Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Culinary Fundamentals
Culinary Fundamentals
ALL IN
ONE
BUSINESS
MODULE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CULINARY FUNDAMENTALS 1. KITCHEN SANITATION AND FOOD SAFETY GUIDELINES …. 5
1.1 Foodservice Sanitation ……………………………………………………………………………. 5
1.2 Types of Food Hazards ……………………………………………………………………………. 6
1.3 Foodborne illnesses ………………………………………………………………………………... 7
1.4 FAT TOM ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 8
1.5 Foodborne Pathogens ……………………………………………………………………………... 9
1.6 The Danger Zone …………………………………………………………………………………… 10
1.7 Safe Cooking Temperatures ………………………………………………………………………. 10
2. FOOD ALLERGIES ………………………………………………………………………...…………. 12
2.1 The Big 8 Allergens ………………………………………………………………………………... 12
2.2 Sample Recipe Allergen Form ……………………………………………………………………. 15
3. 10 RULES FOR KITCHEN SAFETY …………………………………………………………………. 6
4. BASIC KNIFE SKILLS …………………………………………………………………………………. 20
4.1 How to Hold a Knife ………………………………………………………………………………… 20
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4.2 Basic Techniques for Professional Culinary Arts Knife Cuts ……………………….…………... 22
4.3 Chop …………………………………………………………………………………….……………. 25
4.4 Dice ………………………………………………………………………………………….………. 26
4.5 Slice and Cut …………………………………………………………………………….…………. 27
5. BASIC KNIFE DRAWER ………………………………………………………………………………. 29
6. SHARPENING AND STORAGE ……………………………………………………………………....
30
7. THE BASICS: ESSENTIAL KITCHEN TOOLS ……………………………………………………… 31
7.1 Cookware ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 32
7.2 Utensils …………………………………………………………………………………….………... 33
7.3 Dishes, Tools, and Gadgets ………………………………………………………………………. 34
8. TOP 10 APPLIANCES FOR KITCHEN ……………………………………………………………… 36
9. UNDERSTANDING MEASURING TOOLS …………………………………………………………. 39
10. CULINARY MEASUREMENT GUIDE ………………………………………………………………... 42
10.1 Different Ways to Measure Weight and Volume ………………………………………………... 46
10.2 Recipe Conversion …………………………………………………………………………………. 47
10.3 Measurement Conversion …………………………………………………………………………. 48
11. AS-PURCHASED AND EDIBLE PORTION QUANTITY …………………………………...……... 49
11.1 Calculating Edible Portion …………………………………………………………………………. 50
11.2 Calculating the AP Quantity Based on EP Percentage ………………………………….……. 50
11.3 Trim & Waste ………………………………………………………………………………………... 50
11.4 Butcher’s Yield Test ………………………………………………………………………………… 51
12. CULINARY FOOD SCIENCE ………………………………………………………………………...52
12.1 How Cold and Hot Temperatures Affect Food …………………………………………….……. 52
12.2 Cold
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 52
12.3 Heat Transfer ……………………………………………………………………………. 53
12.4
13. CULINARY COOKING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES…………………………………. 58
13.1 Dry Heat Cooking Method ………………………………………………………………………… 59
13.2 Moist Heat Cooking Method ……………………………………………………………………… 59
13.3 Combination Cooking Method ……………………………………………………………………. 60
14. SAFETY FOOD TEMPERATURE ………………………………………………………………...…. 65
15. MISE EN PLACE ………………………………………………………………………………………. 66
16. THE 101 CULINARY TERMS EVERY PROFESSIONAL CHEF KNOWS ……………………… 71
17. INGREDIENTS …………………………………………………………………………………...……. 82
18. VEGETABLE OILS ……………………………………………………………………………………. 82
18.1 Extraction Methods ………………………………………………………………………………. 82
18.2 Production Methods ……………………………………………………………………………… 85
18.3 Types of Vinegar …………………………………………………………………………………. 86
18.4 Nuts ……………………………………………………………………………………………...… 87
18.5 Seeds ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 88
18.6 Gelatin & Agar …………………………………………………………………………………….
89
19. THREE MAIN MEAT CATEGORIES ………………………………………………………………. 93
20. 10 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEAT ………………………………………………………….……… 94
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21. FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ………………………………………………………………………. 95
21.1 Fruit and Vegetable Safety Practices …………………………………………………………... 96
21.2 Cleaning produce ………………………………………………………………………………… 96
21.3 Refrigeration ……………………………………………………………………………………… 96
21.4 Freezing ……………………………………………………………………………………...…… 97
21.5 Cool, Dry Storage …………………………………………………………………….…………. 97
21.6 Types of Fruit ……………………………………………………………………………………. 98
21.7 Types of Vegetables ……………………………………………………………………………. 98
21.8 Legumes …………………………………………………………………………………………. 98
21.9 Selecting Fruits and Vegetables ………………………………………………………………. 99
21.10 Preparation and cooking of Fruit and Vegetables ………………………………………...…. 100
22. YOUR ULTIMATE GUIDE TO KITCHEN HERBS AND SPICES ……………………………... 101
22.1 Dried Herbs and Spices ………………………………………………………………………… 102
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CULINARY
FUNDAMENTALS
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• Wash hands and exposed portions of arms before any food preparation or
packaging.
• Minimize bare hands by using utensils, single-use gloves, bakery papers, or
tongs, especially when preparing/packaging ready-to-eat foods.
Keep all kitchen equipment and utensils used to produce cottage food products clean and in a
good condition.
• Wash, rinse, and sanitize all food contact surfaces, equipment, and utensils
before each use.
• Ensure water used during the preparation of cottage food products meets
potable drinking water standards.
• Keep all food preparation and food and equipment storage areas free of
rodents and insects.
Keep all food that is manufactured, produced, prepared, packed, stored, transported, and kept
for sale free from adulteration and spoilage. • Get ingredients from approved sources.
• Protect food from dirt, vermin, unnecessary handling, droplet contamination,
overhead leakage, or other environmental sources of contamination.
• Prevent cross-contamination of foods and ingredients with raw animal
products and chemicals.
• Prepackage all food to protect it from contamination during transport,
display, sale, and purchase by consumers.
Foodservice Sanitation
Providing safe food requires careful attention by everyone in a food service establishment
because improperly prepared food can be dangerous for customers and costly to the business.
Mistakes are often made because of time pressures in the kitchen, lack of awareness about
safe handle food procedures, or general disregard for maintaining a clean environment. Safe
food handling requires one to be knowledgeable of food hazards, an understanding of how to
handle and store foods safely, and practicing good sanitation habits to minimize and eliminate
potential risks.
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Types of Food Hazards
There are three types of food hazards that
occur in a food service operation including
chemical hazards (cleaning solutions and
sanitizers), physical hazards (foreign particles
like glass and metal), and biological hazards
(bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi). Of
these three, biological hazards present the most
common problems related to food safety,
because foods containing microorganisms
called pathogens, or toxins created from them,
when given the right environment, can
contaminate foods and cause foodborne
illnesses. Many of these pathogens cannot be
seen, smelled, or tasted.
Viruses – These small and simple life forms are not able to survive outside a living host cell but
can survive for limited times on inanimate objects including door handles and foodservice
equipment. Resistant to extremes in hot and cold, viruses once established in food use it as a
transportation device. Hepatitis A and Norovirus are two common food viruses.
Parasites – Trichinella Spiralis (trichinosis) found in pork, and Anisakis roundworm found in
fish, are examples of parasites that need a host to survive. Proper cooking kills some of these
parasites.
Fungi – Molds and yeasts are types of fungi that affect foods. Some molds and yeast are
beneficial, others cause food spoilage, and some have dangerous toxic effects.
Foodborne illnesses
Foodborne illnesses sicken people through diseases transmitted via food. The most common
practices that contribute to foodborne illnesses include receiving foods from unsafe sources,
time and temperature abuse, poor personal hygiene, and contaminated equipment (also known
as cross-contamination). Often more than one of these conditions is present in a foodborne
illness outbreak.
Receiving Food from Unsafe food Sources– Foods can be contaminated anywhere in the
supply chain so it’s important to know the integrity of the food supplier. Food recalls from
meatpackers, cheese manufacturers, food processors, and even fresh produce companies
occur regularly. Approved food suppliers must meet state or federal food processing and
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inspection standards and “homemade” foods should never be used in a commercial foodservice
operation.
Poor Personal Hygiene – Employees who do not practice proper personal hygiene can
contaminate foods and spread diseases to customers by failing to wash their hands properly
after going to the bathroom, by handling potentially hazardous foods (raw meats, poultry, and
fish), and not washing their hands, by coming to work sick, coughing or sneezing on food, and
touching or scratching wounds and then handling food.
Cross-Contamination – Cross-contamination
occurs when improperly cooked foods are
comingled without adequate cooking, when TCS
foods (raw meats, poultry, fish) contaminate ready-
to-eat foods like salads, through improperly
sanitized equipment used for preparing different
types of foods (raw meats and lettuces), or when contaminated towels touch food equipment.
Color-coded cutting boards are available to use with different food categories to reduce the risk
of cross-contamination (red for meat, yellow for poultry, blue for fish, green for vegetables).
While there is no substitute for proper cleaning and sanitizing color-coded boards reduce the risk
of cross-contamination and allergic reactions to certain foods.
Food-Borne Pathogens
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FAT TOM
Pathogens need the following six conditions to multiply, known by the term FAT TOM, for food,
acidity, temperature, time, oxygen, and moisture
WHAT IS PH?
Measured on a scale from 0 to 14.0, pH is the degree of acidity or alkalinity (base) of a
substance. A neutral environment is measured at 7.0 pH level. Foods below 7.0 pH are acidic
and those above are alkaline. Most bacteria will not grow at pH levels below 4.6 because the
environment is too acidic.
Foodborne Pathogens
Biological hazards (bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi) create the most common
problems related to food safety. That’s because foods containing microorganisms, called
pathogens, or toxins created from them, can contaminate foods and cause foodborne
illnesses. Many of these pathogens cannot be seen, smelled, or tasted.
Bacteria – Single-celled organisms, known as bacteria, are the most common type of foodborne
hazard. Although some bacteria are useful in kitchen production, for example, the type created
when fermenting pickles, other types are infectious disease-causing agents that multiply rapidly
under the right conditions. Some bacteria on their own are not infectious but produce and
release toxins that can cause illness.
Viruses – These small and simple life forms are not able to survive outside a living host cell but
can survive for limited times on inanimate objects including door handles and foodservice
equipment. Viruses are resistant to extremes in hot and cold and once established in food use it
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Parasites – Trichinella Spiralis (trichinosis) found in pork, and Anisakis, roundworms found in
fish, are examples of parasites that need a host to survive. Proper cooking kills some of these
parasites.
Fungi – Molds and yeasts are types of fungi that affect foods. Some molds and yeast are
beneficial, for example, the yeast in bread, others cause food spoilage with toxic effect.
as a transportation device. Hepatitis A and Norovirus are two common food viruses.
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Temperature Danger Zone
Although some bacteria can survive in hotter and colder temperatures than humans, most do
best in a warm, moist, protein-rich environment that is pH neutral or low in acid
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Safe Cooking Temperatures
To prevent the spread of salmonella, staphylococcus aureus, listeria, and other dangerous
bacteria, it’s important to monitor the internal temperature of the foods you serve. Follow
the recommendations below for safe cooking temperatures of common TCS foods.
• Tenderized meats
• Ratites (ostrich, emu)
• Ground, chopped, or minced seafood
• Eggs from the shell, held for service
• Seafood
• Steaks and chops (beef, pork, veal, lamb)
• Commercially raised game
• Eggs from the shell, served immediately
• Roasts of beef, pork, veal, lamb (must be cooked for at least 4 minutes)
• Fruits
• Vegetables
• Rice, pasta, and other grains
• Legumes
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Food Allergies
Millions of people have food allergies that can range from mild to life-threatening. Here’s what
you need to know for Menu Planning, Food Preparation, and Guest Service
Allergic reactions occur in certain individuals from sensitivity to particular foods. Any food can
cause a reaction, but there are 8 common ones that result in about 90% of the allergic reactions
in people.
Food allergens are food proteins that the immune system mistakes as harmful, mounting
an attack that can result in nausea, shortness of breath, hives or rashes, swelling of body
parts (face, eyes, hands, feet), vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. In severe cases,
anaphylactic shock may lead to death.
Foodservice operators today are including information on potential food allergens and are
training their staff to be aware of menu items that include the major ones. Many menus today
address customer concerns by including icons on their menus indicating allergens in foods, and
also by providing allergen-free options for their guests.
• Every operation should develop a Food Allergy Reference Book with a listing of
ingredients for all menu items that is available to everyone in the operation.
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The Big 8 Allergens
• Review the food allergy with the guest and check ingredient labels
If a guest has an allergic reaction, notify the person in charge and call 911 to ensure that
medical attention is brought to the correct location.
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Common Restaurant Scenario
Communication among Front of House, Kitchen, and Guest with Food Allergies starts with
asking the guest whether there are any dietary instructions. Include a statement on the menu
to assist the guest. Example; “If you have any food allergies, please make your server
aware when ordering”. Use icons on the menu to denote items that are or can be made
Vegetarian or Gluten Free.
At the table, when the guest gives a complete list of food allergies and dietary restrictions to
the server, the server can then ask the guest questions regarding the severity of the allergy.
The server can then ask the guest to pick a few dishes off the menu that are of interest,
specifically discussing proteins (i.e., main elements) of the dish he or she would like to enjoy.
The guest and server interaction streamlines itself the more knowledge the server has
regarding common allergens present on the menu.
The server should then consult the chef and review the Food Allergy Reference Book to
confirm menu recommendations for guests. After the chef offers or approves
recommendations, the server returns to the guest’s table and relays menu information. The
server and guest agree upon allergen-free menu items and/or dish modifications.
Menu Planning
There are ways to engineer a menu to make it easier for servers and cooks to adapt to guest’s
allergen concerns. These can include eliminating the use of wheat flour in soups and sauces as
much as possible. Offering vegan soups will eliminate dairy or animal products. Items like nuts
can be offered as a garnish, for example on a salad or soup, that guests can opt to not have.
Offer pasta or grain dishes that can be prepared without dairy or other allergens like fish or
shellfish.
Food Preparation
When preparing items that are intended to be free of certain allergens, be mindful of your
preparation to ensure correct ingredients are used. Also ensure, as much as possible, to avoid
cross-contact with allergenic ingredients by way of utensils and equipment.
• Small Wares – cutting boards, bowls, hotel pans, sheet pans, pots, pans, etc.
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Sample Recipe Allergen Form
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10 Rules for
Kitchen Safety
Rule #1: Use a Sharp Knife
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1. Chef’s Knife = Chopping, Mincing, Cutting large cuts of meat
2. Bread Knife = Slicing bread, tomatoes, or pineapple
3. Utility Knife = Mid-sized fruits, vegetables and cheese
4. Cleaver = Cutting through bone or large cuts of meat
5. Paring Knife = Peeling Fruit, Slicing small fruits/veggies
6. Santoku Knife = Mincing, cutting meat
7. Boning = Filleting fish or de-boning chicken
8. Steak Knife = specialized for cutting steaks
9. Kitchen Shears = snipping herbs, open packaging
• Your recipe will determine the best knife for the job Rule
• Cutaway from You! • Don’t Rush! If the angle of food is wrong, take
time to reposition it OR turn your cutting board
• Stabilize your cutting board by putting a damp paper towel underneath it
• Clean Space, Clear Mind: Don’t crowd yourself – clear your cutting board of
debris and prepared foods
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Rule #8: Cut On A Board
In case of a fire:
• Know where your fire extinguisher is and
how to use it
• If pan is on fire, turn off heat and cover with
lid
• Never pour water on fire involving grease
or
try to carry it out
• A fire blanket, extinguisher, or baking soda
can be used to put out fire
1. “Hot pot!”
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2. “Behind you!”
3. “Knife!”
4. “Coming around the corner!”
THE GRIP
For the knife grip used by most chefs, the palm of the hand chokes up on the handle, while the
thumb and index finger grip the top of the blade. This is different from how many home cooks
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hold a knife, by wrapping the entire hand around the handle. The chef’s grip has evolved that
way for a reason: it’s the most efficient way to use the weight of the knife, the sharpness of its
blade, and the strength of your arms, which makes for the easiest cutting.
In a perfect world, while the hand that is holding the knife moves forward and back to cut, the
helping hand moves across in even increments, creating perfect slices. (Do not despair; this
takes practice and is hardly a requirement for home cooks.)
• • The knife handle shouldn’t be held in a death grip: try to relax hands and wrists and let
the blade do the cutting.
• • Position all 10 fingers so it’s virtually impossible for the blade to cut them.
• • The hand holding the knife should be gripping the blade as well as the handle.
• • The knife moves in a rocking motion, from front to back, as well as up and down.
• • The knife should be at the same height or just below your elbows, so that the whole
upper body, not just the hands, can put downward pressure on the knife.
Large Dice
The large dice is a culinary knife cut measuring
3/4 inch × 3/4 inch × 3/4 inch. This square cut is
most often used for vegetables like potatoes, and
sometimes fruits such as watermelon.
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Medium Dice
The medium dice measures 1/2 inch × 1/2 inch ×
1/2 inch, and is a smaller version of the large
dice. This is generally a good choice when
recipes don’t specify the size of the dice and the
ingredient list just says “diced tomatoes.”
Small Dice
The littlest of the dice cuts, the
dice measures 1/4 inch × 1/4
1/4 inch and is produced by
the allumette into 1/4-inch
sections.
Batonnet
The batonnet (pronounced bah-tow-NAY) is
basically creating a rectangular stick that
measures 1/2 inch × 1/2 inch × 2 1/2 to 3 inches.
It is also the starting point for another cut, the
medium dice.
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Allumette
Measuring 1/4 inch × 1/4 inch × 2 1/2 to 3 inches,
the allumette is sometimes referred to as the
“matchstick cut.” It’s also the starting point for the
small dice.
Julienne
The julienne cut measures 1/8 inch × 1/8 inch × 2
1/2 inches and is basically the allumette cut once
more lengthwise. You will most often use this cut
for carrots, celery, or potatoes, and see the thin
strips used as a garnish.
Fine Julienne
The fine julienne knife cut measures 1/16 inch ×
1/16 inch × 2 inches. It is also the starting point
for the fine brunoise cut. This cut is often used for
garnishes.
Brunoise
The brunoise knife cut (pronounced
BROONwahz) measures 1/8 inch × 1/8 inch ×
1/8 inch, which makes it the smallest of the dice
cuts. Brunoise is usually used for garnishes.
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Mince
Smaller than a fine brunoise, the mince is less
precise since it is supposed to be finely cut. We
most often mince garlic, or other aromatics, when
we want the flavor to be distributed more
throughout the dish.
Chiffonade
This cut is mainly used for vegetable leaves and
fresh herbs, in particular, basil. The leaves are
stacked, rolled, and then sliced perpendicularly,
creating thin strips.
Chop
It’s no wonder some people hate cooking: if a basic task like chopping carrots takes forever,
making an entire dish is drudgery. That’s why becoming efficient with a knife is so helpful. And
in that effort, chopping is your greatest ally. Unlike professional chefs, who routinely dice their
ingredients into measured cubes, home cooks can usually keep it rough, as long as all the
pieces end up about the same size.
CHOP GARLIC
To chop a garlic clove, place your unpeeled clove on a chopping board, and place the blade
of your chef’s knife flat against its side, parallel to your chopping surface. With a swift motion,
and taking care to avoid the edge of the blade, strike the knife blade to smash the clove.
Remove the skin, and repeat the process with each clove you need for your recipe. Cut off the
root ends and discard. Then, take a clove and hold it firmly on the cutting board. Slice thickly
from the root end to the tip. To chop, pile up the pieces of garlic, hold together, and chop them.
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CHOP PARSLEY
Use a chef’s knife to chop leafy herbs like parsley. Start with clean, dry herbs with stems
intact. Hold them in a bunch over your cutting surface, and run your knife through them at a
45degree angle, trimming off the leaves into a pile. (Discard the stems.) Grab all the leaves
into your palm, and using the “claw” grip, push them under your knife, using a rocking motion
to chop them. Then, gather all the chopped herbs up, turn the pile 90 degrees, and chop them
again for a rough chop. For a medium chop, repeat the process twice more. And for mincing,
repeat it three to four times more.
CHOP A CARROT
To chop a carrot, start with clean, peeled vegetables. Use a chef’s knife to chop each carrot
crosswise into pieces of equal length, and then cut through those pieces lengthwise. Place the
pieces cut-side down on the board, and slice across into half-moons. For a rough chop, cut the
half-moon pieces across, into roughly equal quarter moons. For a medium chop, pile up those
smaller half-moon pieces and, using the “claw” grip, push them toward the knife, chopping with
a rocking motion. Then repeat. For a fine chop, repeat the process twice more.
Dice
More exact than chopping, dicing is the process by which vegetables and fruits, in all of their
irregular and lumpy glory, are turned into small, neat cubes that cook uniformly. Whether chefs
are prepping a giant potato or a baby carrot, they reduce the curves and bumps to cubic
shapes. When that cube is cut along horizontal and vertical lines, neat dice are the result.
We’ll show you how to take fruits and vegetables from a large dice, about 3/4 inch, to a
brunoise, a 1/8-inch cube, and the smallest dice of all.
DICE AN ONION
To dice an onion, use a chef’s knife to cut the onion in half from the stem tip to the bottom
root. Peel, leaving the root intact. Place the half flat side down on a cutting board and rest your
fingertips or palm on top. On the other hand, make horizontal slices from the stem toward the
root end, about ¼ inch thick, taking care to stop about half an inch before slicing through the
root. Then grip the onion with your helping hand, curling your fingertips under so your hand
resembles a claw; this helps protect your knuckles and fingertips. Use your cutting hand to
make ¼-inch downward slices, starting from the stem and moving toward the root. Slide your
“claw” back toward the stem as you move the knife with the other hand.
DICE A TOMATO
To dice a tomato, first, cut it in equal quarters using a sharp chef’s knife. Pick up a quarter in
both hands and gently flatten it by pressing your thumbs against the skin side. This will loosen
the flesh on the cut side. Place each quarter skin-side down on your cutting surface, and
gently trim the seeds out, leaving the flesh intact. Flip the quarter over and cut the tomato in
equalsized strips from top to bottom, then turn the strips 90 degrees and cut them into
equalsize cubes. (This process remains the same regardless of the size dice you are seeking.)
DICE A POTATO
To dice a potato, start with a clean, peeled tuber. Using your chef’s knife, trim the rounded
edges off the potato, leaving a six-sided rectangle. For a large dice, cut the potato lengthwise
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in equal parts, and then flip the pieces over on their sides. Cut each piece across in equal
sizes. For a medium dice, cut your rectangle into three pieces lengthwise, and then cut each
piece in half lengthwise. Then, cut those pieces across into equal-sized dice. For small dice,
repeat that process, but make smaller cuts.
SLICE A TOMATO
To slice a tomato, you’ll need a utility knife (for coring) and a serrated knife. Holding the
tomato core-side up, take your utility knife and cut around the core, into the tomato, at an
angle. Remove the core, and lay the tomato on its side. Starting from the core end, cut
equalsize slices with a serrated knife, using a gentle back-and-forth motion. When the tomato
becomes too small to grip, place the remained, flesh side down, on your cutting surface and
slice horizontally.
SLICE AN APPLE
A wedge cut is superbly useful for filling a pie or cobbler with fruit. To slice an apple into
wedges, first turn the whole fruit upside down, resting it on the stem end. Using a chef’s knife
or utility knife, cut straight down from the bottom end through to your cutting surface, creating
two halves. Place a half, flesh side down, on the cutting board and cut it in half vertically. Then
cut each quarter in another half vertically. You should finish with eight wedges. Take each
wedge and cut off the slender edge; that will take away the seeds and any tougher parts of the
core.
To roll cut, hold a peeled carrot (or a banana, parsnip, or another long round vegetable) firmly
on your cutting surface. Using your chef’s knife, cut the tip of the carrot diagonally. Then roll
the carrot 90 degrees and cut down again at the same angle about an inch from the previous
cut. Repeat until the carrot is cut into irregular wedges.
CHIFFONADE BASIL
Slicing basil or any leafy green into a chiffonade gives you long uniform strands, perfect for
mixing into a stir-fry or a salad.
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To chiffonade basil, pick the cleaned leaves from the stem, and stack the leaves lengthwise
together. Then, roll the leaves fairly tightly together into a sort of basil cigar. Using your chef’s
knife, cut across the roll to make slices about 1/4 inch thick. Keep the tip of your knife on the
cutting surface and move the base of the blade in a rocking motion as you cut; this will provide
stability and help the cutting go faster.
JULIENNE CELERY
To julienne celery, place your celery stalk on a cutting surface and trim the tough end and the
leaves. Cut crosswise into pieces about two inches long. Place one piece, curved side up, on
your cutting surface. Using a rocking motion with your chef’s knife, slice the piece from top to
bottom into slender lengths. When the remaining piece gets too small to hold safely, turn it on
its side and slice more.
THE ESSENTIALS
These are the knives you’ll use most often in your kitchen. With these three, you can perform
almost any task.
Chef’s knife: A classic chef’s knife, with its broad, tapering blade, sharp tip, and chunky
handle is the workhorse of the kitchen. Practicing with one really will make you a better cook:
they are sharper, stronger and they do more of the work for you than smaller knives. For many
home cooks, an 8-inch blade with a plastic handle is perfect, especially to start. Work up to a
10-inch knife, which is more efficient overall. When buying, look for a comfortable handle and
a blade that is thicker at the base than at the tip.
Utility knife: These small knives are in constant use in most home kitchens, so it’s worth
having three or four. Many home cooks use these knives for virtually every job: their short
blades, 3 to 4 inches long, make them easier to control. They are best for small soft
ingredients like shallots, mushrooms, and peaches. Inexpensive thin-bladed knives with plastic
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handles are often the most practical choice. Small knives are difficult for home cooks to
sharpen, and so simply replacing them when they get dull is nothing to be ashamed of.
Serrated knife: A large serrated knife ( a 10-inch blade is standard) is useful not only for
slicing bread but for sawing through ingredients with firm rinds like butternut squash, lemons,
watermelon, and pineapples. The scalloped cutting edge makes neat slices of soft-skinned
ingredients like tomatoes and eggplants.
THE EXTRAS
These knives are nice to have, but they aren’t necessary for most kitchen work.
Boning or filleting knife: Both boning knives and fillet knives are useful for cutting up raw
meat, poultry and fish, but it’s highly unlikely that you’ll need both in a home kitchen: each has
a long, thin blade and a curved, sharp tip. A boning knife’s blade is more rigid, making it better
for meat and whole birds; the filleting knife has a flexible blade that helps it follow the curved
shape of fish skeletons and chicken breasts.
Carving knife: A carving knife is used for cooked cuts of meat and poultry. Its long knife has a
sharply pointed tip and a narrower blade than a chef’s knife, the better to cut into joints and
along bones.
Santoku knife: Like a chef’s knife, this East-West hybrid can be used for most prep work. This
blade is straight like a Japanese bocho or vegetable knife, not curved like a Western chef’s
knife – so, as with a Chinese cleaver, the cook uses a simple up-and-down motion for cutting,
not rocking back-and-forth. If you are used to a santoku or another Asian knife, by all means,
use it instead of a chef’s knife, but it doesn’t serve a separate purpose in the kitchen.
SHARPENING
Once a knife is dull – test it by drawing the blade along the edge of a piece of paper to see if it
cuts – it needs to be sharpened. We strongly recommend using manual, not electric
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sharpeners. It’s too easy for a home cook to get carried away, exerting too much pressure and
making too many strokes, while the whirling machine eats the edge of your knife. With a
manual sharpener, use gentle pressure while pulling the knife through, and test often as you
go.
HONING
Many people don’t know the difference between honing and sharpening. But they are equally
important for efficient knife work. Honing, which makes the blade of a knife straight, is done
with what’s often (and incorrectly) called sharpening steel, by drawing the blade over and over
along an abrasive rod of metal, ceramic, or stone. Many professionals hone their chefs’ knives
daily, but doing it weekly is plenty for most home cooks. It’s a quick process once you feel
confident – and it’s fun, making you look, feel, and sound like a serious cook. But remember:
honing helps maintain the blade’s sharpness, but doesn’t actually sharpen it.
• Use a cutting surface that won’t dull them. Glass cutting boards are much too hard.
Wood is the gentlest, and thick plastic is the next best. Make sure boards stay firmly in place
on the counter by laying a kitchen towel underneath.
• For storage, prevent nicks — including microscopic ones that dull the blade — by
keeping knives away from one another. Store them in a block or on a magnetic strip; place
them in a drawer if you don’t want to use a counter or wall space.
• There’s no reason a knife with a synthetic handle and a stainless-steel or ceramic blade
can’t be safely washed in the dishwasher — but you must place them so the knife can’t get
jostled around or the edge can’t be chipped. But knives with wood handles, high-carbon-steel
blades and other sensitive materials should be washed by hand.
Having the most essential cooking tools in your cupboard will make your life so much easier.
Although the kitchen world comes out with sleek, trendy, and exciting kitchen gadgets all the
time, that doesn’t mean you need to buy every single one to be able to cook well. In fact, the
most basic tools are all you need to start cooking delicious meals. And after you’ve saved all
that money on home-cooked meals, you can check out our advanced tier of kitchen tools here.
To help you know exactly what tools to start out with, we created a Kitchen Essentials
Checklist for you. This list describes the uses of 20 basic cooking utensils and is perfect for
novice cooks or chefs on a budget.
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With these items, you’ll be able to cook just about anything and start kicking butt in the kitchen!
Cookware
1. NON-STICK FRYING PAN
Every household needs a non-stick pan for breakfast duty since eggs and pancakes are best
made on a non-stick surface. It’s also a super versatile pan that can be used for searing
meats, sauteing vegetables, and making sauces. Just be careful to use non-abrasive tools on
the surface! We like this stainless steel frying pan and this aluminum one. Buying a two-piece
set lets you have two sizes around and makes it possible to cook two things at the same time.
2. SAUCEPAN
A saucepan is perfect for when you need to cook something with liquids, such as boiling pasta
and vegetables or simmering sauces and beans. A 4-quart saucepan is easy to maneuver and
handle and is great whether you’re cooking for 1 or 4. Try this 3.5-quart non-stick one or this
4quart stainless steel saucepan.
3. STOCK POT
For bigger batches of soups, stews, and pasta, you’ll want to have a 12-quart stockpot around.
Its base allows for even heating, so your soups cook evenly.
4. SHEET PANS
These pans can get a lot of action, including roasting vegetables, baking meats, toasting nuts,
and of course, baking cookies. They also make for an easy clean-up with sheet pan dinners.
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5. GLASS BAKING DISH
Glass baking dishes are perfect for baking things like casseroles and enchiladas in the oven.
Because it’s microwave-safe, an 8-inch size can fit into a microwave for the times you need to
pre-cook vegetables for the quick Microwave & Saute Cooking Method or even to fully cook
veggies when your oven and stove are all occupied.
Utensils
6. KNIVES
If you’re cooking, you’re going to be using a knife. If you only have money and space for one
knife, get a chef’s knife. You will use this knife for 90% of your food prep, so buy a nice one
and take care of it. However, we highly recommend getting a serrated knife and a paring knife
as well since they serve different purposes – serrated knives let you slice through tomatoes
and bread with ease, and paring knives are great for smaller, more delicate jobs when a big
knife just doesn’t cut it. (We like to use the Global grand, but buy whatever feels right in your
hand!)
7. MEASURING SPOONS
Even if you like to “eyeball” ingredients, it’s handy to have a set of measuring spoons around
for the times you need precise measurements. But also, they double as mini spoons for
scooping spices and dried herbs! This magnetic set here is narrow enough to fit into spice jars,
and they stick together so you don’t ever have to worry about losing the teaspoon or
misplacing the tablespoon!
8. MEASURING CUPS
Measuring cups are absolutely crucial If you’re a baker, but it’s also great for everyday
cooking. We like to keep a 4-piece set for measuring dried ingredients and small amounts of
liquid. A 1quart glass measuring cup makes measuring liquids a lot more convenient and
efficient, and you can also make sauces and vinaigrettes right inside and then simply pour it
into whatever you’re cooking up.
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9. WOODEN SPOONS
Wooden spoons are not abrasive on your cooking surfaces and they’ll last forever. Just don’t
put them in the dishwasher! Choose a set that has a variety of wooden spoons, like this 6piece
set, so that you can use it for different kinds of cooking.
11. PEELER
When you’re setting up your kitchen with the basics, you want to make sure you have a good,
sharp peeler to remove the peels of vegetables, shave off cheese, or make veggie ribbons.
12. WHISK
While forks and chopsticks can be handy, a whisk is quicker and more efficient for emulsifying
ingredients like vinegars and oils. We make vinaigrettes and marinades to season up salads
and everything else almost nightly, so a whisk comes in very handy!
13. TONGS
Tongs are like your extended hands and are super useful in the kitchen! Not only are they
used to flip big pieces of food, but they also help move ingredients around in a frying pan or on
a sheet pan without the risk of burns.
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Dishes, Tools, and Gadgets
14. CUTTING BOARD
A good, grippy cutting board will protect your fingers during all your prep work, which is why
we like this one. We recommend having a few cutting boards, like this set of plastic cutting
boards, to prep various ingredients and prevent cross-contamination. Plastic boards can be
placed in the dishwasher for full disinfecting.
15. COLANDER
Every kitchen needs a heavy-duty colander for draining out boiled pasta and vegetables. It is
also used for draining canned beans and freshly washed veggies.
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Top 10 Appliances for Kitchen
1. STOVES
A kitchen stove often called simply a stove or a
cooker is a kitchen appliance designed for the
purpose of cooking food. Kitchen stoves rely on
the application of direct heat for the cooking
process and may also contain an oven, used for
baking.
2. BLENDER
Blenders are an important appliance for those who need
to mix sauces, juices or soups. Not to be confused with
food processors, a blender’s main benefit is its ability to
“blend” two or more ingredients together. Its motor is
generally less powerful than that of a food processor, and
its blades are less sharp, so a blender is better used with
liquids and ices.
3. FOOD PROCESSOR
If you need to chop a lot of vegetables in a short amount
of time, a food processor is your best friend. Many units
come with a variety of blade attachments so that you can
pick and choose which
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4. MIXER
Any baker knows how laborious it is to stir bread
dough or cake batter. Mixers make it easy to
combine wet and dry ingredients, like flour and
eggs. Some mixers come with dough-hook
attachments for kneading.
6. SLOW COOKER
Also known as crock pots, slow cookers are
especially helpful for busy chefs because you
can prepare a meal before leaving the house for
the day and have it done by the time you get
home. Crockpots allow food to simmer all day or
night to provide your family with a delicious,
home-cooked meal
7. OVEN TOASTER
Toasters and toaster ovens are a basic
requirement in many kitchens. Toasters quickly
and efficiently crispbreads and bagels, while
toaster ovens are great for melting cheese and
warming up foods.
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8. MICROWAVE
No small appliance is more beloved than the
microwave oven. In fact, for many, a microwave
is the entire kitchen experience. Microwaves heat
food in less than half the time of a conventional
oven. Microwaves are easy to operate and
extremely durable.
9. FRYER
French fries, hush puppies, and chicken fingers
are all made to perfection by a deep fryer.
Although not as healthy as a grill, home-grade
deep fryers are very popular appliances because
they bring the restaurant taste to your dinner
table.
Understanding Measuring
Tools
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UNDERSTANDING MEASURING TOOLS FOR COOKING & PREPPING
MEALS AND SNACKS
Using the right tools for measuring the foods on your nutrition plan is as important as the
ingredients on the plan. There are various measuring utensils that are used in the kitchen but
which ones are the most common that you will use and when will you use them?
First, not all measuring cups are the same thus they are not interchangeable. To ensure proper
measurements, you’ll need these primary utensils:
For some of you, your normal cooking practices has little or no emphasis on the exact
measurements (with the exception of baking). I completely understand why you may want to
add a dash of this or that to help make your food taste “better”. I would advise not to do that as
you are trying to achieve the goal because we may end up increasing a specific macro-nutrient
to a level that exceeds your individual requirements. So, cook/prep to the measurement on the
plan and do not wing it but know in time you will be able to eye-ball the measurements.
Although some items on the plan dictate measurements by weight (proteins & carbohydrates),
the majority of foods you’ll find on the nutrition plans I design will list ingredients in a teaspoon,
tablespoon, and cup measurements.
When determining what utensil to use you will first want to determine if the food item is wet
versus dry. Things like milk, yogurt, apple sauce, honey, melted butter, and water are all
examples of wet ingredients. Items such as chopped nuts, flour, oats, and cereal are examples
of dry ingredients. Why does this matter? They are measured using different types of
measuring cups.
1. SCALE
Since we have to eat precisely measured proteins
(seafood, chicken, steak, ground meats) and some
fibrosis & complex carbs (oats, rice, potatoes) you
need a scale! Measuring by weight will ensure the
most accurate per the plan.
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2. DRY INGREDIENT MEASURING CUPS
Dry measuring cups come in all shapes, sizes and
forms. You can find dry measuring cups in metal,
ceramic and plastic. They are usually sold as a set
that includes a third of a cup, a quarter cup, a half cup,
and a full cup measure.
Metal/Stainless Steal measuring cups are
preferred.
You should also use the dry measuring cups to measure vegetables (lettuce, carrots,
cucumbers, onions, peppers, avocado, etc). Just like dry ingredients, do not pack the vegetable
into the measuring cup so leveling probably won’t happen but you shouldn’t pack or pile the
vegetables into the cup either.
3. MEASURING SPOONS
Measuring spoons are used to measure teaspoons and
tablespoons of ingredients. They also come in a wide
variety of shapes and materials. I would encourage you
to get the rectangular spoons for easy access to narrow
bottle openings and it allows you to sit them on the
counter without tipping.
Unlike the different types of measuring cups, measuring spoons are used to measure both wet
and dry ingredients.
To measure an ingredient using measuring spoons, fill the spoon to the top. Unless indicated
(heaping), gently swipe the edge of a knife across the top of the spoon. If you’re using the
measuring spoon to measure liquid, simply fill it to the top and add it to your recipe.
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4. WET INGREDIENT MEASURING CUP
Wet ingredients are measured in a measuring cup that
is often glass, or plastic, with a handle. Wet measuring
cups indicate volume by the markings on the side of
the glass. They vary in size. You can find glass
measuring cups in 1, 2, 4 and 8 cups sizes. Ideally,
you’d like to have a couple of different sizes in your
kitchen.
Do not use the wet measuring cup to measure dry ingredients, fruit or vegetables.
Please be sure not to convert measurements from cups/spoons to weight and from weight to
cups/spoons. The measurements are not always interchangeable and because of that there is a
high probability you will overstate or understate
the required measurements.
A chef’s routine includes simple to complex
math calculations. Examples include counting
portions, increasing a recipe yield, determining
a ratio for preparing a stock, calculating a plate
cost, or establishing a food and labor budget.
Culinary math begins with the basics of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
along with ratios, yields and percentages.
Ingredients must be measured and scaled
accurately, food production quantities are
calculated, and recipes are increased or
decreased to scale based on demand. Math is
used for portion control, to maintain consistency
in production, and to compute food cost.
Mastering math leads to better results in the
kitchen through accuracy and consistency.
However, most of the world uses the metric system that measures quantities for weight, volume
and length in multiples of 10, 100 or 1000. Volume is based on liters and milliliters, weight is
measured in grams and kilograms, and length is measured in millimeters and meters.
Temperatures are calculated using Celsius which is based on 0-100° representing the freezing
point and boiling point of water respectively.
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When precision is important accuracy in temperature and ingredient scaling require precise
calculations using metric measurement. While the merits of metric versus US measurements
can be debated, whatever system is used should be memorized for ease in kitchen calculations.
Cup Measure
Gallon Measure
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Scoops
Scoop measures are used as portion control food servers. The size of the scoop is designated by a
number that appears on the release lever inside the scoop or on the handle of the scoop. The number
refers to the approximate quantity of scoops in a quart; so, a #12 scoop will yield 12 portions in a quart,
and a #40 means that a quart will yield 40 portions. Scoops can be measured by weight or by volume
Scoop Approximate Approximate Approximate Approximate
Number US Volume Metric Volume US Weight Metric Weight
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10 3.2 fl. oz. 90 ml 3.25 oz. 92 g
12 2.66 fl. oz. 80 ml 2.75 oz. 78 g
16 2 fl. oz. 60 ml 2. 25 oz. 58 g
20 1.6 fl. oz. 45 ml 1.67 oz. 46 g
24 1.33 fl. oz. 40 ml 1.5 oz. 38 g
30 1.07 fl. oz. 30 ml 1.25 oz. 31 g
40 0.8 fl. oz. 24 ml 1 oz. 23 g
Measurement Abbreviations
US Metric
Volume Gal G Liter l
Quart Q or Qt. Deciliter dl
Pint Pt. Milliliter ml
Cup C Kilogram kg
Tablespoon T or Tb. Gram g
Teaspoon t or tsp.
Weight
To Taste TT
Pound Lb. or # Kilogram kg
Length
Ounce oz. Gram g
Inch In. or “ Millimeter mm
Foot Ft. or ‘ Meter m
Mile mi. Kilometer km
Temperature
Reference Chart
Temperature Measure
Fahrenheit Celsius
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Holding Temperature 140°F 60 °C
Low Oven 250°F 120 °C
Medium Oven 350°F 180 °C
Medium High 400°F 200°C
High Oven 450°F 230°C
For temperatures below 100°F, when converting Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract 30 and divide by 2.
For converting Celsius below 38°C to Fahrenheit temperatures, multiply by 2 and add 30.
US System Metric Equivalency
1 oz. 30 g
1 lb. 450 g
2.2 lb. 1 kg
1 qt. 1L
1 gal. 4L
1 in. 2.5 cm
1 ft. 30 cm
1 yard 0.9 m
1 mile 1.6 km
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There are different ways to measure weight and
volume
Scales measure weight and are the most accurate; they can be used to
measure dry or liquid ingredients
Volume measures are good for liquids but not as accurate for dry
ingredients
Be familiar with common conversions between cups, pints, quarts and gallons.
measurement for liquids. Recipes geared towards home cooks use volume to measure both.
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Volume is not the same as weight and can have wildly varying results. Volume works quite well
for liquids, like water or milk, but can be less predictable for dry ingredients (a cup of flour
weighs anywhere from 4-5 ounces). It should be noted that all liquids do not weigh the same (oil
weighs less than water).
Weight is absolute and for that reason measuring by weight is a more reliable method.
Professional bakers and pastry chefs use weight to measure most everything including flour,
sugar, eggs, and liquids (water, milk, oil).
More and more chefs rely on weight for measurement today than ever before. Many US chefs
now use metrics because of better accuracy when measuring small quantities of additives used
in molecular cooking. In a professional kitchen weight should be standard practice.
Standardized Recipes
Most kitchens use recipes to a certain extent, some more than others. Standardized recipes are
important to foodservice operations because they provide consistency and uniformity. These
recipes are usually developed, and food costs are calculated by the chef or culinary team, to
suit the needs of the operation and to determine selling prices. Standardized recipes include
yield, portion size, ingredients, portion cost, and menu price.
Recipe Conversion
Recipes often need to be increased or decreased in quantity for a specific production
requirement. There are ways to increase a recipe by simple multiples, double or triple for
example or to decrease a recipe by dividing in half. When a recipe needs to be converted into an
odd size like an increase of 40% or a decrease of 20%, it is better to determine a Recipe
Conversion Factor (RCF).
Measurement Conversion
Measurements often need converting back and forth from larger units to smaller ones
when scaling recipes or when determining purchase quantities based on edible portion
size. Remember it is easier working with smaller units than larger units.
5 G X 4 Qt. = 20 Qt.
Converting to Larger Units
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Example: 20 Tb./16 = 1 ¼ C
Once a product is cleaned, trimmed and portioned it is called the Edible Portion (EP) or Edible
Portion Quantity (EPQ). The EP is important because it reflects the true quantity needed and the
true cost of the food.
Formula
EP weight/AP weight = EP percentage (%)
Example
Green Beans – 4 Lb. EP/5 Lb. AP = 80% EP
Yield.
Formula Example
& Waste
All food operations have waste and trim that must be factored into the cost of doing business.
Wasting resources, whether they are food, labor, or utilities, wipes out profit and, along with
theft, is a major reason why food operations fail. The job of a good chef is to manage
resources and minimize waste by monitoring usage and keeping detailed records.
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Useable trim has a value to a foodservice operation. A creative chef finds ways to use trim and
leftovers. Using trim and leftovers adds to the bottom line. Reducing waste and repurposing
leftovers also saves by lowering costs for waste removal.
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CULINARY FOOD SCIENCE
Science is an important and constant element in the culinary process. Foods are scaled
proportionately, and combined in a certain order, to achieve desired outcomes. Chemical
reactions occur in cooking through manipulation or emulsification. The control of heat and cold
maximizes food quality and safety. Understanding what happens in the cooking process, and
using a disciplined approach in applying principles of culinary science, will lead to consistent and
predictable results.
COLD
Cold temperatures are used to thicken and firm textures in prepared foods. Gels that are liquid
at room temperature become solid when cooled. Sauces when frozen become ice creams and
sorbets. Savory emulsions of meats, poultry, and fish require cold temperatures to create
forcemeats for sausages and pâtés. Cold temperatures also keep harmful pathogens from
multiplying and aid in food preservation.
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Meat Properly Wrapped for Freezing
Chilling or freezing foods is a reversible process while heating is not. Freezing slows down the
deterioration of foods, extending their shelf life for 6 months or more. Freezing, however, can
damage foods if they are not wrapped properly, left too long in storage, or if they are
improperly frozen. Water expands when cooled, and creates ice crystals when frozen. These
ice crystals rupture the fibers in meats and vegetables. When foods are thawed moisture is
released, a term referred to as “purge”. Repeated freezing and thawing changes the quality of
foods; textures become soft and mushy, and moisture loss creates a drying effect. Flavor,
color, and nutrients suffer too.
The quality of foods when frozen is also affected by the length of time that the product takes
to reach the freezing point. A slow freeze produces larger ice crystals, which are not desirable
in ice cream production, and also creates more damage to the fibers of meats and
vegetables. Rapid freezing produces the smallest ice crystals and the least damage to foods;
ice creams are smoother, and meats, fish, and poultry maintain their integrity. Foods that are
frozen must always be wrapped properly because extremely cold temperatures lack humidity
and cause “freezer burn”, or surface dehydration, that harms the product.
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Heat Transfer
HEAT PRINCIPLES: The 3 Types of Heat Transfer
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Heat transfer is an exchange of thermal energy between two objects. The rate of heat transfer
depends upon the temperatures of each entity and the medium through which the thermal
energy is being transferred. In cooking, heat transfer refers to heating your food items through
a cooking appliance, such as a stove, fryer, microwave, or oven. Heat transfer is a very
important aspect of the cooking process. Heating food destroys potentially harmful bacteria
and other microorganisms, which makes food safe to eat and easier to digest. When food or
liquids become hot, their molecules absorb energy, begin vibrating rapidly, and start to bounce
off of each other. As they collide, heat energy is produced and transferred, which warms and
cooks our food. Have you ever wondered what’s actually happening when you’re cooking
food? While this is something that we usually take for granted, this process of heating food –
known as heat transfer – is complicated and fascinating. Keep reading to learn more about the
relationship between heat transfer and cooking and the important role it plays in your kitchen.
Each of these three methods of heat transfer features its own unique characteristics, but there is
some crossover between the different types.
What is Conduction?
Conduction is the process of heat being transferred between objects through direct contact, and it’s the
most common type of heat transfer. For example, in cooking the burners on stoves will conduct heat
energy to the bottom of a pan sitting on top of it. From there, the pan conducts heat to its contents.
A deep fryer also uses conduction heating as the hot oil cooks the food when it comes into
direct contact with it. Additionally, conduction heat is responsible for moving heat from the
outside of the food to the inside. As a result, conduction heat also happens when cooking with
convection and radiation heating methods.
Conduction is the slowest method of heat transfer, but the direct contact between the cooking surface
and the item to be heated allows food to be cooked from the outside in. When cooking a steak in a
castiron skillet, for example, conduction produces an evenly cooked exterior and a moist, juicy interior
that guests are sure to love.
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Conduction happens when heat moves from a
solid object that is in direct contact with another one.
A pot of water on a stove must get hot first in order
to heat the water within it. The pot transfers heat
from the energy source (usually gas or electric), to
the water, and subsequently heats it. A roast uses
conduction to transfer heat from its surface to the
interior of the meat.
Examples of Conduction
Cooking
Here are a few examples of conduction heating:
What is Convection?
example of convection cooking Convection combines conduction heat transfer and circulation to
force molecules in the air to move from warmer areas to cooler ones. As the molecules closest to the
heat source become warm, they rise and are replaced by cooler molecules. There are two types of
convection that are based on the movement of the heated molecules.
Natural Convection
Natural convection occurs when molecules at the bottom of a cooking vessel rise and warm while
cooler and heavier molecules sink. This creates a circulating current that evenly distributes heat
throughout the substance being prepared.
For example, when a pot of water is placed on the stove to boil, conduction heat warms up the pot,
which then heats the water molecules inside. As these molecules heat, convection causes them to
move away from the interior of the pot as they are replaced by cooler molecules. This continuous
current creates convection heat transfer within the water.
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Mechanical Convection
Mechanical convection occurs when outside forces circulate heat, which shortens cooking times and
cooks food more evenly. Examples of this include stirring the liquid in a pot or when a convection oven
uses a fan and exhaust system to blow hot air over and around the food before venting it back out.
Convection
Convection occurs when the heat is spread
through the movement of fluid or a gas, and
through mechanical manipulation.
Examples of Convection
Cooking
Here are a few examples of how heat
transfer via convection works:
What
is Radiation Cooking?
example of radiation cooking In cooking, radiation is the process where heat and light waves strike and
penetrate your food. As such, there is no direct contact between the heat source and the cooking food.
There are two main radiant heat cooking methods: infrared and microwave radiation.
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Infrared Radiation
Infrared radiation utilizes an electric or ceramic heating element that gives off electromagnetic energy
waves. These waves travel in any direction at the speed of light to quickly heat food and are mainly
absorbed in the surface of whatever you’re preparing. Examples of things that create infrared radiation
are glowing coals in a fire, toaster ovens, and broilers.
Microwave Radiation
Microwave radiation utilizes short, high-frequency waves that penetrate food, which agitates its water
molecules to create friction and transfer heat. If you’re heating a solid substance, this heat energy is
transferred throughout the food through conduction, while liquids do so through convection.
Microwave heat transfer usually cooks food faster than infrared radiation, as it is able to penetrate foods
several inches deep. Keep in mind that microwave radiation works best when cooking small batches of
food.
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Culinary Cooking Methods and
Techniques
Basic Cooking
Methods and
Techniques
One of the first steps in learning how to cook is
learning the proper cooking methods and
techniques including the various ways to cook.
There are many to learn, and they each cooking
method has their advantages and disadvantages.
You’ll begin to notice a trend when it comes to
applying cooking methods to various food items.
There are some methods that are basic, and
some that are advanced cooking techniques.
Generally, you’ll notice moist-heat cooking methods are used to help keep foods moist and to
prevent drying out. Moist-heat cooking methods are also used to cook food items that would be
too tough to enjoy if prepared using a dry-heat cooking method. These items typically need
longer cooking time and to ensure they don’t dry out; a moist heat cooking method would be
applied. When you are learning how to cook a roast, this will come in handy.
Practicing these types of cooking methods and cooking techniques are the only way to become
naturally adept with them. You are probably already aware of many of these cooking methods
and unknowingly use them on a regular basis. What the goal is to make sure that you are
applying the proper cooking technique to the proper food item. While the cooking process is
usually seen as an empty canvas in which to experiment, you must first master the theory and
practical skills that give the canvas its inspirational ability. One of those things happens to an
important foundational skill and one that you can’t afford to be without.
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Contrary to belief, deep-frying is a dryheat
cooking method
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Foods can be cooked in air, fat,
water, or steam and that is it. When
we say that, we’re talking about the
mediums required to transfer heat to
your foods. Convection, conduction,
and radiation. Alter your style of
cooking to better suit the meat or
vegetable you are cooking. Cooking
• Broiling
• Roasting
• Grilling
• Baking
• Sauteing
• Pan-frying
• Deep-fat frying
foods cooked using this method have a rich flavor due to the caramelization and browning of
he foods.
• Poaching
• Boiling
• Steaming
• Simmering
We use moist-heat cooking methods to emphasize the natural flavor in foods and reduce the
major losses of water-soluble vitamins and increase the digestibility of protein.
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Combination Cooking
Method
Combination cooking is a method that
incorporates both dry- and moist-heat cooking.
These are:
• Braising • Stewing
We must know how to apply the cooking methods if we are to put that knowledge to any use.
You don’t know the feeling of control and power you have when you can close your eyes, pick
up a piece of meat, and know exactly how to cook it. You don’t have to buy a filet mignon to
get a tender flavorful steak. All it takes is understanding how to apply the cooking methods.
A Diagram of a Convection
Oven
You probably know a bit about cooking. You
heard something one time about the grain or the
marbling or something. Well, you’re close! Fully
understanding the cuts and cooking methods
requires an understanding of where those cuts
come from off the animal. While this knowledge is
invaluable, we’ll save it for later.
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the moisture content in your pan as that pan-fry can easily turn into poaching. Use small
batches to keep the heat up in your pan to avoid this.
Sauteing
Sautéing involves very high heat and very little oil is used. The ingredients are added once the
oil starts to smoke slightly. Less oil is needed because the high heat prevents moisture from
escaping and as well as being safer from oil splattering and potentially causing a fire. Sauteing
can be nerve-wracking due to the intense heat and sound of the product being cooked. Be
sure to wear the appropriate clothing to avoid burns.
It is not recommended to saute using Teflon or other non-stick pans. Using a multi-clad
stainless steel fry pan is the proper tool for this job as it can tolerate high heat, will caramelize
food beautifully, and can transfer to the oven seamlessly, and can be deglazed without fear of
warping. We recommend investing in a high-quality brand
Pan Frying
Pan-frying involves cooking an ingredient in a
frying pan at medium-high heat. Pan-frying
involves a bit more oil than usual as it helps
prevent moisture from releasing from the
ingredient. As with sauteing, pan-frying should be
done in smaller batches to help retain the
temperature of the pan and keep it consistent.
Roasting/Baking
Roasting/Baking uses the air, or convection, to transfer heat to an ingredient. Your oven
provides this cooking method and is used because of its highly-accurate temperatures and
ability to cook evenly for longer controlled periods. Large items are usually cooked, or items
requiring even cooking.
The browning it provides is a desired effect of roasting and enhances the flavors of most foods.
NOTE: Using a convection oven is a bit different than a conventional oven.
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A convection oven uses a fan to move the hot air around, promoting more even cooking and
causing the product to be cooked faster. Because of the nature of a convection oven, there is a
specific rule to follow.
All standard recipes here assume you are using a conventional oven and the temperatures
used to reflect that. If you are using a convection oven (And if you’re lucky enough to have
one, use it!), reduce the temperature by 25F.
TIP: Baking is exactly the same as roasting. The key difference is baking is only referred to as
such in the bakery world.
A proper roasting pan should be easy to clean and durable enough to handle various
temperature changes. The roasting pan I use can be placed on the burner to help with
deglazing and gravy making. I find this is a must-have feature.
Grilling
Grilling is the favorite past-time of many men around the world and they all love to cook a nice
ribeye or t-bone. This dry-heat method is desired for the flavor that is imparted from the rapid
convection cooking.
It is ideal for smaller cuts of meats and grilling requires an advanced and experienced cook to
ensure proper cooking and the ability to not burn the product while producing perfect rarity on
a consistent basis.
Professional cooks and chefs use a cast-iron grilling surface to do their grilling which provides
that deep, noticeable grill-marking. It is much harder to do this with the coated stainless steel
grill surface that comes with most barbeques today.
If you are in the market for a good grill, look for one with a quality cast-iron grilling surface as
that will indicate whether or not you’re buying quality or if you’re just buying brand and
gimmicks.
Broiling
Broiling is similar and almost reverse to Grilling in that is uses radiant heat from an overhead
source. Broiled foods are placed on a preheated metal grate and the heat above cooks the
food while the grill below marks it.
Deep Frying
Deep-fat frying or Deep Frying is another popular method of cooking. It means to cook in a
large amount of hot fat. As odd as it sounds, deep frying is not considered a moist-heat
method but rather a dry heat method. What separates deep frying from boiling is the
temperature.
Boiling water can never go above 100C (212F), while deep frying temperatures can be as high
as 200C (400F). These high temperatures allow the product to be cooked faster and be
browned.
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How to Use Combination Cooking Methods
There are technically 2 types of combination cooking, but we will include a third – sous vide.
Braising
A popular combination cooking method is called Braising. The proper method of braising is
achieved by first dry-heat cooking a product, such as a lamb shank, either by pan-frying or
sauteing to ensure proper caramelization. Once the lamb shank is seared and slightly
caramelized, you then add a liquid such as stock until it comes up to about 1/3 of the lamb
shank. Then, either in the oven or on the stove top, you simmer or Braise, the lamb shank
turning it often until it becomes soft and tender. Braising is especially useful for tougher pieces
of meat.
Stewing
If you were to cover the meat entirely, you would then be Stewing the meat. This produces a
soup-like consistency and, obviously, is the preferred method for creating stews.
Sous Vide
Sous vide is a method of vacuum sealing
food into plastic and then simmering the
package in water to heat throughout.
Sous vide is a relatively new method,
developed in the 70s. The method
removes the product from the external
environment where it cooked in a way
that retains its natural flavor.
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Poaching
Poaching is the lowest temperature method, defined at between 71C – 82C (160F – 180F).
This produces an environment that is calm enough for delicate foods, such as eggs. The water
should show slight movement and no bubbles.
Simmering
Commercial steam oven. Steam is a moist cooking method.
Simmering is a common temperature range because it is the most balanced. It is defined at
85C – 96C (185F – 205F) and you will notice a simmering liquid by having small bubbles
breaking through the surface of the liquid. It is great for promoting flavor release in stews,
meats, and soups.
Boiling
Boiling is the highest temperate for submersion. Defined at 100C (212F) at sea level, it is
noticeable by rapid movement with many large bubbles. Boiling is rarely recommended for
most cooking, and the only thing that is taught which should be boiled is pasta.
Steaming
Steaming allows you to reach a higher
temperature with liquids by steaming them. It
is defined by the steam released once the
water reaches past 100C (212F). Food is in
contact only with the steam produces from the
boiling liquid. Steaming is a common method
due to its fast-cooking times, high heat, and
moist-heat cooking nature.
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• Cook—Cook to the right temperature.
• Chill—Refrigerate food promptly.
Cook all food to these minimum internal temperatures as measured with a food thermometer
before removing food from the heat source. For reasons of personal preference, consumers
may choose to cook food to higher temperatures.
The mise en place is derived from the French language and is pronounced MEEZ ahn plahs.
This is a mandatory section for professional kitchens and chefs. It is where a chef collects,
prepares, and places all ingredients before cooking can begin.
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Think of going on a trip. You have to pick the clothes and items you need, pack them in bags,
and place them at the door waiting for the taxi. Once the cab arrives, you will just leave. Once
you have prepared everything on the kitchen table, you will begin cooking without distraction.
No running for the fridge when you realize you’ve forgotten something.
A professional kitchen has water, fire, sharp knives, forks, and other dangers that you may
encounter. Outside of this kitchen, customers are waiting for their food, which has to be
prepared to the highest standards. Full attention is required when cooking. This explains why a
Mise En Place is so crucial to a kitchen.
• A Mise En Place gives you an idea of all the ingredients you have prepared for a
meal. In case one component is missing, you will notice and avoid rushing or
turning off the oven to go fetch the missing ingredient. Before you begin cooking,
all ingredients will be at the table.
• This will help you measure the right ingredients for your meals. It is the
measurements that define the taste of food. Since you measure the ingredients
before cooking begins, you will be more accurate and achieve high standards of
client satisfaction.
• It makes cooking easier and faster. You have a single reference point when
cooking. This saves time and allows you to deliver meals within the shortest time
after a customer has placed his or her order.
• You can manage your ingredients with ease. There will be no risk or chance of
ingredients running out in the middle or preparing meals. You can monitor what
is left and replenish before taking the next order.
• It helps you create an organized kitchen that saves chefs a lot of energy.
Cooking will appear complicated if you are getting ingredients and utensils from
random locations. You create a cooking routine that is energy efficient and
makes your cooking easier by placing all ingredients in one area.
An organized kitchen is the first step towards customer satisfaction. You also avoid
overburdening your chefs by forcing them to get ingredients and utensils from multiple
locations. This will make your operations efficient for all persons within the kitchen
environment.
MISE EN PLACE
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Close up picture of a chef preparing a stainless-steel bowl full of assorted salad with salad
ingredients
Professional cooking requires food to be prepped in stages and in batches to various degrees
of readiness and then to be finished and assembled to order on the line. All operations should
have a checklist to work from so that nothing is forgotten in the prep stage. If the operation
you work at doesn’t have a prep sheet make one up yourself. Analyze every menu item and
every recipe to determine what can be prepped ahead without the loss of quality. Soups and
sauces can usually be prepared ahead of time and held in a holding unit. Steaks and fish can
be cut and seasoned but must be cooked to order. Risotto can be par-cooked and finished to
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order Once you determine what needs to be done you then have to decide how much of each
item to prep. By analyzing sales, you can see how much was sold on a given day of the week.
Even though most restaurants now have sophisticated Point-of-Sale (POS) systems that
provide this data, it’s a good idea for every station to have a form that records how much was
prepped and how much was used for each shift.
Generally, you divide your workday into a prep phase and a service phase. Prep work is
everything that needs to get done before you can open for service. A prep station set up
maybe a little less formal than at the actual service time however the organization during prep
is just as important as the actual line work. If you’re not organized properly you won’t get your
work done in time for service.
Every kitchen station, whether it is a prep station or a line station, should be set so that all
tools, equipment, and mise en place are within arm’s reach, from left to right and from top to
bottom. This will minimize extra steps and make your timing more efficient. Make a checklist of
everything you need for your station and do a check off at the beginning of service.
WORKFLOW
CONSOLIDATE PREP
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Many dishes have common ingredients that can be done at one time to achieve better
efficiency. Some preps may be common among more than one station. Good communication
and teamwork help to streamline kitchen prep for you and your fellow cooks. In some kitchens,
prep cooks will handle the bulk preparation and then distribute it to the various stations that
need it. It is common to do simple tasks like peeling onions or chopping garlic during slow
times to stay ahead of the game.
There is nothing worse than running out of something in the middle of a rush and having to run
and prep it while you have ten orders fired. Likewise, if you over prep an item you are wasting
time and wasting food too. Follow the 125% rule and have enough to cover you in case you
get a run on a particular item.
SPACE LIMITATIONS
There is never enough space in a professional kitchen so you must get used to working in
close quarters. Everyone is vying for space and chefs can get territorial when it comes to their
workspace. This is where working efficiently and economically will be to a cook’s advantage.
Don’t spread out and take over someone else’s space. Always clean up after yourself and
don’t leave a trail of leftover equipment or unclean areas after you finish a prep. Make sure you
return communal equipment or food items like herbs and spices to their proper location so the
next person can easily locate it.
A top frustration among foodservice workers is the lack of equipment in a kitchen or the fact
that parts are missing or broken. Equipment gets abused and worn out; parts can get damaged
or lost. No one can perform up to speed without the proper equipment. The chef and
management must invest in the tools that will help their crew work at optimal performance. An
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instilled sense of responsibility on the part of the whole culinary team will also help to address
some of the issues. Cleaning and maintaining the equipment begins with the people who use it
on a daily basis. Storing the equipment properly, including parts and attachments, after it is
cleaned will help to prolong the life and make work less frustrating because you won’t have to
do a scavenger hunt to find something when you need it. Inform the chef when equipment
needs repairing or when tools get worn out and need replacing.
EXAMPLES
• A food product is back-ordered and you must substitute at the last minute with
another ingredient
• A sauce breaks or an entrée gets burned and must be either corrected or re-fired
• You’ve run out of hot food holding space at a busy event and must use an
enclosed cart and a Sterno to keep food hot
• An oven breaks down in the middle of service and you must consolidate items to
a different oven
• The dishwasher walks out in the middle of service and the cooks need clean
plates for service
• Every situation is different and must be addressed with a clear head in a calm
and methodical manner. Losing your cool and getting angry will never help the
situation but only prolong the problem solved. A professional chef knows to never
let last-minute hurdles get the best of him or her.
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The 101 Culinary Terms Every
Professional Chef Knows
Being familiar with culinary terminology will optimize your back of house operations
Culinary terms aren’t just a chef’s game. The vocabulary that’s thrown around the kitchen has
a purpose, and that’s to speed things up and make sure everyone stays safe.
If you are part of the cohort of chefs and head cooks, growing faster than other careers at a
rate of 6%, you’ll need to master these cooking terms, French, Italian, or otherwise in origin, to
succeed.
• Au jus
• Remouillage
• Baste
• Infusion
Our list of 101 culinary terms includes cooking terminology, food prep terms, and beverage
definitions that every restaurateur should know.
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Culinary Terms A to Z
Culinary Terms: A-D
A
A la carte (adj.) – separately priced items from a menu, not as part of a set meal.
Al dente (adj.) – cooked so it’s still tough when bitten, often referring to pasta
A la grecque (adj.) – served in the Greek style of cooking, with olive oil, lemon juice, and
several seasonings, often referring to vegetables
A point (adj.) – cooking until the ideal degree of doneness, often referring to meat as medium
rare
Acidulation (n.) – the process of making something acid or sour with lemon or lime juice
Aerate (v.) – the process when dry ingredients pass through a sifter and air is circulated
through, changing the composition of the material, often referring to flour
Aspic (n.) – a dish in which ingredients are set into gelatine made from a meat stock or
consommé
Au gratin (adj.) – sprinkled with breadcrumbs and cheese, or both, and browned
Au jus (adj.) – with its own juices from cooking, often referring to steak or other meat Au
poivre (adj.) – coated with loosely cracked peppercorns and then cooked, often referring to
steak
Au sec (adj.) – the descriptor for a liquid which has been reduced until it is nearly dry, a
process often used in sauce making
B
Bain Marie (n.) – a container holding hot water into which a pan is placed for slow cooking,
otherwise known as a “water bath” or “double boiler”
Barding (v.) – to cover meat with a layer of fat, such as bacon, before cooking, effectively
maintaining the moisture of the meat while it cooks to avoid overcooking
Baste (v.) – to pour juices or melted fat over meat or other food while cooking to keep it moist
Beurre blanc (n.) – a sauce made with butter, onions, and vinegar, usually served with
seafood dishes
Bisque (n.) – a thick, creamy soup, with a base of strained broth (see coulis) of shellfish or
game
Blanching (v.) – to plunge into boiling water, remove after a moment, and then plunge into
iced water to halt the cooking process, usually referring to vegetable or fruit
Braising (v.) – a combination-cooking method that first sears the food at high temperature,
then finished it in a covered pot at low temperature while sitting in some amount of liquid
Brining (v.) – the process of soaking meat in a brine, or heavily salted water, before cooking,
similar to marination
C
Chiffonade (n.) – shredded or finely cut vegetables and herbs, usually used as a garnish for
soup
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Concasse (n.) – to roughly chop raw or cooked food by peeling, seeding, and chopping to
make it ready to be served or combined with other ingredients, usually referring to tomatoes
Consommé (n.) – a type of clear soup made from richly flavored stock that has been clarified,
a process of using egg whites to remove fat
Confit (n.) – meat cooked slowly in its own fat, usually referring to duck
Coring (v.) – to remove the central section of some fruits, which contain seeds and tougher
material that is not usually eaten
Coulis (n.) – a thick sauce made with fruit or vegetable puree, used as a base or garnish
Croquette (n.) – a small round roll of minced meat, fish, or vegetable coated with egg and
breadcrumbs
Deglaze (v.) – to remove and dissolve the browned food residue, or “glaze”, from a pan to
flavor sauces, soups, and gravies
Degrease (v.) – to remove the fat from the surface of a hot liquid such as a sauce, soup, or
stew, also known as defatting or fat trimming
Dredging (v.) – to coat wet or moist foods with a dry ingredient before cooking to provide an
even coating
Dress (v.) – to put oil, vinegar, salt, or other toppings on a salad or other food
Fillet (n.) – a boneless piece of meat, poultry, or fish; the French version, spelled as “filet,” is
also used when referencing a cut of beef that is boneless, such as filet mignon
Flambe (v.) – the process of adding alcohol such as brandy, cognac, or rum to a hot pan to
create a burst of flames
Frenching (v.) – the process of removing all fat, meat, and cartilage from rib bones on a rack
roast by cutting between the bones with a sharp paring knife, often referring to lamb, beef, or
pork rib
G
Galantine (n.) – a Polish dish of de-boned stuffed meat that is poached in gelatin stock,
pressed and served cold with aspic or its own jelly
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Galette (n.) – flat, round cakes of pastry, often topped with fruit or food prepared in served in
the shape of a flat round cake, such as “a galette of potatoes”
Gazpacho (n.) – a Spanish dish of cold, uncooked soup, which typically contains tomatoes,
cucumbers, onions, garlic, oil, and vinegar
H
Harissa (n.) – a spicy, aromatic chile paste made from a variety of hot peppers and spices,
often used in North African and Middle Eastern cooking
Isinglass (n.) – a pure, transparent form of gelatin, obtained from the bladders of certain fish,
used in jellies as a clarifying agent
J
Jacquarding (v.) – the process of poking holes into the muscle of meat in order to tenderize it,
also known as needling
Jeroboam (n.) – an oversize wine bottle holding about three liters
Jus lie (n.) – meat juice that has been lightly thickened with either arrowroot or cornstarch
K
Kipper (n.) – a whole herring that has been split into a butterfly fashion from tail to head,
gutted, salted, or pickled
Kirsch (n.) – a fragrant, colorless, unaged brandy distilled from fermented cherries, used with
fondue
Kissing Crust (n.) – the portion of an upper crust of a loaf of bread which has touched another
loaf when baking
L
Lactobacillus (n.) – a bacterium usually found in fermenting products, such as yogurts
Larding (v.) – the process of inserting strips of fat into a piece of meat that doesn’t have as
much fat, to melt and keep the meat from drying out
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Liaison (v.) – a binding agent of cream and egg yolks used to thicken soups or sauces
Mother (n.) – the base sauce used to make other variations of the original sauce; there are
five variations: brown or espagnole, velouté, béchamel, tomato sauce, and emulsions
N
Nappe (n.) – the ability of a liquid to coat the back of a spoon or the act of coating a food, such
as a leg of lamb, with glaze
Needling (v.) – injecting fat or flavors into an ingredient to enhance its flavor
Nutraceutical (adj.) – used to describe food that provides health or medical benefits as well as
nutritional value, also known as a functional food
O
Oeuf (n.) – the French term for egg
Oignon brule (n.) – literally meaning “burnt onion,” a culinary term for a half-peeled onion
seared on a skillet
Ort (n.) – a scrap or morsel of food leftover after a meal
Ouzo (n.) – an anise-flavored, strong, colorless liquor from Greece
P
Parboiling (v.) – the process of adding foods to boiling waters, cooking until they are softened,
then removing before they are fully cooked, usually to partially cook an item which will then be
cooked another way
Par cooking (v.) – the process of not fully cooking food, so that it can be finished or reheated
later
Pâté (n.) – a mixture of seasoned ground meat and fat minced into a spreadable paste
Paupiette (n.) – a thin, flattened piece of meat, rolled with a stuffing of vegetables or fruits,
which is then cooked before served
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Persillade (n.) – a sauce or seasoning mixture of parsley chopped with seasonings, often
used as part of a saute cook’s mise en place
Polenta (n.) – a mush or porridge made from yellow or cornmeal which originated in Northern
Italy
Praline (n.) – a confection of nuts cooked in boiling sugar until brown and crisp
Culinary Terms: Q-T
Q
Quadriller (v.) – to make criss-cross lines on the surface of food, as part of food presentation
Quatre-epices (n.) – literally meaning “four spices,” a finely ground mixture of generally
pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, or cloves, used to season vegetables, soups, and stews
Quenelle (n.) – a small quantity of a mixture of creamed fish or meat with a light egg binding,
usually formed into a round shape, and then cooked
R
Remouillage (n.) – a stock made from bones that have already been used once to make a
stock, making it weaker
Render (v.) – to cook the fat out of something, such as bacon
Rondeau (n.) – a wide, shallow pan with straight sides and two loop handles, often used for
searing and poaching
Sautéing (v.) – to cook food quickly over relatively high heat, literally meaning “to jump” as the
food does when placed in a hot pan
Scald (v.) – to heat a liquid so it’s right about to reach the boiling point, where bubbles start to
appear around the edges
Sear (v.) – a technique used in grilling, baking, or sautéing in which the surface of the food is
cooked at a high temperature until a crust forms
Staling (v.) – a chemical and physical process in which foods such as bread become hard,
musty, or dry, also known as “going stale”
Steep (v.) – to allow dry ingredients to soak in a liquid until the liquid takes on its flavor, often
referring to coffee, tea, or spices
Sweat (v.) – gently heating vegetables in a little oil, with frequent stirring and turning to ensure
emitted liquid will evaporate; usually results in tender, or in some cases such as onions’,
translucent pieces
T
Tempering (v.) – raising the temperature of a cold or room-temperature ingredient by slowly
adding hot or boiling liquid, often referring to eggs
Tourner (v.) -to cut ingredients such as carrots or potatoes into a barrel-like shape that form
six or seven sides on the length of the item being cut, using a Tourner knife or a paring knife
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Trussing (v.) – to tie meat or poultry, such as turkey with a string, woven through the bird
parts by using a needle, in order to create a more compact shape before cooking
V
Vandyke (v.) – to cut a zig-zag pattern around the circumference of a lemon to create
decorative garnishes for food presentation
Velouté (n.) – a type of sauce in which a light stock, such as chicken of fish, is thickened with
flour that is cooked and then allowed to turn light brown
Victual (n.) – any food or provisions for humans; all food is a “victual”
Vol-au-Vent (n.) – a round pastry that is baked and then filled with meat or vegetables after
the fact
W
Whip (v.) – to beat food with a mixer to incorporate air and produce volume, often used to
create heavy or whipping cream, salad dressings, or sauces
Whisk (n.) – a cooking utensil used to blend ingredients in a process such as whipping
V
Xanthan gum (n.) – a food additive, commonly used to thicken salad dressings, that is
watersoluble and produced by the fermentation of sugar with certain microorganisms Xylitol
(n.) – a naturally fulfilling alcohol found in most plants such as fruits and vegetables, widely
used as a sugar substitute in sugar-free chewing gums, mints, and other candies
Y
Yakitori (n.) – a Japanese dish of small pieces of boneless chicken that is marinated,
skewered and grilled
Z
Zest (v.) – to cut the zest, or the colorful part of the skin that contains oils and provide aroma
and flavor, away from the fruit
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French Cooking Terms
French Cooking and Preparation Techniques
Bain-marie: Also sometimes called a double boiler, a bain-marie is a method of melting
chocolate that prevents the chocolate from seizing up. To do this, simply bring water to boil in
a small- to a medium-sized pot, and then place a glass bowl on top of the pot. In the glass
bowl, place the chocolate and the fat that you are using to melt the chocolate (usually butter or
coconut oil). Then stir the chocolate until it is completely melted.
Blanche(r): Blanching is a method of preparing and preserving foods — usually vegetables —
for long-term storage and freezing. This requires boiling the vegetables in water for about 5-10
minutes and then immediately putting the vegetables in a bath of ice water.
Brûlé(e)(r): You’ve probably seen this word in the past participle form, “brûlée,” in crème
brûlée. This is the French word for “to burn.” In cooking, this usually means with a blow torch.
Confit: A confit is a term for slow cooking in oils and fats, like a low-temperature version of
frying. “Confit” comes from the French word for “to prepare.”
Cuisson: “Cuisson” is simply the French word for “baking” and is used by chefs to refer to the
quality of the bake or the cooking process and the skill of the chef. Something that is
overcooked or undercooked would not have a good cuisson.
Dégorge(r): A method of removing juices from meat and vegetables (often fish). This method
involves salting the meat and then soaking it in water and is usually done to remove strong or
overwhelming flavors.
Dépouille(r): Removing the fatty layer of “skin” that appears on the tops of broths, stews, and
sauces.
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En papillote: Refers to food that is wrapped in parchment paper or foil so it will cook in its own
steam.
Flambé(r): A method of brûléeing food by adding alcohol (usually brandy) and then lighting it
on fire to burn out the alcohol.
Fondre (fondue): The French word for “to melt.” The past participle form, “fondue” usually
refers to melted cheese or chocolate that is used as a communal condiment.
Frappe(r): The French word for “to hit” or “to strike.” This word is often used to refer to
something that has been put through an ice bath or blended with ice.
Gratin(ée): The French word for “to grill.” This word usually refers to a method of browning that
involves adding breadcrumbs and cheese to a dish and then browning it in the broiler.
Quadrillage: The method of grilling meat and vegetables to create a grid pattern from the grill
marks.
Sauté(e)(r): From the French word for “to jump,” sautéing simply refers to the act of flipping a
pan to make the ingredients “jump.” (Pictured below)
Sous vide: From a French phrase that refers to something in a vacuum, sous vide is a method
of cooking that involves sealing food in air-tight plastic containers and submerging in hot water
in order to cook the food evenly and thoroughly to prevent burning or overcooking.
Batonnet (or Jardinère): From the French word for “little stick,” this style of cutting will give
you small batons, like a thick Julienne.
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Brunoise: A fine dice, usually made by dicing from an alumette cut. Often vegetables that are
cut in the brunoise style are cooked in butter and used for flavoring soups and sauces.
Concasser: From the French word for “to crush,” this refers to a rough chop or crushing, often
of tomatoes.
Mince: A very fine dice, usually made by dicing from a Julienne cut.
Paysanne: A thick, rustic style of dice, usually made by dicing a thick baton cut.
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French Terms for Parts of the Meal
Apéritif: A drink, usually alcoholic, that is used to prepare the palate for the meal. These are
typically heavy and dry beverages.
Entrée: From the French word for “entrance,” this term used to refer to the course that would
“introduce” diners, so-to-speak, to the main course. Now this word commonly just refers to the
main course of the meal.
Entremet: The French word for “interlude” or “intercede,” this refers to a small dish, usually a
dessert besides a pastry, that is served between courses as a way to cleanse the palate.
Hors d’Oeuvre: A type of appetizer. The French phrase means something that’s outside of
one of the main courses of the meal.
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INGREDIENTS
VEGETABLE OILS
Oils are fats refined from plant seeds, nuts, beans, or fruit. They are mechanically or
chemically extracted, refined or unrefined, polyunsaturated, monounsaturated or
hydrogenated. Oils are used in many food preparations and are essential in cold sauces
including mayonnaise and vinaigrette.
EXTRACTION METHODS
The hydraulic press method is the oldest and most natural way to extract oil. This method has
been used for centuries in the processing of extra virgin olive oil. The hydraulic press method
is the only method that is recognized as true cold pressing.
The expeller method uses a mechanical press to extract the oils. This process generates heat
from the friction of the press to a temperature of about 120˚F/49˚C. This method still qualifies
as cold pressing.
The cheapest way to extract oil is through chemical extraction with the help of
petroleumbased solvents. This involves heating the seeds or plant fibers and adding the
chemicals to dissolve and separate the oils. Considered the most efficient way of extraction
because it recovers up to 99% of the plant oils, it also is the most destructive to the
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environment. These oils are highly refined through further processing. The majority of soybean
oil on the market is processed using chemical extraction.
Cold-pressed oils are either hydraulic or expeller pressed. The term is not regulated and
therefore subject to different interpretations. Generally speaking, the oil temperature must
never exceed 120 ˚F/49 ˚C during the process, but true cold-pressed extra virgin olive oil,
according to the International Olive Council, is never be higher than 86°F/ 30°C.
Refined oils are heated to 450˚F/225˚C, deodorized, and bleached to remove unwanted odors
and colors. This process strips out flavor and nutrients often resulting in bland neutral-tasting
oil. The advantage of refined oils is they have a longer shelf life than unrefined oils.
Hydrogenation
Hydrogen atoms convert liquid oils into solid or semi-solid fat like shortening and margarine.
Hydrogenated oils are used in baking as a substitute for butter. The advantage of
hydrogenation is that the oils are easier to store and resist rancidity plus they provide texture in
baked goods. Hydrogenated oils in recent years have been found to contain trans- fatty acids
that elevate bad cholesterol in humans and therefore should be eaten minimally.
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Saturated, Monounsaturated & Polyunsaturated Oils
All fats and oils have certain levels of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated
fats. Animal fats, along with coconut, palm kernel and palm oil have more saturated fats than
mono and polyunsaturated fats. Fats lower in saturated fats are healthier for humans.
Saturated fats contain a chain of carbon atoms fully saturated with hydrogen atoms. Animal
fats usually contain a high proportion of saturated fat and include lard, butter, cream and
cheese. Some vegetable oils that are high in saturated fats include coconut oil, cottonseed oil,
and palm kernel oil.
Monounsaturated fats are fats that have one double-bonded, unsaturated carbon in the
molecule. Monounsaturated fats are typically liquid at room temperature but semisolid or solid
when chilled. Types of oils that are monounsaturated include olive, sunflower, canola, grape
seed, peanut, sesame, almond, and avocado.
Polyunsaturated fats have more than one double-bonded or unsaturated carbon molecule and
are considered healthier because they contain Omega-3 and Omega-6 fats. Polyunsaturated
fats are liquid at room temperature and when chilled. Vegetable oils, including soybean, corn,
and safflower oil. Fatty fish such as salmon, mackerel, herring, and trout are all high in
polyunsaturated fats. Other sources include flaxseed, walnuts, and sunflower seeds.
Storing Oils
Oils will spoil with age or abuse. Keep oils sealed properly and store them in a cool dark place.
If the oil has a strong aroma and tastes it is rancid and should be discarded.
OLIVE OIL
Oil produced from olives possesses special qualities and traditions, unlike other oils. Its roots
and history dates back thousands of years to areas in the Mediterranean and the Middle East.
The earliest references to the use of olive oil can be found in Crete, Syria, and Egypt. Today
Spain, Italy, and Greece are the largest producers of olive oil.
There are 10 different categories for olive oil recognized by the International Olive Council
based on production methods, taste, purity, and the level of oleic acid detected in the oil. Olive
oil production can be dependent on similar factors to winemaking which includes the climate,
cultivation, and terroir where the olives are grown. Taste factors when evaluating olive oil
include fruitiness, pungency, and bitterness. Good quality olive oil should have a date of
harvest stamped on its label.
• Extra Virgin Olive Oil is the first pressing of the olives and generally is
considered the highest quality and most flavorful. It is mechanically extracted
without heat or chemicals. The oleic acid in the oil must not exceed 0.8 grams
per 100. Extra virgin oils will have a bright fruity taste when just harvested but will
darken and mellow with age.
• Virgin Olive Oil is expressed mainly by its oleic acid level 2 grams per 100.
• Olive Oil is a blend of virgin and refined oil.
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• Olive Pomace Oil is one of the lowest categories of olive oil. It is produced by
chemical extraction and is blended with other oils.
Culinary Preparations
Heat affects oil and certain oils tolerate heat more than others. Oils that are refined usually
have a higher smoke point than unrefined and minimally processed oils. Matching the oil to the
type of culinary preparation is important because oils that cannot tolerate a high smoke point
become unhealthy and can taste bad. Delicate oils like extra virgin olive oil shouldn’t be used
to cook with because the heat destroys their flavor and it is a waste of money. Use extra virgin
olive oil in cold preparations or as a finishing garnish for hot dishes.
VINEGAR
Vinegar, a fermented product created from alcohol, was first was discovered as a by-product of
winemaking which the French call vin aigre or sour wine. When wine is exposed to oxygen
naturally occurring bacteria in it feeds off the sugars in the alcohol creating acetic acid or
vinegar as we know it. Vinegar can be made from any type of fruit or grain that contains sugar.
The most common varieties are prepared from grapes, apples, and rice.
PRODUCTION METHODS
Orleans Method
Traditional method developed and named for the region in France where it first was invented.
Alcohol is placed in wooden barrels with a starter vinegar also known as the mother, an
acetobacter film that is found on the surface of naturally fermented vinegar. The barrels have
air holes to allow for circulation and are left to sit for several months at a room temperature of
approximately 85°F (29°C).
Submerged Fermentation
Alcohol is placed in stainless steel tanks called acetators and is pumped with air while a
temperature between 80 -100°F/6-38°C is maintained. The vinegar is filtered and diluted to the
proper acidity level. This method used in the creation of wine vinegar yields results in 24-48
hours.
Production Notes
Acidity levels in vinegar will vary during production but are diluted to around 5% acidity on
average to as high as 8%. Vinegar is often pasteurized and filtered to remove impurities. The
vinegar naturally has a “mother” that is a byproduct of vinegar production. This is a harmless
sediment that forms in the bottle and is often removed by filtering.
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Trickling or Generator Method
Alcohol is poured over layers of wood or fibrous shavings onto which aceto bacteria are
introduced. The trickling method allows are to circulate freely with the alcohol creating vinegar
in s few days.
Submerged Fermentation
Alcohol is placed in stainless steel tanks called acetators and is pumped with air while a
temperature between 80 -100°F/6-38°C is maintained. The vinegar is filtered and diluted to the
proper acidity level. This method used in the creation of wine vinegar yields results in 24-48
hours.
Types
of Vinegar
Wine Vinegar – Balsamic, white, red, champagne, and sherry wine vinegar are among the
most common on the market.
Balsamic Vinegar – Traditional balsamic vinegar is produced from the white Trebbiano and
Lambrusco grapes in barrels similar to wine production. This process dating back to the Middle
Ages is native to the Modena and Reggio Emilio regions of Italy. Grape juice is reduced to a
must and then transferred through seven different barrels during the 12-25 year aging process.
Some balsamic vinegar is aged for as long as 100 years and becomes thick with a syrup
consistency. Imitation balsamic vinegar is produced today that mimics the basic flavors but the
true balsamic vinegar is a protected designation in Italy. Sweet, caramel acidic taste pairs well
with salads, grilled meats, and fresh fruits.
Sherry Vinegar – Known as Vinagre de Jerez in Spain and produced within what is known as
the sherry triangle near the city of Jerez. The area is a designated Denominación de Origen, a
regulatory classification for sherry wine and vinegar in that region. Sherry vinegar must be
aged in American Oak for a minimum of 6 months and can only be produced in this region and
have an acidity level of 7%. Vinagre de Jerez Reserva has aged a minimum of 2 years and
Vinagre de Jerez Gran Reserva has aged a minimum of 10 years. Different grapes are used
depending on the desired style and include the Palomino, Pedro Ximénez, or Moscatel grapes.
Apple Cider – Apple cider or apple must are made into cider vinegar using the same
production method as wine vinegar.
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Distilled Vinegar – Made from distilled grains and used for many basic food preparations
including pickling. It is also used as a cleaning solution and is effective in killing mold and
bacteria.
Fruit Vinegar – Raspberries, blueberries, strawberries, and other fruits can be used to make
vinegar. This vinegar usually is either made from fruit wines or is infused of fruits added to red
or white wine vinegar as a base. Other varieties that can be found on the market include
cranberry, pear, pomegranate, and peach.
Malt Vinegar – Produced from an ale made with malted barley or corn this vinegar has a light
brown color.
Rice Vinegar – Popular in Asian cuisine, rice vinegar is produced in China, Japan, Korea, and
Vietnam. The vinegar is mildly acidic and is sometimes sweetened or seasoned for use in
sushi and sashimi. The most popular type is Japanese white or pale rice vinegar that can be
found in seasoned and sweetened varieties. Chinese versions include an amber-colored, back
and red variety.
Infused Vinegar – Infused vinegar can be made similar to the methods used for infused oils.
The simplest method is to add herbs or spices to vinegar and let it sit for a period of time to
infuse the flavor into the vinegar. The vinegar can be heated first to help speed the infusion
process.
NUTS
Nuts are seeds with hard shells that are reproductive units for a variety of trees. They are high
in protein, carbohydrates, and oil and provide many nutritional benefits. Nuts are processed in
the shell or are shelled and sold whole, sliced, slivered, and chopped. Nuts are also refined
into oils, ground into flour, or processed into butter.
Culinary Uses
Nuts add texture and flavor accents to a variety of sweet and savory dishes. They are used as
garnishes for cakes, cookie,
Cooking
Toasting nuts will bring out their flavors and textures. Toast dry or toss with salt and neutral oil,
spread out on a sheet pan, and place in a medium oven to crisp the texture. Nuts can also be
sautéed to crisp and brown them but this process can lead to uneven browning. Nuts can be
pureed and used to thicken soups, sauces, and stews.
Storage
Because of their fat content nuts are perishable items susceptible to spoilage. Nuts that turn
rancid have a distinct off odor and taste and should be discarded. Chopped or ground nuts
spoil faster than whole or in-the-shell nuts. Store nuts in an airtight container. Refrigeration or
freezing will extend their shelf life but can result in them taking on a mealy texture. Toast nuts
will crisp them up and return their texture.
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One month at room temperature Six
months under refrigeration One year
in the freezer
Nut Allergies
Hypersensitivity to certain foods can lead to severe physical reactions. People with food
allergies may be sensitive to more than one type of nut. Raw nuts may cause a more severe
reaction than refined oils. The severity of the reaction varies from person to person and
repeated exposure can increase sensitization. The United States Food and Drug
Administration requires that packaged foods containing tree nuts and peanuts to list the
specific ingredients on the label. In foodservice operations, it is always a good policy to inform
the staff of common food allergens that are in menu items and to make customers aware of
any foods containing potential allergens.
SEEDS
Grains, nuts, and legumes are all types of seeds. Seeds are reproductive units of plants.
Grains and nuts all have an outer husk and a protective shell was known as bran with a food
source called a germ. Because the germ and bran are susceptible to disease and spoilage,
they are often processed to remove the outer layers and provide a long and stable shelf life.
These produces are more refined product but results in the loss of important nutrients in the
bran and germ. Typical grains like rice are often fortified with added vitamins or nutrients to
make up for this loss.
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GELATIN & AGAR
GELATIN
Gelatin is a rendered form of collagen used in many commercial products including candies,
marshmallows, ice cream, yogurt, mousses, and other sweetened gelatin desserts. Made from
meat by-products including pork skin, beef hides, cartilaginous meat cuts, and bones, gelatin is
extracted by heating with water and then filtered, sterilized, and dried. It is further processed
into powdered, granulated, or sheets or leaf forms.
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Gelatin Types
Powdered or granulated gelatin is commonly used in
North America. Leaf or sheet gelatin is found in Europe
and other parts of the world but is increasingly being
found in North America as well.
Leaf gelatin is considered to be superior in clarity. Both
granulated and sheet gelatin can be used interchangeably
in recipes but some adjustments may need to be made
depending on the strength of the gelatin.
Gelatin strength is expressed by a Bloom Strength number and commercial types vary from
low Bloom (<150), medium Bloom (150 – 220) to high Bloom (> 220) types. The higher the
number the more thickening power it will have. Leaf gelatin manufacturers compensate for the
Bloom Strength by adjusting the size and weight of the sheets so that they can be used
interchangeably in recipes.
Example: a 200 strength sheet gelatin will weight .06 oz. /1.7 g and a 130 will weigh .12 oz.
/3.3g.
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Gelatin Tips
• The melting point of gelatin is approximately 99˚F/37˚C.
• Gelatin relies on a Bloom Strength number that determines its thickening power
• Experimentation may be required to find gelatin that works correctly for particular
culinary applications
• Do not boil gelatin because it will lose some of its thickening power.
Properties
• Agar will set in liquids at 0.5-2.0% ratio.
• Agar must be dissolved in cold water and simmered at 212°F/100°C to achieve
its proper setting consistency.
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• Once cooked, gel formation takes place at temperatures between 90-110°F/32-
43°C.
• When the gel is set agar retains its firmness to temperatures as high as 185°F/
85°C), unlike gelatin which melts at 99°F /37°C.
Gel Texture
Agar gel texture is more brittle than gelatin but the addition of sugar improves both its strength
and elasticity.
Acidic Foods
Acidity in vinegar and citrus fruits affects the thickening power of agar. Strawberries and citrus
may require a higher agar to liquid ratio. Tropical fruits including kiwi, pineapple, fresh figs,
pawpaws, papaya, mango, and peaches contain enzymes that break down the gelling ability of
the agar. Precooking the fruits helps to resolve some of the problems but recipes should be
tested when substituting agar for gelatin or other types of thickeners.
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1. Red Meat: All livestock is considered red meat. This includes beef, pork, goat,
and lamb.
2. Poultry: Commonly referred to as white meat, poultry includes chicken and
turkey.
3. Seafood: That includes fish, as well as crustaceans, like crab and lobster, and
mollusks, like clams, oysters, scallops, and mussels.
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lamb in a cast-iron skillet before basting in garlic butter and finishing in a 375°F
oven for 5 minutes.
4. Goat: A slightly tough muscular composition makes goat a popular addition to
stews and braises, where a low and slow cooking technique can best break
down the fats and infuse the meat with flavor.
5. Chicken: Chicken meat is high and protein and low in fat, which varies in white
and dark meat. Boneless, skinless chicken breast meat is one of the only types
of meat that doesn’t contain saturated fat. A roasted chicken is one of life’s
simplest pleasures. Brush the chicken with clarified butter and season all sides
with salt, then roast at 475°F for 20–25 minutes. Reduce heat to 400°F and
continue to roast another 30-45 minutes, until thighs and center of the chicken
breast register 160°F and the juices run clear. Let rest at least 20 minutes before
carving.
6. Turkey: King of the holiday table and the deli meat aisle, turkey is mild white
meat with a reputation for being tricky to prepare without drying out. It’s a prime
candidate for the brining-roasting one-two punch.
7. Duck: Duck meat generally refers to the breast and legs of the bird, though the
liver is also enjoyed as foie gras. Ducks have a layer of fat between the outer
skin and meat (primarily to insulate in water environments), giving it extra
rendering power for soaking the meat with flavor as it cooks. Braised duck legs,
in anything from red wine to an aromatic stock, will infuse the meat with even
more flavor and fall-off-the-bone texture. Throw it in the fridge to cool, and crisp it
up in the oven once the skin has set.
8. Rabbit: Nutrient-dense rabbit is especially popular in France and the United
Kingdom. Its meat is high in B12 and selenium and is relatively low in calories
compared to its protein levels. Rabbit is traditionally stewed or fried.
9. Seafood: Seafood is a massive and popular category, including everything from
fish to crustaceans to shellfish. The nutritional value of seafood is incredibly vast
and depends on the species, but it is generally thought to be the best form of
protein for those looking to maintain a healthy diet, thanks to its high levels of
omega 3s. Steam shellfish and add to pasta, or grill cleaned fish whole over the
grill and serve with an herb salad and preserved lemon.
10. Game Meats: This category includes everything from pheasant to venison to wild
boar—meats that are not typically found in a grocery store, though you may find
them in some specialty meat markets. Generally, these meats are quite lean
since they are caught in the wild and eat varied, natural diets. Because they’re
not farmed, game meats are among the more expensive options. Their tougher
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Vegetables are cooked to develop color, texture, and flavor. Because of the vast varieties,
cooking methods vary depending on the desired end result. In professional foodservice
production vegetables are often blanched or par-cooked in boiling salted water as a mise en
place step, and finished by other cooking methods such as sautéing, frying, or roasting.
Equally important in this process is the added step of shocking the vegetables in an ice water
bath, which brightens and sets the color making them more visually appealing. Some
vegetables like roots or dried legumes need prolonged cooking to tenderize and make them
digestible, while others like tender leafy greens, may only need a few seconds to help set their
color. Deep-frying, grilling, braising, and roasting develop distinct textures, colors, and flavors
through caramelization or the addition of flavorful liquids.
Fruit and vegetables should be an important part of your daily diet. They are naturally good
and contain vitamins and minerals that can help to keep you healthy. They can also help
protect against some diseases.
Most people will benefit from eating more fruit and vegetables as part of a well-balanced,
regular diet, and a healthy, active lifestyle. There are many varieties of fruit and vegetables
available and many ways to prepare, cook, and serve them.
We should eat at least five servings of vegetables and two serves of fruit each day. Choose
different colors and varieties.
A serving of vegetables is about one cup of raw salad vegetables or 1/2 cup of cooked.
A serve of fruit is about one medium piece, 2 small pieces of 1 cup canned (no added sugar).
Fruits and vegetables are an important part of a well-balanced diet. The United States
Department of Agriculture advises diners to fill half their plate with fruits and veggies at every
meal. Adult women should eat about 1 1/2 to 2 cups of fruit and 2 to 2 1/2 cups of vegetables
every day. Adult men should eat about 2 cups of fruit and 2 1/2 to 3 cups of vegetables per
day.
Eating a diet rich in fruits and vegetables can help lower your risk of many health conditions,
including high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, and certain kinds of cancers. But if they’re
not handled properly, fruits and veggies can also become a source of food-borne pathogens.
For example, they can become contaminated with listeria, salmonella, or other bacteria. Their
taste, texture, and appearance can also suffer if they’re not stored properly.
That’s why it’s so important to learn how to clean and store fruits and veggies.
Cleaning produce
Most produce travels long distances before it gets to you. Fruits and veggies may be exposed
to harmful bacteria or other contaminants along the way. This is true for food that’s organic and
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pesticide-free, as well as conventional produce. Even food that looks and tastes appealing
may be contaminated.
To avoid harmful contaminants, always wash the produce before you eat it. You don’t need to
use soap or commercial produce washes to do it. You can simply use water. A stiff, clean
brush can help you clean firm fruits and vegetables. Don’t use the brush for other cleaning
purposes. If you’re eating fruits or veggies that are covered in a waxy coating, rub the coating
off with a paper towel or cloth after you wash them.
While it’s important to wash produce before you eat it, it’s best to store it unwashed. Too much
moisture can cause fruits and vegetables to go bad quickly. Wait until you’re ready to eat them
before you wash them. If you need to wash them ahead of time, dry them thoroughly before
you store them.
Refrigeration
Different fruits and vegetables should be stored in different ways. Vegetables generally need
one of four types of storage:
• apples
• broccoli
• carrots
• lettuce
• eggplant
• garlic
• onions
• hot peppers
• pumpkins
• winter squash
• sweet potatoes
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For safety reasons, you should refrigerate or freeze any fruit or vegetable that’s been washed
and cut. Store washed and cut production in a plastic bag or sealed container to preserve its
freshness and limit its contact with air.
Always store fruits and vegetables separately from raw meat and dairy products to avoid
possible contamination with bacteria.
Freezing
Almost all fruits and vegetables can be stored in your freezer. Freezing can change the texture
of many fruits and vegetables, but it generally preserves their taste, nutrients, and health
benefits. It’s a great way to store seasonal fruits or vegetables for use later in the year,
especially if you’re planning to eat them cooked or blended into smoothies.
It’s best to freeze fruits and vegetables in airtight containers. Avoid freezing produce that isn’t
ripe yet. It may not ripen correctly when you take it out of the freezer.
Leafy greens that you plan to eat raw, such as lettuce, shouldn’t be frozen.
• tomatoes
• bananas
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• potatoes
• lemons
• limes
In particular, tomatoes may lose flavor and nutrients when you refrigerate them. They can also
develop an undesirable texture.
Whole fruits generally don’t need to be refrigerated. However, refrigeration slows down their
ripening process. Refrigerating them can help them stay fresh for longer. Once you wash and
cut fruit, you should always store it in your refrigerator or freezer.
Types of fruit
The fruit is the sweet, fleshy, edible part of a plant. It generally contains seeds. Fruits are
usually eaten raw, although some varieties can be cooked. They come in a wide variety of
colors, shapes, and flavors. Common types of fruits that are readily available include:
Types of vegetables
Vegetables are available in many varieties and can be classified into biological groups or
‘families’, including:
Legumes
Legumes or pulses contain nutrients that are especially valuable. Legumes need to be cooked
before they are eaten – this improves their nutritional quality, aids digestion and eliminates any
harmful toxins. Legumes come in many forms including:
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Colors of fruits and vegetable foods of
similar colors generally contain similar
protective compounds. Try a rainbow of
colorful fruits and vegetables for a full
range of health benefits.
• Red foods – like tomatoes and watermelon. These contain lycopene, which is thought to
be important for fighting prostate cancer and heart disease
• Green vegetables – like spinach and kale. These contain lutein and zeaxanthin, which
may help protect against age-related eye disease
• Blue and purple foods – like blueberries and eggplant. These contain anthocyanins,
which may help protect the body from cancer
• White foods – like cauliflower. These contain sulforaphane and may also help protect
against some cancers.
Limit fruit juice, as it does not contain the same amount of nutrients as fresh fruit. It also
contains a lot of sugars. These sugars are not necessarily good for your health, even
though they are ‘natural’. Instead, have a drink of water and a serve of fruit.
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• Eat raw vegetables and fruits if possible.
• Try fruit or vegetables pureed into smoothies.
• Use a sharp knife to cut fresh fruits to avoid bruising.
• Cut off only the inedible parts of vegetables – sometimes the best nutrients are found in
the skin, just below the skin or in the leaves.
• Use stir-fry, grill, microwave, bake, or steam methods with non-stick cookware and
monounsaturated oils.
• Do not overcook, to reduce nutrient loss.
• Serve meals with vegetable pestos, salsas, chutneys, and vinegar in place of sour cream,
butter, and creamy sauces.
Some nutrients such as carotenoids may actually be increased if food is cooked. For example,
the tomato has more carotenoids, especially lycopene, when it is cooked – a good reason to
prepare fruits and vegetables in a variety of ways.
Once you’ve prepared and cooked vegetables and fruit, spend some time on the presentation.
People are more likely to enjoy a meal if it’s full of variety and visually appealing, as well as
tasty. Sit at the table to eat and enjoy your food.
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YOUR ULTIMATE GUIDE TO
KITCHEN HERBS AND SPICES
Herbs and spices provide our foods and beverages with a wonderful array of flavors,
fragrances, and colors. And with today’s global marketplace, accessing some of the more
exotic ingredients is now easier than ever… but perhaps a little more confusing too.
For your convenience, and to take advantage of the many wonderful flavors now available to
us, we’ve compiled this complete guide to culinary herbs and spices. From A to Z, there are
dry, fresh, or blended ingredients suitable for you and your recipes – and here’s how to use
them all!
What Are the Differences Between Herbs and Spices?
A herb is a whole or part of a plant that is used to flavor food. This is usually the softer stems
or leaves of plants and can be whole, ground, fresh, or dried.
A spice is a substance that is used to flavor food and is derived from a dried plant and usually
a seed, bark, or root part and is normally ground and powdered; although in some cases they
may be whole seeds.
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We’ve split our 84 different selections into three different groups for your convenience.
• Dried Herbs and Spices
• Fresh Herbs and Spices
• Spice Blends, Rubs, and Mixes
Herbs such as oregano, thyme, parsley, rosemary, and sage should be added towards the
beginning of a cook so there is time to extract the oils which allow the flavors to fully develop.
Delicate varieties such as marjoram, dill, and basil should be added closer to the end as their
flavoring and oils will evaporate and leave a mild off-taste.
Overcooking all herbs and spices will lead to a loss of flavor and they should be added towards
the end of slow cooking or long and slow braising.
If substituting dried for fresh herbs, you should start out with around 1/2 of the amount called
for in the recipes. If this is not enough, you can always add more but it’s fairly difficult to
recover if you have added too much.
You can also grow your own fresh herbs and preserve them yourself through dehydrating or
freezing! Or, try making your own flavor-infused oils, to add to salad dressings, marinades,
and more.
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ACHIOTE (ANNATTO)
Annatto is a spice and food coloring derived from
the red seeds of the achiote tree, Bixa Orellana.
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ALLSPICE
Allspice is the dried, unripe berry of Pimenta
dioica, an evergreen tree in the myrtle family
native to the Caribbean regions of the Greater
Antilles, Mexico, and Central America. The dried
berries are slightly larger than peppercorns and
impart a combination flavor of cinnamon, cloves,
nutmeg, and pepper – hence the name allspice.
ANISE
Anise is the dried seed of an aromatic flowering
plant, Pimpinella anisum, in the Apiaceae family
that is native to the Levant, or the eastern
Mediterranean region, and into Southwest Asia.
Its sweet flavor has a hint of heat and is similar
to other licorice-like seasonings such as fennel,
tarragon, and star anise.
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ASAFOETIDA
(ASAFETIDA)
Asafoetida is the dried gum from the taproot of
the species Ferula assa-foetida, a perennial herb
from the arid regions of Afghanistan, Iran, and
India.
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CALIFORNIA BAY LEAF
The California bay tree (Umbellularia californica,
Lauraceae) provides a Mediterranean bay-like
taste but in much stronger intensities.
CARAWAY SEEDS
Caraway seeds are the dried fruit of the
herbaceous biennial Carum carvi, in the
Apiaceae family, and are indigenous to Western
Asia, Europe, and North Africa.
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CARDAMOM
Cardamom is the seeds (or seed pods) of two
main species in the genera Elettaria and
Amomum in the Zingiberaceae (ginger) family.
Native to the Indian subcontinent, E.
cardamomum is true, or green cardamom, white
cardamom is the result of bleaching, and black is
from the species A. subulatum.
CAYENNE PEPPER
Cayenne pepper is the dried and ground fruit of
Capsicum annuum, a frost-tender herbaceous
perennial in the Solanaceae family native to the
Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Central America,
and northern regions of South America.
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CELERY SEEDS (AND
CELERY SALT)
Another member of the Apiaceae family, wild
celery (Apium graveolens) is a marshland plant
with a global habitat that has been cultivated as
a food for millennia.
CHIA SEEDS
Salvia hispanica, commonly known as chia, is an
annual flowering herb in the mint (Lamiaceae)
family native to Mexico and Guatemala.
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CHILI FLAKES
Chili flakes, also known as crushed red peppers
or red pepper flakes, are a blend of various hot
red peppers from the Solanaceae family usually
in the range of 30,000-50,000 Scoville units.
CINNAMON
Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of a few species from the genus Cinnamomum, a
tropical evergreen tree in the laurel (Lauraceae) family. C. verum is native to Sri
Lanka (Ceylon) and is known as true cinnamon,
with a delicate, sweetly spicy flavor and
fragrance. C. cassia is Chinese cinnamon and
has a stronger, spicier flavor.
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CLOVES
Cloves are the dried flower buds of an aromatic
tree in the myrtle (Myrtaceae) family, Syzygium
aromaticum.
CORIANDER SEEDS
Coriander, Coriandrum sativum, also known as
cilantro or Chinese parsley, is an annual herb
native to Iran that also belongs in the Apiaceae
family.
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CUMIN
Cumin, Cuminum cyminum, is another annual
flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native to
the Middle East and into India.
DILL SEED
Dill seed is the dried fruit of the dill plant,
Anethum graveolens, an annual, flowering herb
in the family Apiaceae.
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FENNEL SEEDS
Fennel seeds are the dried fruit of a flowering
species, Foeniculum vulgare, in the Apiaceae
family.
GARLIC POWDER
Garlic powder is made from dehydrated garlic
bulbs, Allium sativum, which are ground into fine
particles and has a lightly sweet flavor that’s
milder than fresh garlic.
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GINGER POWDER
Ginger powder is the dried and ground root of
the flowering tropical plant Zingiber officinale,
and has a milder and slightly sweeter taste than
that of fresh ginger root.
GOCHUGARU
Gochugaru is a dried ground red pepper
(honggochu), in the species Capsicum annuum
with a mild to medium heat of 10,000 Scoville
units and has a sweet, sun-dried flavor with a
hint of smoke.
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GRAINS OF PARADISE
Grains of Paradise are the dried seeds of a
flowering plant in the Zingiberaceae (ginger)
family,
LOOMI
Also known as black lime, loomi is ground from
Persian limes (C. × latifolia) that have been
brined then dried.
MACE
Mace is derived from the dried and ground seed cover, or aril, of the nutmeg tree,
Myristica fragrans, which is native to the Moluccas Islands.
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Its flavor is like that of nutmeg, a blend of
cinnamon and pepper, but with a more nuanced
and sweeter flavor than nutmeg.
MAHLEB
Mahleb is an aromatic spice ground from the
internal kernel of the sour cherry pits of the
mahleb cherry tree, Prunus mahaleb, native to
Iran.
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Both the rind and leaves are highly aromatic and
impart a deep citrusy fragrance and flavor, but the
leaves are most often used for cooking either dried,
fresh, or frozen.
MUSTARD SEEDS
As the second most commonly used spice in sauces and condiments such as
“mustard,” these seeds hugely important to culinary pursuits world-wide.
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NUTMEG
Fragrant, or true nutmeg is the dried seed of a
tropical evergreen tree, Myristica fragrans, native
to the Moluccas Islands – the same tree the
produces mace.
NUTRITIONAL YEAST
Nutritional yeast is a deactivated yeast (it won’t
rise to leaven bread), usually from the strain of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and its flakes are
used as a flavoring agent and for its important
nutritional profile.
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OREGANO
Oregano is a flowering perennial herb in the mint
family (Lamiaceae), native to temperate Eurasia
and the Mediterranean basin that is used fresh
or dried, with a warm, almost citrusy flavor.
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PEPPERCORNS
Peppercorns are the dried fruit of the flowering
vine Piper nigrum in the family Piperaceae and
are native to the tropical regions of south India.
PINK PEPPERCORNS
Pink peppercorns are the dried berries of an
evergreen shrub known as the Peruvian
Peppertree, Schinus molle, native to the
Peruvian Andes and into central Argentina and
central Chile.
ROSEMARY
Rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis, is a woody,
perennial herb in the Lamiaceae (mint) family
native to the Mediterranean area.
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SAFFRON
Saffron is a spice from the dried stigmas of the
saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, and is native to
the Mediterranean basin.
SAGE
Common, garden, or culinary sage, Salvia
officinalis, is an evergreen, woody perennial herb
in the mint family, Lamiaceae, and is native to
the Mediterranean region.
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SALT (VARIOUS)
Table salt is a naturally occurring mineral
comprised mainly of sodium chloride and is
obtained by mining, evaporation of seawater, or
evaporation of shallow, mineral-rich springs.
SMOKED PAPRIKA
(SPANISH)
Smoked paprika comes from the same varieties
of sweet peppers as regular Hungarian paprika,
but the peppers are smoked over an oak-wood
fire instead of sun-dried.
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SAVORY
Among the most popular of savory herbs,
summer savory, Satureja hortensis, is an annual
in the Lamiaceae (mint) family. Its close cousin
winter savory, Satureja montana, is a perennial,
semi-woody herb in the same family, and both
are native to northern Africa, southern Europe,
and the Mediterranean.
STAR ANISE
Star anise is the dried, star-shaped fruit pod of
an evergreen tree, llicium verum, native to
northeast Vietnam and southwest China. And
like the unrelated anise, its flavor is sweet,
peppery, and licorice-like.
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SUMAC
Sumac is the dried and ground fruit of the sumac
tree, Rhus coriaria, that grows in temperate and
subtropical regions of Africa, East Asia, and
North America and has a tart, citrus flavor.
SZECHUAN (AKA
SICHUAN)
PEPPERCORNS
Szechuan peppercorn is neither a chili pepper
(Capsicum) or related to black pepper (Piper
nigrum). It is comprised of the pink and red outer
hulls of the prickly ash shrub (Zanthoxylum).
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TURMERIC
Turmeric, Curcuma longa, is then dried and
powdered rhizome of an herbaceous perennial in
the Zingiberaceae family. Native to the wet,
tropical regions of the Indian subcontinent and
Southeast Asia, turmeric is a close cousin of
ginger and is used fresh or dried.
THYME
Thyme, Thymus vulgaris, is an aromatic,
perennial evergreen herb in the Lamiaceae
(mint) family native to the Mediterranean basin.
The leaves can be used fresh or dried for their
strong, woodsy, and almost minty flavor.
VANILLA
Vanilla comes from a species of orchid, Vanilla planifolia, indigenous to Mexico and
Central America. With a sweet, woodsy, and lightly spiced flavor, the dehydrated
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whole bean (seeds plus pod) can be used for
flavoring, and vanilla extract, paste, and powder
are also available for convenience. Vanilla pods
can be used whole in recipes, or the pods can
be split, and the seeds scraped out and added
into liquids or batters for baked goods.
Use any variety of fresh herbs to gently infuse oils to provide another nuance of flavors
in your daily cooking.
You can source your fresh herbs from supermarkets where they are found bunched inside of
small plastic bags, loose in boxes, or bunched with a rubber band. You can even try growing
your own!
To source, the more exotic fresh herbs and spices, get out of your comfort zone and visit Asian
and Middle Eastern grocery stores and markets where you’ll often find them at a lower cost
and much higher quality than those offered at local store
Don’t let the more tender varieties hang around too long. Cilantro, basil, tarragon, dill, and
chervil will blacken fairly quickly so these should be used within a couple of days of purchase.
The hardier varieties such as sage, rosemary, and thyme will stay fresh and green for a week
or two as long as they remain cool and dry.
For more information on using fresh herbs, check out our guide.
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BASIL
Basil, Ocimum basilicum, is an annual kitchen
herb in the Lamiaceae (mint) family originally
from the tropical areas of central Africa through
to Southeast Asia.
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CHERVIL
Chervil, Anthriscus cerefolium, is a tender,
flowering annual herb in the Apiaceae (carrots,
celery, and parsley) family native to the
Caucasus, with a mild, licorice-like flavor similar
to basil or tarragon.
CHIVES
Chives, Allium schoenoprasum, are a
bulbforming perennial in the Allium (onion)
genus native to much of Asia, Europe, and North
America that is used for its mild, onion-like flavor
with hints of garlic.
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CILANTRO
Cilantro leaves come from the coriander plant,
Coriandrum sativum, an annual herb in the
Apiaceae family native to Iran.
CURRY LEAVES
Curry leaves, or sweet neem leaves, come from
the curry tree, Murraya koenigii, which belongs
to the family Rutaceae (rue) and is native to
subtropical regions of India and Sri Lanka.
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DILL WEED
Dill, Anethum graveolens, is an annual, flowering
herb and yet another member in the family
Apiaceae.
FENUGREEK
Fenugreek, Trigonella foenum-graecum, is an
annual in the Fabaceae (legume) family thought
to originate in the Levant and is used for it sweet
and nutty flavor with notes of maple syrup.
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LEMONGRASS
Lemongrass is native to and often found in the
cuisines of Thailand, India, and Myanmar.
LEMON THYME
Lemon thyme, Thymus citriodorus, is a
clumping perennial species in the Thymus
genus, and is native to temperate areas of
Asia, Europe, and North Africa for its sweet
flavor of lemon and thyme.
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LOVAGE
Lovage, Levisticum officinale, is a leafy perennial
in the family Apiaceae and is native to southern
Europe and Southwest Asia.
MARJORAM
Marjoram, Origanum majorana, is a cold-tender
perennial herb in the Lamiaceae family native to
temperate Asia, Europe, North Africa, and parts
of North America and has a flora, woodsy flavor
of sweet pine and citrus.
MINT
Mint is one of several species in the genus
Mentha of the Lamiaceae (mint!) family and is
native to Asia, Australia, Africa, Europe, and
North America.
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Fresh mint is widely used in Middle Eastern and British cooking to season fruit,
lamb dishes, mint jelly, mint sauce, salads, and veggies like peas and potatoes.
OREGANO
Oregano, Origanum vulgare, is a flowering
perennial in the Lamiaceae family native to
temperate regions of Western and Southwestern
Eurasia including the Mediterranean basin.
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PARSLEY
Parsley, Petroselinum crispum, is a biennial
flowering herb in the Apiaceae family native to
the central Mediterranean basin that is used for
its clean, bright, and grassy flavor.
ROSEMARY
Rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis, is a perennial,
shrubby herb in the Lamiaceae family native to
the Mediterranean basin that is renowned for its
strong, warm flavor of earthy pine.
SAGE
Culinary sage, Salvia officinalis, is a perennial
evergreen herb in the family Lamiaceae from the
Mediterranean region. Its strong, warm, and
peppery flavor has hints of citrus, eucalyptus, and
pine.
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SHISO
Shiso, Perilla frutescens, is a perennial plant in
the mint family, Lamiaceae, indigenous to
mountainous regions of Asia and India, but is
usually grown as an annual in temperate zones.
SUMMER SAVORY
Summer savory, Satureja hortensis, is an annual
in the Lamiaceae family native to northern Africa,
southern Europe, and the Mediterranean that’s
used for its peppery, earthy flavors of pine, mint,
and thyme.
TARRAGON
French tarragon, Artemisia dracunculus, is a
perennial herb in the Asteraceae (sunflower)
family that is indigenous to the temperate areas
of central Asia and has a sweet, grassy flavor of
licorice, pepper, and eucalyptus.
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THAI BASIL
Thai basil, Ocimum basilicum v. thyrsiflora, is a
variety of sweet basil in the Lamiaceae family
that is cultivated to produce specific
characteristics for cooking.
THYME
Common garden thyme, Thymus vulgaris, is a
flowering perennial herb in the Lamiaceae family
native throughout the western Mediterranean
and into southern Italy. It has an intense
woodsy/floral flavor and depending on the
species, can have tones of caraway, lemon, or
mint.
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WASABI
Wasabi, Eutrema japonicum, is a plant of the
Brassicaceae (cabbage) family native to
mountainous river valleys in Japan.
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BAHARAT
Baharat is a blend of spices using allspice, black
pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, coriander,
cumin, nutmeg, and paprika – regional variations
may also include loomi, mint, red chili peppers,
rosebuds, saffron, and turmeric.
BEBERE
Bebere is a spice mixture with familiar, and
perhaps unfamiliar, ingredients that include
ajwain, basil, chili peppers, fenugreek, garlic,
ginger, korarima, nigella, rue, and salt.
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BOUQUET GARNI
The bouquet garni is a small bundle of fresh
herbs, traditionally made of bay leaves, parsley,
and thyme, and are usually tied together with
string or in a cheesecloth sachet for cooking.
CHILI POWDER
Chili powder is a combination of the dried and
ground fruits of a variety of chili peppers, usually
cayenne, but might also include other chili
peppers such as ancho, bell, chipotle, or
jalapeno.
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CHINESE FIVE SPICE
POWDER
Five-spice powder is a blend of five spices,
cassia (Chinese cinnamon), cloves, fennel
seeds, star anise, and Szechuan pepper, that
create a warm and sweetly spicy flavor.
CURRY POWDER
Curry powder is a blend of spices used to mimic
the multi-layered flavors of Indian cuisine –
although it’s not actually used in authentic Indian
cooking. The earthy and sweetly spicy flavors of
chili peppers, coriander, cumin, fenugreek, and
turmeric were created for colonial Brits to try and
replicate the rich, complex flavors of the Indian
subcontinent back home.
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DUKKAH
Dukkah is another spice blend that includes
toasted almonds, hazelnuts, and sesame seeds
along with coriander and cumin.
GARAM MASALA
Garam masala is a mixture of dried and ground
warming spices, typically made of black
peppercorns, cardamom, cinnamon, cloves,
coriander, cumin, and nutmeg.
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HERBES DE PROVENCE
Herbes de Provence is a blend of dried herbs
that are native to southeastern France and
typically include marjoram, oregano, rosemary,
savory, and thyme.
OLD BAY
Old Bay is mixture of herbs and spices
developed in Maryland that lists celery salt, black
pepper, paprika, and red pepper flakes in its
ingredients.
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PICKLING SPICE
Pickling spice is a blend of whole and crumbed
herbs and spices used in pickling for their sour
and spicy flavors. Common ingredients are
allspice, bay leaves, black pepper, chilies,
cinnamon, cloves, coriander, mace, and mustard
seed.
POULTRY SEASONING
This spice blend was designed to add flavor to
chicken, quail, turkey, squab, Cornish game
hens, as well as stuffing. However, it’s also a
great all purpose mix to add to soups, stews, red
meats, and veggies. Add a dash to your chicken
pot pie or dumpling dish for a quick and easy
flavor additive.
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PUMPKIN PIE SPICE MIX
Pumpkin pie spice mix is a blend of dried and
ground warming spices that evolved from the
pilgrims combining New World pumpkins with
spices.
RAS EL HANOUT
Ras el hanout is a spice mix that consists of a minimum of 12 dried, toasted, and
ground spices and herbs and a seemingly limitless maximum number! The basics
are allspice, cardamom, chili peppers, cinnamon, cloves, coriander seed, cumin,
fenugreek, ginger, mace, nutmeg, paprika (hot), peppercorns, and turmeric.
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SHICHIMI TOGARASHI
Shichimi togarashi is a seasoning mix made up of
seven flavors – typically dried and ground chili
pepper, nori, orange peel, poppy seeds, sansho
(Zanthoxylum piperitum or Japanese pepper), and
sesame seeds, both white and black.
ZA’ATAR SEASONING
Za’atar seasoning is a blend of dried and ground
herbs, spices, and seeds that’s been around
since Biblical times.
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