / Published online: 9 February 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to International Association of Hydrogeologists 2022

Abstract
Understanding the hydrological functioning of the scarce freshwater bodies of semiarid regions is crucial, especially in those
areas affected by anthropic activities involving land-use changes. In the dry western edge of the Argentina Pampean plains,
a system of more than 100 shallow lakes of remarkable stability occurs. These lakes exhibit low salinity compared to those
located in the more humid belt. This system has constituted the main water resource for humans from prehispanic times to
the present. Stable isotopes were used to establish the seasonal surface-water/groundwater interactions and the hydrological
conditions in a lake of the Dry Pampean Plain (DPP), i.e., Lake Los Pocitos, to understand the mechanism that guarantees
such a resource. Results indicate that evaporation mainly controls the isotopic composition of lake water, overwhelming the
effect of higher rainfall inputs during the wet (but also most evaporative) season. The δ 18O mass balance model indicates
greater groundwater inflow to the lake during the dry season (~0.4 m ­month−1) compared to the wet season (~0.2 m ­month−1).
Lake level decreased in the wet season due to the lowest groundwater inflow and the greatest evaporation rate. Based on the
proportion of water entering a lake that leaves through evaporation, Los Pocitos corresponds to a throughflow lake with a
short water residence time (~0.47 years). These hydrologic conditions, along with freshwater inputs from a dune located at
the western margin of the lake, determine the existence of this relatively stable and freshwater lake in the DPP where high
evaporation rates are registered.

Keywords  Groundwater/surface-water relations · Environmental tracers · Mass balance method · Water residence time ·
Argentina

Introduction relevant for lakes (Arnoux et al. 2017a; Shaw et al. 2013).
This connection is crucial in dry sandy land regions where
Lakes constitute one of the most sensitive ecosystems to lakes are scarce and more reliant on groundwater supply
anthropic impacts (Kidmose et al. 2013; Tao et al. 2013; and constitute important water resources for wildlife and
Wetzel 2001). Often interactions with groundwater are cen- humans (e.g., Bouchez et al. 2016; Harvey et al. 2007; Wil-
tral to lake hydrology, biogeochemistry, and ecological func- liams 1999). The estimation of groundwater inflow and out-
tioning, with natural and anthropic perturbations on aquifers flow in lakes is often dismissed due to the difficulty of its
quantification (e.g., Arnoux et al. 2017b). During the past
decades, numerous studies have demonstrated that these
* C. V. Echegoyen interactions are of great importance not only for the water
[email protected] balance (e.g., Liao et al. 2018) but also for nutrient dynamics
1
Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Tierra (Ala-aho et al. 2013; Brock et al. 1982; Lewandowski et al.
(CICTERRA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones 2015; Meinikmann et al. 2015; Oliveira Ommen et al. 2012).
Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET) y Universidad Thus, the understanding of groundwater-lake interactions is
Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Córdoba, Argentina important for the effective management of water resources
2
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, UNC, and aquatic ecosystems (e.g., Winter et al. 1998).
Av. Vélez Sarsfield 1611, X5016CGA​ Córdoba, Argentina Different methods have been used to quantify groundwa-
3
Grupo de Estudios Ambientales, Instituto de Matemática ter/surface-water interactions. Among them, dissolved con-
Aplicada San Luis, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, servative constituents such as chloride and stable isotopes in
CONICET, San Luis, Argentina

13
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784 Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796

the water molecule, have been widely used for this purpose can lead to an increase in groundwater recharge and water
(e.g., Bocanegra et al. 2013; Campodonico et al. 2019; Cao level rise, as documented when dryland agriculture replaces
et al. 2018; Gibson et al. 2016; Gurrieri and Furniss 2004; native vegetation, or water degradation due to below-ground
Hofmann et al. 2008; Montalván et al. 2017; Petermann nutrient inputs from fertilized plots (e.g., Blarasin et al.
et al. 2018; Rosenberry et al. 2015; Shaw et al. 2017; Stets 2020; Nosetto et al. 2015; Santoni et al. 2010). Likewise,
et al. 2010; Turner and Townley 2006). Stable isotopes are rise of the water table can generate salt leaching from soils
also valuable for estimating the water residence time (WRT) into surface-water and groundwater systems (e.g., Jayawick-
of lakes (Brock et al. 1982; Gat 2010; Gibson et al. 2016; reme et al. 2011). Furthermore, in the current environmental
Gibson et al. 2002; Gonfiantini 1986; Turner et al. 2010). context, both climate and land-use change can lead to water-
Conceptually, based on the ratio of evaporation (E) to total table fluctuations, which influence the dynamic of these
water inputs (I), three hydrological conditions for lakes can kinds of lakes (Córdoba et al. 2014; Guerra et al. 2015; Liu
be defined: desiccating ponds, terminal lakes, and through- et al. 2013; Nosetto et al. 2015; Tao et al. 2013).
flow lakes (e.g., Gibson et al. 2016). In the first hydrological Several studies have shown that groundwater constitutes
setting, inflow occurs once or sporadically, while conversely, an important water source in shallow lakes of the HPP
in terminal lakes, inflow is continuous and long-term evapo- (Drago and Quiros 1996; Fernández Cirelli and Miretzky
ration balances inflow, thus no liquid outflow occurs. Finally, 2004; Miretzky et al. 2001; Miretzky et al. 2000; Romanelli
throughflow lakes are those with continuous inflow, which is et al. 2014). However, this connectivity was not explored in
balanced with the outflows represented by evaporation and the driest portion of the PP, and it may be particularly impor-
lake water outflow. In this latter case, groundwater input tant in sand dune landscapes where an installed drainage net-
is higher than lake surface evaporation (Gat 1995; Gibson work (permanent or ephemeral) does not exist. Moreover, in
et al. 2002). spite of the drier climate, lakes appear to be deeper and more
The Pampean Plain (PP) in Argentina has gentle slopes stable than in the HPP, even during dry periods when most
and more than one hundred shallow lakes that developed lakes across the plain desiccate (Vilanova et al. 2015). The
on geomorphological depressions that originated mainly main goal of this work is to establish surface-water/ground-
by wind deflation during the Quaternary (Tripaldi and For- water interactions, by means of stable isotopes, in one of the
man 2007) and shallow water tables. Besides, during the lakes of the sand dune system of the DPP known as Lake
last few decades, a water-table rise has been registered in Los Pocitos. For this purpose, the δ18O mass-balance model
this area due to land-use change related to the replacement was applied to quantify the groundwater discharge flux into
of native vegetation by crops (e.g., Jobbágy et al. 2021). the lake and the E/I ratio was used to establish the hydro-
The hydrology of these lakes depends on rainfall, ground- logical conditions of Lake Los Pocitos. Thus, this study will
water discharge, potential evaporation, and the topographic contribute to the understanding of the role of groundwater
position (e.g., Bocanegra et al. 2013; Drago and Quiros in sustaining the Lake Los Pocitos ecosystem, and provide
1996; Romanelli et al. 2014). This region of Argentina has an insight on the persistence of lakes with low total dis-
a marked rainfall gradient from east to west, whereby in the solved salts, particularly in an area of high evaporation rates.
east, the Humid Pampean Plain (HPP) has an annual rain- Furthermore, the information generated in this contribution
fall >1,000 mm, and the west region of the Dry Pampean will help to elucidate the hydrological functioning of water
Plain (DPP) presents an annual rainfall <700 mm (Iriondo bodies located in other semiarid and arid regions such as the
et al. 2009). In semiarid zones like the DPP, lakes are natural Nebraska Sand Hills in the USA (e.g., Rossman et al. 2019)
groundwater outcropping areas. Lakes located in the study and the Badain Jaran Desert in China (e.g., Liu et al. 2016).
area, known as “Mercedinas” due to their proximity to the
city of Villa Mercedes (San Luis Province), constitute the
only surface-water bodies in this area, where water is scarce, Lake Los Pocitos region
and they provide an essential habitat for aquatic fauna and
flocks of water birds. They also offer crucial water sources Semiarid dune fields and sandy mantles of late Quaternary
for livestock and have shaped human displacement, roads age cover most of the DPP, in west-central Argentina (Iri-
and settlements throughout the Holocene until recent times ondo and Kröhling 1995; Zárate and Tripaldi 2012). The
(Heider et al. 2019). Currently, these lakes are exposed to regional topographic slope is northwest-southeast. Ceci and
several anthropic impacts such as recreational activities, Coronado (1981) established, based on a few drilled wells
including fishing, and the modification of their surrounding and several vertical electrical soundings, that the crystal-
landscape through cattle grazing of native grasslands and line basement is located at 200 m depth in the S and W
cultivation. from the city of Villa Mercedes. The thicknesses of the satu-
In closed-basin lakes such as those located in the DPP, a rated sedimentary aquifer formations and their hydrological
modification in the land use of the surrounding landscape parameters are mostly unknown. The groundwater regional

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Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796 785

flow follows the same direction of the regional topographic discontinuous aeolian sands mantles (Tripaldi and Forman
slope (NW-SE). The hydraulic gradient in the western part 2007). The surrounding geology is dominated by aeolian
of the basin is 28% and in the southeastern is 30% (Ceci and sand deposits composed of lithic feldsarenites and felds-
Coronado 1981). pathic litharenites, where volcanic grains are by far the
The only major permanent surface drainage is the Quinto most common rock fragments (Tripaldi et al. 2010). Dunes
River. However, the water table reaches the topographic show two main orientations in this area. Parabolic dunes
surface in the region and floods the topographically lower (currently vegetated) suggest southeasterly paleowinds,
areas, filling blowout depressions. In this sense, more than whereas barchanoid ridges indicate a recent dune reac-
200 seepage lakes are distributed over the sandy plain in tivation with winds coming from the northeast (Tripaldi
deflation pans (Tripaldi et al. 2013; Vilanova et al. 2015). et al. 2013). The compound parabolic dune at Lake Los
Lake Los Pocitos is one of these shallow inland water bod- Pocitos is a 3.5 m thick exposure of well-sorted fine sand,
ies (Fig. 1). subdivided into two units according to the sedimentary
Lake Los Pocitos (33°58′12.77″ S - 65°34′16.07″ W) structures (Tripaldi et al. 2013). The lower unit (~1 m
is a lake located south of the Quinto River, about 45 km thick) exhibits horizontal laminated sand deposited by
away from the city of Villa Mercedes (Fig. 1c). It is located wind ripple migration, and is covered by the upper unit
in the northwestern portion of the lake system. Its surface (~2 m thick) which corresponds to a cross-laminated bed-
area is ∼0.2 ­km2, the maximum water depth is about 11 m, set originated by dune migration (Tripaldi et al. 2013).
with an average water depth of about 2 m. Since it has no Barchanoid ridges at the western margin of the lake evi-
surface-water drainage networks, it gains water mainly via dence an aeolian reactivation where the dunes migrate in
rainfall and groundwater discharge, and loses water primar- a NE-SW direction. These sandy sediments have relatively
ily through evaporation and groundwater outflow. Ground- weak pedogenesis (Colazo 2012).
water outflow was observed by means of the environmental Natural grasslands prevail in the area (Colazo 2012)
tracer 222Rn (Echegoyen et al. 2021). Los Pocitos waters with different degrees of alterations caused by cattle graz-
are alkaline (mean pH 9.1), with low salinity (mean TDS ing (Viglizzo and Jobbágy 2010). Native chañar (Geof-
651 mg ­L−1), and of the H­ CO3−-Na+-K+ type (Echegoyen froea decorticans) and caldén (Prosopis caldenia) trees
et al. 2021). have progressively encroached on the area and are particu-
The Lake Los Pocitos area is in the denominated West- larly abundant on the eastern (downslope) margin of the
ern Pampean dunefields (Zarate and Tripaldi 2012). This lake. The lake shoreline and shallow margins are occupied
region is characterized by a low relief plain that includes by marshes dominated by Cortaderia, Schoenoplectus, and
well vegetated and diverse stabilized dunes surrounded by Typha species.

Fig. 1  a Location map of the San Luis Province and PP in Argen- portion of the lake system). d Location of sampling points of surface
tina. b Location of Mercedinas lakes and Lake Los Pocitos in the PP. water ­(SW) and groundwater ­(GW) during dry (September 2017) and
c Mercedinas lakes, located south of the Quinto River and the city wet (April 2019) seasons
of Villa Mercedes (Lake Los Pocitos is located in the northwestern

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786 Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796

Fig. 2  Monthly mean rainfall

(P) and temperature (T) series
at the city of Villa Mercedes
(1969-2019 record period).
Evaporation (E) measured from
evaporated ponds (2000-2005)

Climate in this region is semiarid, with marked seasons 2017) and wet (n = 10, April 2019) seasons. During the
(Fig. 2). The mean annual rainfall is 679 mm (record period two sampling campaigns, groundwater samples (n = 5
1968-2018, INTA Villa Mercedes gaging station), and the and n = 2, for dry and wet seasons, respectively) from the
mean annual temperature is 15.7 °C. Rainfall occurs mainly phreatic aquifer were obtained through hand-dug wells.
during the austral spring and summer, between October and The depth at which the water level was reached varied
March (>50 mm/month for the same record period), whereas between 0.8 and 7.6 m below surface (bs; water samples
the austral winter has the lowest (<50 mm/month) rainfall were retrieved when the water table was reached), covering
inputs. Because of the highest temperatures, evaporation the entire perimeter of the lake (Fig. 1d).
rates peak simultaneously with rainfall, and are maximum Field measurements were performed following standard-
during the austral summer (Marchesini et al. 2020). Figure 2 ized methods (e.g., Rice et al. 2012); these determinations
shows that evaporation exceeds rainfall all the year, with an included temperature (T), electrical conductivity (EC), and
annual evaporation rate measured from evaporated ponds of total dissolved solids (TDS). Unfiltered samples for stable
1,541 mm ­year−1 (for the record period 2000-2005 at the city isotope determinations were stored in 50 ml polyethylene
of Villa Mercedes). The average relative humidity is 66%. bottles filled to the top with water, and capped without
leaving any headspace. Stable isotope measurements were
performed using cavity ring-down spectroscopy (Picarro
Materials and methods L2120-i) at the GEA-IMASL-CONICET Institute. Results
are expressed as δ% according to Eq. (1).
Lake evaporation estimation (E) ( )
RS − RV−SMOW
𝛿% = 1000 (1)
Evaporation was estimated for each season (September 2017 RV−SMOW
and April 2019) by the Penman combination method (Rosen-
berry et al. 2007). Daily average air temperature, relative where δ is the isotopic deviation in %, R is the isotopic ratio
humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation data were obtained (2H/1H or 18O/16O), S is the sample, and V-SMOW is the
from the INTA Villa Mercedes gaging station. Water-surface reference material (Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water;
temperature was measured directly in the field. Gonfiantini 1978). Analytical uncertainties were ± 0.1% for
δ18O and ± 0.5% for δ2H.
Sampling and analysis The lake perimeter was determined with a Garmin
global positioning system (GPS) equipment and lake
Surface-water samples were collected from Lake Los Poci- depths were measured using a Speedtech Depthmate port-
tos at a depth of about 0.3 m in both dry (n = 6, September able sounder (readings are accurate from 0.6 to 79 m). The

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Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796 787

lake area and volume were calculated using geographical

information systems (ArcGIS).

Isotopic mass balance

Groundwater inflow to Lake Los Pocitos was determined by

employing a mass balance method based on δ18O concentra-
tions (Gibson et al. 2016; Gonfiantini 1986). Several studies
have employed a similar approach to determine groundwater
inflow into lakes. For instance, some recent works are those of
Shaw et al. (2017) who used this model to determine ground-
water inflow in a temperate seepage lake in Georgetown Lake
in Montana (Canada), and Arnoux et al. (2017a), who applied
this method in kettle lakes in Quebec (Canada). Recently,
Campodonico et al. (2019) used the environmental tracer δ18O
to quantify groundwater inflow into Laguna del Plata (Mar
Chiquita system, Argentina). Steady-state mass balance equa-
tions assume that lakes are well mixed and maintain a long-
term constant volume (Gat 2010; Gibson and Edwards 2002).
Lake levels were reconstructed for Lake Los Pocitos using the
available Sentinel-2 imagery from June 2016 to September
2020 (Fig. 3). For this period, a lake area of 0.196 ± 0.002 ­km2
was calculated. The relatively constant lake area during this
period, along with the depth of Lake Los Pocitos allows one
to consider it a steady-state system for modeling purposes.
In absence of surface drainage networks, the water bal-
ance at Lake Los Pocitos is controlled by groundwater dis-
charge into the lake, groundwater outflow from the lake,
rainfall, and evaporation. Thus, its general water mass bal-
ance can be stated as follows:
dV
= Gi + P − Go − E (2)
dt
where V is the water volume in the lake, t is time, Gi is
groundwater inflow, P is precipitation, Go is lake ground-
water outflow and E is evaporation.
A lake isotopic balance can be performed by measur-
ing or calculating the isotope compositions (δ) for all the
components of the water balance equation. When combin-
ing each term of Eq. (2) with δ18O values, the following
equation is obtained:
dV𝛿L
= Gi 𝛿Gi + P𝛿P − Go 𝛿Go − E𝛿E (3)
𝑑𝑡
Since water outflow from the lake does not cause iso-
topic fractionation, one can assume that isotopic compo-
sitions from groundwater outflow and the lake water are
the same (δGo = δL; Sacks et al. 2014). Rearranging and
combining Eqs. (2) and (3), one can calculate the ground-
water inflow as follows:

Fig. 3  Lake-level variation from June 2016 to September 2020

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788 Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796

Hydrologic conditions and lake water residence

( ) ( )
P 𝛿 L − 𝛿P + E 𝛿 E − 𝛿 L
Gi = (4) time
𝛿Gi − 𝛿L

Most terms in Eq. (4) can be measured directly, with Stable isotopes can also be used to classify the hydrologic con-
the exception of the isotopic composition of evaporated ditions of lakes such as desiccating water bodies, terminal lakes,
lake water (δE), which is difficult to measure. Thus, δE can or throughflow lakes (Gibson et al. 2002; Gonfiantini 1986).
be estimated using the linear resistance model provided In well-mixed and steady-state conditions, the general water
by Craig and Gordon (1965), which describes δE (Eq. 5) mass balance and the isotopic mass balance equations can be
as a function of the lake isotopic composition (δL) , the rearranged from Eqs. (1) and (2), and the fraction of total water
relative humidity (h), the isotopic composition of local inputs lost by evaporation (E/I) can be calculated as follows:
atmospheric water vapor (δA), and fractionation factors.
E 𝛿 − 𝛿I
= ∗L m (12)
𝛼 ∗ 𝛿L − h𝛿A − 𝜀 I 𝛿 − 𝛿L
𝛿E = (5)
1 − h + 10−3 Δ𝜀
where δL represents water discharged from the lake, δI repre-
All fractionation factors were calculated using the experi- sents inflowing water, δ* is the limiting isotope enrichment
mental equations defined by Horita and Wesolowski (1994). factor, and m is the enrichment slope. Values of E/I between
The equilibrium isotope fractionation factor at the tempera- 0 and 1 reflect varying degrees of throughflow lakes, E/I = 1
ture of the air-water interface for 18O (i.e., α*) is given by: correspond to terminal lakes, and E/I >1 represent desiccat-
ing water bodies (Gat 1995; Gibson et al. 2016). These last
1
𝛼∗ = (6) types of lakes are transient systems (dV/dt <0) and therefore
𝛼L∕V
cannot be considered to be in a hydrological steady state
where αL/V is defined by Gonfiantini (1986) as the ratio in (Gibson et al. 2002).
liquid versus vapor, and can be estimated with Eq. (7): The limiting isotope enrichment factor (δ*) is estimated
with Eq. (13).
−7.685 6.7123 1666.4 350410
( )
𝛼L∕V 18 O = exp
( )
+ − + h𝛿A + 𝜀
103 T T2 T3 𝛿∗ = (13)
(7) h − 10−3 𝜀
where T is the temperature in degrees K. The enrichment slope (m) can be calculated with Eq. (14).
The kinetic fractionation factor (Δε) depends on humid-
ity, and can be calculated using Eq. (8). h − 10−3 𝜀
m= (14)
1 − h + 10−3 Δ𝜀
Δ𝜀 = K(1 − h) (8)
18
Water residence time (τ) is a determinant parameter of
where K( O) = 14.2%, which is a value determined from the ecological health of lakes, and it is defined as the aver-
wind tunnel experiments (Gonfiantini 1986). age time that a water molecule spends in the system. For
The total fractionation factor (ε) is expressed in % and is instance, WRT has also been related to the N removal effi-
estimated with Eq. (9): ciency by the ecosystem (e.g., Finlay et al. 2013).
𝜀 = 𝜀∗ + Δ𝜀 (9) The lake WRT can be calculated from the estimation of
E/I and lake volume (V), according to the equation proposed
where ε* is the equilibrium fractionation factor which by Gibson et al. (2002):
depends on temperature and it is estimated with Eq. (10):
E V
( )( )
𝜀∗ = (1 − a∗ ) + Δ𝜀 (10)
𝜏= (15)
I E
Finally, the isotopic composition of ambient atmospheric
water vapor (δA) was calculated by means of Eq. (11) assum-
ing equilibrium with precipitation (Gibson et al. 2008): Results and discussion
𝛿P − 𝜀∗
𝛿A = (11) Lake evaporation estimation (E)
1 + 10−3 𝜀∗

Evaporation (E) measured from evaporated ponds located at

INTA Villa Mercedes gaging station was 1,541 mm ­year−1,
for the 2000-2005 period. These data are not available

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Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796 789

for the sampling period, therefore the Penman method Pocitos has a dominant meteoric origin, whereas shallow
was used to calculate E. The obtained results were 79 and groundwater is affected by evaporation processes (Fig. 4).
176 mm ­month−1 for the dry and wet seasons, respectively. This effect of evaporative losses on shallow groundwater
The difference between the evaporation values estimated by (less than 1 mbs) was also observed in other points of the
means of the Penman method and those measured directly PP (Poca et al. 2020). Particularly, a deep groundwater sam-
at INTA ponds is <10% for the 2000-2005 period. ple (1-GLP-2) shows a more depleted isotopic composition,
probably due to the influence of recharge coming from the
Isotopic composition western area according to the general behavior of Pampean
rainfalls.
Stable isotopic compositions can be visualized in the con- The isotopic composition of recharge water/rainfall into
ventional δ2H (%) vs. δ18O (%) plot (Fig. 4), jointly with the the lake (δ recharge) is commonly estimated by the inter-
local meteoric water line (LMWL) of the city of Río Cuarto section of the LEL and the LMWL (δ18O = −5.4% and
(located 150 km NE of Lake Los Pocitos), i.e.: δ2H (%) = 8.3 δ2H = −30%; e.g., Gat 1996; Gibson et al. 1993; Krabben-
δ18O (%) + 15.2 (Cabrera et al. 2019). The obtained results hoft et al. 1994). These isotopic values for rainfall are also
indicate that groundwaters were more depleted in heavy iso- similar to the mean values of the deepest groundwater sam-
topes (δ18O = −5.9 to −3.2%; δ2H = −35 to −19%; Table 1) ple (δ18O = −5.4% and δ2H = −30%). This is consistent with
than surface waters (δ18O = −1.6 to 1.4%; δ2H = −10 to 3%; the fact that the isotopic composition of deep groundwater
Table 1); besides, lake samples showed different isotopic not affected by evaporation or mixing processes represents
compositions during both seasons. During the dry season, the average isotopic composition of rainfall in temperate cli-
in September, the average stable isotopic composition of mates (Fontes 1980).
lake water was −1.3% for δ18O and − 8% for δ2H, while con-
versely, during the wet season, in April, lake waters were Groundwater inflow into Lake Los Pocitos: stable
more enriched in heavy isotopes, and showed mean values isotope mass balance
of 0.9 and 0% for δ18O and δ2H, respectively.
All surface-water samples plot below the LMWL, evi- The groundwater inflow into Lake Los Pocitos was esti-
dencing evaporation processes and defining a local evapora- mated using Eq. (4) during the dry and wet seasons. The
tion line (LEL), which can be explained by the equation: δ2H rainfall value corresponds to the monthly rainfall regis-
(%) = 4.8 δ18O (%) - 3.6 (R2 = 0.98; Fig. 4). tered at INTA Villa Mercedes gaging station for Septem-
As stated in the preceding, groundwater samples corre- ber 2017 and March 2019, representing the dry and wet
spond to the shallowest portion of the phreatic aquifer. The seasons respectively (PDry = 28.5 mm and PWet = 116 mm).
groundwater samples were divided into shallow (<1.5 mbs) In addition, as stated in the preceding, the evaporation rate
and deep (>1.5 mbs) waters according to their isotopic com- from Lake Los Pocitos was estimated for the dry and wet
position. Shallow groundwater presents δ18O and δ2H values seasons using the Penman method (EDry = 79.0 mm and
of −4.3 to −3.2% and -27 to −19%, respectively. Except for EWet = 176.0 mm).
the sample located at the east side of the lake (1GLP-6), The δ18O values for lake waters (δL) are −1.3 and 0.9%
δ18O values in deep groundwater around Lake Los Pocitos for the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Since Cabrera et al.
varied from −5.9 to −5.1%, and δ2H values varied between (2019) observed a seasonal effect in the isotopic composition
−35 and -27% (Table 1). The LEL origin coincides with the of rainfall at Río Cuarto city, two different δP values were
isotopic signatures of groundwater samples, suggesting that used for mass balance calculations. During the dry season,
they constitute an important source of water from which sur- rainfall is more depleted (δP = −5.7%), whereas in the wet
face water is evaporated. Three samples plot near the LMWL period rainfall is more enriched in heavy isotopes, with a
but over the LEL, and correspond to groundwater samples mean δ18O value of −4.5% (Cabrera et al. 2019). The δ18O
that were taken on the dune at shallow depths (<1.5 mbs). value of groundwater (δGi = −4.6%) used for calculation
In arid environments with sandy soils where the water table purposes corresponds to the mean isotopic composition of
is high, direct evaporation from a bare soil surface is an samples collected around the perimeter of the lake, except
important factor to consider (Gat 1996). Groundwater sam- for sample 1GLP-6 which clearly shows the effects of capil-
ple 1GLP-6 on the eastern margin of the lake shows a similar lary evaporation. Both δ18O values (i.e., δP and δGi) were
isotopic composition to lake waters, reflecting the effects of multiplied by the lake surface area (0.2 ­km2).
capillary evaporation. The remaining groundwater samples Finally, the δ18O value of evaporating moisture (δE) was
showed a similar isotopic signature to rainfall, as they plot calculated for both seasons using the multilayered model
near the LMWL. These groundwater samples are deeper (Eq. 5) developed by Craig and Gordon (1965) and consid-
(>1.5 mbs) and indicate that groundwater around Lake Los ering the water salinity. Since δE also depends on humidity,
mean monthly humidity values were obtained from INTA

13
790 Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796

Table 1  Physico-chemical Sample name Depth T EC TDS δ18O δ2H

parameters and isotopic
composition of Los Pocitos (mbs) (°C) (μS ­cm−1) (mg ­L−1) (%) (%)
Lake and groundwater samples. -7
1LLP-1 15.5 1,219 611 -1.1
The groundwater sample depth
is also included. TDS total 1LLP-2 15.8 1,218 611 -1.2 -8
dissolved solids; EC electrical 1LLP-3 15.5 1,234 618 -1.0 -7
conductivity; T temperature 1LLP-4 16.3 1,169 587 -1.6 -10
1LLP-5 16.6 1,216 609 -1.5 -9
1LLP-6 16.7 1,333 668 -1.2 -7
2LLP-1 24.5 1,230 616 0.9 -1
2LLP-2 23.8 1,218 613 1.4 2
2LLP-3 23.7 1,218 610 1.1 2
2LLP-4 24.5 1,280 639 0.1 -5
2LLP-5 19.7 1,169 1,194 0.1 -3
2LLP-6 20.2 1,249 625 1.2 2
2LLP-7 23.6 1,238 620 1.3 3
2LLP-8 21.6 1,164 583 1.0 1
2LLP-9 21.1 1,180 591 1.3 2
2LLP-11 21.5 1,236 618 1.0 1
1GLP-2 2.20 25.2 89 177 -5.9 -35
1GLP-3 0.85 24.8 511 256 -3.7 -19
1GLP-4 7.60 19.4 472 236 -5.1 -27
1GLP-5 1.83 19.8 1,014 507 -5.2 -29
1GLP-6 2.21 Nd 1,651 826 0.1 -2
2GLP-3 0.95 Nd 332 166 -4.3 -27
2GLP-4 1.35 Nd 283 140 -3.2 -20

Villa Mercedes gaging station for September 2017 and and wind-induced water mixing; thus, the authors consider
March 2019. For the dry season, the δE is −18.5%, whereas that results obtained by means of both methods are consist-
for the wet season it is −7.8%. ent with different timescales of sensitivity.
Results obtained from the isotope mass balance using Regarding the sources of error of the stable isotope mass
18
δ O values confirm that groundwater discharge into the lake balance, previous works (e.g., Krabbenholft et al. 1990; Shaw
occurs during both seasons (Table 2). During the dry season, et al. 2017) have demonstrated that this method is more sensi-
a groundwater inflow of ~0.4 m ­month−1 to Lake Los Pocitos tive to the estimation of the isotopic composition of the evapo-
was estimated, whereas for the wet season a lower ground- ration flux, which depends on humidity and the isotopic value
water inflow was detected, in the order of ~0.2 m ­month−1. of atmospheric moisture. Thus, the model uncertainty may be
The groundwater discharge to Lake Los Pocitos during increased due to the fact that these parameters are estimated by
the dry season was previously demonstrated by Echegoyen indirect methods. Despite these sources of error, the employed
et al. (2021) using the environmental tracer 222Rn. This method is adequate as a first assessment of groundwater inflow
method revealed that Lake Los Pocitos exhibits a differen- quantification in these types of lakes where previous studies
tial hydrogeological behavior along its perimeter. Ground- have not considered the groundwater component.
water inflow was detected at the northwestern sector of the
lake, whereas surface water discharged into the aquifer at the Hydrologic conditions and lake water residence
southeastern sector of the lake. The different groundwater time
inflow values obtained with both methods can be explained
by the fact that they indicate Gi rates at different timescales. The proportion of the total water input that is lost through
While the stable isotope mass balance methods reflect the evaporation was calculated using Eq. (12). The E/I ratios of
average conditions during months to several years (during Lake Los Pocitos were 0.22 and 0.62 for dry and wet sea-
the entire WRT), radon-based approaches reflect a maximum sons, respectively, indicating that about 22% of lake water
period of 20 days (Arnoux et al. 2017b; Petermann et al. was lost through lake surface evaporation during the dry
2018). Moreover, it was considered that this period could period, whereas during the wet period the lake water lost by
be even shorter due to degassing of 222Rn to the atmosphere evaporation increased to 62%. Values of E/I between 0 and

13
Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796 791

Fig. 4  Isotopic composition (δ2H vs. δ18O) of Lake Los Pocitos (δL) and associated groundwaters. The LMWL from the city of Rio Cuarto
(Cabrera et al. 2019) and the mean isotopic composition of local rainfall (δP) are also included

approaching 1 (which corresponds to 0-100% respectively) semiarid region in which high evaporation rates would war-
reflect varying degrees of throughflow lakes (Gat 1995; Gib- rant a fast concentration of solutes in any stagnant water body.
son et al. 2016; Turner et al. 2010), where inflow is continu- Figure 5 corresponds to a schematic diagram depicting the
ous and balanced by outflow (Gibson et al. 2002). different components of the hydrological budget for this lake
In the PP, dunes, especially those without vegetation, act system. Evaporation exceeds rainfall during both seasons.
as preferential recharge areas where freshwater from rainfall Although groundwater inflow occurs during both seasons, it is
can locally form important groundwater lenses in the upper lower during the wet season. Despite the fact that this is the sea-
part of the aquifer, surrounded by salty groundwater (Blarasin son when the highest rainfall is recorded, due to lower ground-
et al. 2014; Jobbágy et al. 2011). This occurs in the dunes of water inflow in the lake and a greater loss of water by the intense
Los Pocitos area, where barchanoid dunes act as preferential evaporation, a decrease of 10 cm in the lake level was observed.
recharge zones. Here, groundwater measurements show EC Water residence time, which was calculated taking
values <550 μS c­ m−1. Regional studies performed on rainwa- into account evaporation, precipitation, the absence of an
ter samples from Río Cuarto station (2006-2012) have shown installed drainage network that flows into the lake, and the
EC values of ~54 μS c­ m−1 and that they correspond to the cal- lake volume, indicates how rapidly the water in the system
cium sulfate or calcium carbonate type (Cabrera et al. 2013). is replaced. WRT of 0.28 and 0.67 years were estimated for
The throughflow condition of the lake, along with fresh- Lake Los Pocitos for dry and wet seasons, respectively. Low
water inputs from the dune, can explain the existence of a values (i.e., <1 year) indicate a short WRT in the system,
nonsalty lake like Los Pocitos (mean TDS 651 mg ­L−1) in a which generates a constant exchange of water. Moreover, the
low WRT inhibits the interaction between water and rocks,

Table 2  Input data for stable isotope mass balance and evaporation loss in Lake Los Pocitos
Season Area T h P E δL δP δGi δA δE Gi Gi
(m2) (°C) (mm ­m−1) (mm ­m−1) 18
O (%) 18
O (%) 18
O (%) (%) (%) (m ­month−1) (mm ­day−1)

Dry 195,884 12.7 0.62 21 79 −1.3 −5.7 −4.6 −16 −19 0.4 12.8
Wet 195,185 17.9 0.74 116 176 0.9 −4.5 −4.6 −14 −7.8 0.2 5.5

T: air temperature; h: relative humidity; P: precipitation; E: evaporation; δL: δ18O composition of lake waters; δP: δ18O composition of precipita-
tion; δGi: δ18O composition of groundwater; δA: δ18O composition of atmospheric water vapor; δE: δ18O composition of evaporated lake water;
Gi: groundwater inflow

13
792 Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796

Fig. 5  Schematic hydrological model for Lake Los Pocitos during a dry and b wet seasons. The arrow thickness is proportional to the compo-
nent contribution. The δ18O values for rainfall (δP) are those reported by Cabrera et al. (2019) for Rio Cuarto station

reducing the intensity of weathering processes, which favors related to land use change (i.e., replacement of native vegeta-
a low salt concentration. The WRT values calculated for tion by crops) and the consequent water-table rise (Contreras
Lake Los Pocitos were lower than those reported for other et al. 2013; Jobbágy et al. 2021). Particularly, in the study
lakes in the HPP (τ = 1.11 years) by Quiroz Londoño et al. area, the anthropic activities have not significantly impacted
(2020). These differences may be attributed to the existence the water quality and lake levels which have remained rela-
of different climatic regimes in the PP. For instance, within tively constant during the last few years. However, if human
the USA, aridity is an important factor controlling E/I and activities continue without control and remediation policies,
τ, with relative humidity and annual precipitation being the it is probable that these modifications could generate a nega-
main drivers (Brooks et al. 2014). tive impact on the ecosystem in a short time.
Different studies (Brock et al. 1982; Wolfe et al. 2007) The surface-water and groundwater degradation due to the
established that throughflow lakes and, to a lesser extent, use of fertilizers is another risk associated with agriculture
those with relatively short WRT, show good biological con- expansion that has become an environmental problem in many
ditions and low concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and regions of the world. In Argentina, N-containing fertilizers
dissolved organic carbon. Thus, the hydrological conditions have been utilized inefficiently, and large quantities are fre-
determined for Lake Los Pocitos could explain the good quently discharged into aquatic ecosystems causing eutrophi-
water quality observed in this water body. cation (e.g., Licursi et al. 2016). N-degraded groundwater and
Unfortunately, the environmental quality of water bodies lakes have been recognized in the PP (Blarasin et al. 2020;
in this region is at risk of deterioration in response to distur- Romanelli et al. 2020). Lakes receive water inputs from nitrate-
bances caused by human activities. Changes in the hydro- contaminated groundwater, which can cause ecosystem dete-
logic balance as a result of the conversion of native vegeta- rioration. WRT is an important factor related to the nitrogen
tion to areas devoted to agriculture have been reported for (N) self-purification capacity of aquatic systems (e.g., Finlay
instance in Australia, Southern High Plains in the USA, and et al. 2013; Tong et al. 2019). For instance, a longer WRT
the Sahel plains in North Africa (George et al. 1997; Leblanc results in higher N removal efficiency via denitrification or
et al. 2008; Scanlon et al. 2005). A widely observed pattern permanent burial in water bodies (Finlay et al. 2013).
of rising water levels and soil salinity has been reported in The results obtained in this work give an idea of the
such semiarid sedimentary plains. This does not only cause hydrological functioning of water bodies emplaced in the
the loss of cultivable hectares, but also the deterioration of DPP and their possible response to anthropic disturbances.
ecosystems that depend on groundwater (George et al. 1997; Thus, establishing the surface-water/groundwater interac-
Williams 1999). A widespread water-table rise accompanied tions, the type of lake, and the WRT in Lake Los Pocitos
by incipient salinization of soils, phreatic groundwater, and results in a relevant consideration of the changes in land use
surface waters has also been recorded in the DPP (Bogino that have occurred in the DPP in the last few decades. For
and Jobbágy 2011; Jayawickreme et al. 2011; Santoni et al. instance, the ecosystem N removal efficiency via denitrifi-
2010). Even the appearance of deep canyons and streams cation or permanent burial would be affected by the short
in the western edge of the DPP caused by sapping has been WRT in Lake Los Pocitos. The preservation of groundwater

13
Hydrogeology Journal (2022) 30:783–796 793

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