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Structure of Atom Class 11 Notes Chemistry
Structure of Atom Class 11 Notes Chemistry
Chapter-2
Discovery of Electron—Discharge Tube Experiment
In 1879, William Crooks studied the conduction of electricity through gases at low pressure.
He performed the experiment in a discharge tube which is a cylindrical hard glass tube about
60 cm in length. It is sealed at both the ends and fitted with two metal electrodes as shown in
Fig. 2.1.
The electrical discharge through the gases could be observed only at very low pressures
and at very high voltages.
The pressure of different gases could be adjusted by evacuation. When sufficiently high
voltage is applied across the electrodes, current starts flowing through a stream of particles
moving in the tube from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode).
These were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
• Properties of Cathode Rays
(i) Cathode rays travel in straight line.
(ii) Cathode rays start from cathode and move towards the anode.
(iii) These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be observed with the help
of certain kind of materials (fluorescent or phosphorescent) which glow when hit by them.
(iv)Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles. When electric field is applied on the
cathode rays with the help of a pair of metal plates, these are found to be deflected towards
the positive plate indicating the presence of negative charge.
(v) The characteristics of cathode rays do not depend upon the material of electrodes and
the nature of gas present in the cathode ray tube.
• Determination of Charge/Mass (e/m) Ratio for Electrons
J. J. Thomson for the first time experimentally determined charge/mass ratio called elm ratio
for the electrons. For this, he subjected the beam of electrons released in the discharge tube
as cathode rays to influence the electric and magnetic fields. These were acting
perpendicular to one another as well as to the path followed by electrons.
According to Thomson, the amount of deviation of the particles from their path in presence of
electrical and magnetic field depends upon following factors:
(i) Greater the magnitude of the charge on the particle, greater is the interaction with the
electric or magnetic field and thus greater is the deflection.
(ii) The mass of the particle — lighter the particle, greater the deflection.
(iii) The deflection of electrons from their original path increases with the increase in the
voltage across the electrodes or strength of the magnetic field.
By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount of deflections observed by the
electrons on the electric field strength or magnetic field strength, Thomson was able to
determine the value of
e/me = 1.758820 x 1011 C kg-1 where me = Mass of the electron in kg
e = magnitude of charge on the electron in coulomb (C).
Characteristics of Isotopes
(i) Since the isotopes of an element have the same atomic number, but different mass
number, the nuclei of isotopes contain the same number of protons, but different number
of neutrons.
(ii) Since, the isotopes differ in their atomic masses, all the properties of the isotopes
depending upon the mass are different.
(iii) Since, the chemical properties are mainly determined by the number of protons in the
nucleus, and the number of electrons in the atom, the different isotopes of an element
exhibit similar chemical properties. For example, all the isotopes of carbon on burning
give carbon dioxide.
• Isobars
where h is a proportionality constant, called Planck’s constant. Its value is equal to 6.626 x
10-34 Jsec.
• Photoelectric Effect
Hertz, in 1887, discovered that when a beam of light of certain frequency strikes the surface
of some metals, electrons are emitted or ejected from the metal surface. The phenomenon is
called photoelectric effect.
(iii) On increasing the intensity of light, more electrons are ejected but the energies of the
electrons are not altered.
• Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation
From the study of behaviour of light, scientists came to the conclusion that light and other
electromagnetic radiations have dual nature. These are wave nature as well as particle
nature. Whenever radiation interacts with matter, it displays particle like properties in
contrast to the wavelike properties (interference and diffraction) which it exhibits when it
propagates. Some microscopic particles, like electrons, also exhibit this wave-particle
duality.
• Spectrum
When a ray of white light is passed through a prism the wave with shorter wavelength bends
more than the one with a longer wavelength. Since ordinary white light consists of waves
with all the wavelengths in the visible range, array of white light is spread out into a series of
coloured bands called spectrum. The light of red colour which has longest wavelength is
deviated the least while the violet light, which has shortest wavelength is deviated the most.
Continuous Spectrum
When a ray of white light is analysed by passing through a prism it is observed that it splits
up into seven different wide bands of colours from violet to red (like rainbow). These colours
are so continuous that each of them merges into the next. Hence, the spectrum is called
continuous spectrum.
Emission Spectra
Emission Spectra is noticed when the radiations emitted from a source are passed through a
prism and then received on the photographic plate. Radiations can be emitted in a number of
ways such as:
(i) from sun or glowing electric bulb.
(ii) by passing electric discharge through a gas at low pressure.
(iii) by heating a substance to high temperature.
Line Spectra
When the vapours of some volatile substance are allowed to fall on the flame of a Bunsen
burner and then analysed with the help of a spectroscope. Some specific coloured lines
appear on the photographic plate which are different for different substances. For example,
sodium or its salts emit yellow light while potassium or its salts give out violet light.
Absorption Spectra
When white light is passed through the vapours of a substance and the transmitted light is
then allowed to strike a prism, dark lines appear in the otherwise continuous spectrum. The
dark lines indicate that the radiations corresponding to them were absorbed by the
substance from the white light. This spectrum is called absorption spectrum.
Dark lines appear exactly at the same positions where the lines in the emission spectra
appear.
• Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
When electric discharge is passed through hydrogen gas enclosed in discharge tube under
low pressure and the emitted light is analysed by a spectroscope, the spectrum consists of a
large number of lines which are grouped into different series. The complete spectrum is
known as hydrogen spectrum.
On the basis of experimental observations, Johannes Rydberg noted that all series of lines
in the hydrogen spectrum could be described by the following expression:
Rydberg in 1890, and has given a simple theoretical equation for the calculation of
wavelengths and wave numbers of the spectral lines in different series of hydrogen
spectrum. The equation is known as Rydberg formula (or equation).
This relation is valid for hydrogen atom only. For other species,
• Shapes of p-orbitals
p-orbitals are present in the p-subshell for which l = 1 and m1 can have three possible
orientations – 1, 0, + 1.
Thus, there are three orbitals in the p-subshell which are designated as px, py and pz orbitals
depending upon the axis along which they are directed. The general shape of a p-orbital is
dumb-bell consisting of two portions known as lobes. Moreover, there is a plane passing
through the nucleus along which finding of the electron density is almost nil. This is known
as nodal plane as shown in the fig.
From the dumb-bell pictures, it is quite obvious that unlike s-orbital, a p-orbital is directional
in nature and hence it influences the shapes of the molecules in the formation of which it
participates.
• Shapes of d-orbitals
d-orbitals are present in d-subshell for which l = 2 and m[ = -2, -1, 0, +1 and +2. This means
that there are five orientations leading to five different orbitals.
• Aufbau Principle
The principle states: In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies.
In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and enter
into higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals are filled.
The order in which the energies of the orbitals increase and hence the order in which the
orbitals are filled is as follows:
Is, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, id, 5p, 6s, if, 3d, 6p, 7s, 5f 6d, 7p
The order may be remembered by using the method given in fig. 2.11.
• Pauli Exclusion Principle
According to this principle, no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers.
Pauli exclusion principle can also be stated as: Only two electrons may exist in the same
orbital and these electrons must have opposite spins.
• Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
It states that: pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p, d or f)
does not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each
i.e., it is singly occupied.
• Electronic Configuration of Atoms
The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called its electronic configuration. The
electronic configuration of different atoms can be represented in two ways.
For example: