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Designing Sound For Animation - Robin S. Beauchamp
Designing Sound For Animation - Robin S. Beauchamp
F O R A N I M AT I O N
DESIGNING SOUND
FOR ANIMATION
2ND EDITION
ROBIN BEAUCHAMP
First published 2013
by Focal Press
70 Blanchard Road, Suite 402, Burlington, MA 01803
Simultaneously published in the UK
by Focal Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Focal Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
© 2013 Taylor & Francis
The right of Robin Beauchamp to be identified as the author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge
in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments
described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their
own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Beauchamp, Robin.
Designing sound for animation / Robin Beauchamp. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Sound motion pictures. 2. Sound—Recording and reproducing. 3. Animation
(Cinematography) I. Title.
TR897.B42 2013
777’.53—dc23 2012019646
ISBN: 9780240824987
ISBN: 9780240825007
Typeset in Rotis
By Keystroke, Station Road, Codsall, Wolverhampton
D E D I C AT I O N
Introduction xxv
Overview xxv
The Elements of a Soundtrack xxv
Scope of Book xxvi
Using This Book xxvi
About the 2nd Edition xxvii
Online Content xxvii
Sampling Rates 10
Bit-Depths 12
Audio Compression 13
Chapter 3 Dialogue 33
Overview 33
Principal Dialogue 33
Narration 34
Group ADR and Walla 34
Developing the Script 35
Casting Voice Talent 35
Caricature 36
Recording Dialogue 36
The Recording Script 36
Directing Voice Talent 38
The ADR Studio 38
Microphones 40
Recording Set-Up 41
Cueing a Session 42
Preparing Tracks for Lip Sync 42
Lip Sync Animation 43
ADR 43
Evaluating Recorded Dialogue 45
Dialogue Editing 48
Designed Languages 48
Chapter 4 Music 53
Overview 53
Underscore 53
Source Music 54
Songs 55
Title, Montage, and End Credit Sequences 55
Workflow for Original Score 56
Rationale for Original Score 56
Temp Music 56
The Spotting Session 57
Writing Original Cues 58
The Scoring Session 58
Workflow for Production Libraries 59
Production Libraries 59
Searching a Library 60
Managing a Project 61
Developing Cues 62
Licensing Cues 62
Workflow for Copy-Protected Music 62
Overview 62
Rights Versus License 63
X CONTENTS
Overview 71
The SFX Stem 72
Temp Tracks and Spotting Sessions 72
The Sound Department 73
Sound Editors 73
Commercial SFX Libraries 73
Searching SFX Libraries 75
Developing an Original SFX Library 76
Creating an Original Library 76
Field Recorders 77
Field Microphones 78
Field Accessories 79
Suggestions for Field Recording 82
Record like an Editor 82
Objectivity 82
Area-Specific Frequency Response 82
Signal-To-Noise Ratio 82
Dynamic Range 82
File Management 83
The Sound Designer 84
Performing Design Elements 85
Chapter 6 Foley 89
Overview 89
The Foley Stage 89
Spotting Foley 91
The Foley Artist 91
Footsteps 92
Props 92
The Cloth Pass 94
Cueing a Session 94
The Foley Mixer 94
CONTENTS XI
Overview 94
Recording with Preparatory Cues 97
Playlisting 98
Looping 98
Foley Editing 99
BIBLIOGRAPHY 181
INDEX 186
L I S T O F F I G U R E S A N D TA B L E S
FIGURES
Figure 2.6. This Time Lapse Sequence from Sam (2003) Directed by Kyle
Winkleman Shows the Main Character Learning at an
Accelerated Speed. Each Cut Was Accompanied by a 35 mm
Camera Shutter to Advertise the Edits and EKG Beeps to
Represent the Physiologic Impact on the Character
Figure 3.1 Elements of the Dialogue Stem
Figure 3.2. Online Voice Talent Services
Figure 3.3 Character Displays his Flip Book Idea in the Film The Machine
(2003) Directed by Jason Davies
Figure 3.4 Concept Art from the Film Trip to Granny’s (2001) Directed by
Aaron Conover
Figure 3.5 Neumann U-87 with Pop-filter
Figure 3.6 The Sound Characteristics Associated with Various Types of
Polar Patterns
Figure 3.7 Exposure Sheet for Pasttime (2004)
Figure 3.8 Memory Locations for Digital Cues
Figure 3.9 Bass Roll-Off
Figure 3.10 Vocalign Is Applied to a Foreign Dub Using the Sync Point
Feature to Aligned Specific Words
Figure 3.11 Reversed Dialogue
Figure 3.12 Robot Concept Art for Trip to Granny’s (2001)
Figure 4.1 Elements in the Music Stem
Figure 4.2 White Vertical Lines Stream across the Frames toward the
Circular Punch where the Score Will Hit with the Action
Figure 4.3 Individual Entry for a Spotting Log Template
Figure 4.4 Production Music Library from DeWolfe
Figure 4.5 APM and DeWolfe Search Categories
Figure 4.6 Three Potential Cuts Saved in APM’s Project Manager
Figure 4.7 Playlists Containing Three Potential Music Cues for “Flight
Lessons” Directed by Neil Helm. These Cues Were Downloaded
in Full Resolution from the APM Library
Figure 4.8 Online Request Form for APM
Figure 4.9 A Search for the Rolling Stones Title “I Can’t Get No
Satisfaction” Using the BMI Search Engine
Figure 4.10 This Form Contains Most of the Information Fields Required
when Making a Licensing Request for Synchronization, Master,
and Videogram Licensing
Figure 5.1 Elements Contributing to the SFX Stem
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES XV
Figure 8.1 Clip Marked with a Sync Point Indicating where the Score
Reaches a Climatic Point. The Sync Point Field of the Spot
Dialog Box is Highlighted, Indicating that its Current Value Will
Be Applied to the Music Cue
Figure 8.2 In this Example, the Trim Tool Is Being Used to Pull out Existing
Handle from the Header of the Clip
Figure 8.3 In these Examples, the Volume Graph of an Edit Selection
Changes Based on the Use of the Cut Command Verses the
Delete Key
Figure 8.4 In this Example, the B-52 Hit “Love Shack” Has Been Separated
into 33 Individual Clips to Facilitate Intercutting
Figure 8.5 By Selecting None as the Fade Option, the Editor Can Move
the In and Out Points of the Fades to Specified Locations
and Design Individual Fade Curves for the Fade In and
Outs
Figure 8.6 In the Playlist View Shown, Alternate Takes Can Be Displayed,
Auditioned, and Separated while Showing the Composite
Track
Figure 8.7 In the Screen Shot Shown, the Track View Selector Is Set For
(fx a) RVerb with the Automation Playlist Displaying Wet/Dry
Automation. Notice How Reverb Is Introduced near the End of
the Clip
Figure 8.8 Notice How the Middle Warp Marker Has Moved to the Center
of the Left and Right Markers. None of the Audio Before or
After the Outside Markers Are Altered
Figure 8.9 Repetitive SFX Are Being Pitch Shifted with Melodyne to Create
Variation
Figure 8.10 A Vari-speed Process Is Applied to a Jet Throttle Using Pitch’n
Time
Figure 8.11 Sound Replacement Software Provides a Variety of Options for
Batch Replacement
Figure 8.12 The Portion that Is Grayed Out Represents Frequency Content in
a Signal that Has Been Eliminated
Figure 8.13 Speakerphone Applied to the Source Music
Figure 8.14 Signals Pitch Up and Down as They Pass by a Character. Objects
Can Also Rotate Sonically Using Circle Amplitude and
Frequency Controls
Figure 9.1 Rhapsody in Rivets
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES XVII
TABLES
THE ANIMATORS
THE ILLUSTRATORS
MOTION GRAPHICS
Laura Rieland
PHOTOGRAPHS
TECHNICAL READERS
Rob Miller, Steven LeGrand, Peter Damski, B.J. Sears, Matt Akers
David Stone, John Sisti, Vanessa Ament, Dane Davis, Gary Rydstrom,
Paul and Angela Hackner
ONLINE CONTENT
LEGAL
TECHNOLOGIES
Rob Campbell, Andy Cook, Avid; Thom Coach Ehle, Dolby Laboratories;
Ron Ferrell, Phil Morales, Matt Harchic, Rich Rouleau, Lewis Herrin,
Sean Redman, Michael Phipps; SCAD
XXIV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
OVERVIEW
Methodology is not
The digital age has provided the independent animator possessing even a substitute for
modest resources access to the means to realize their creative visions. personal logic.
Academic programs have emerged to meet the growing interest in formal Ronald B. Thomas
instruction in this art form. Those responsible for curriculum development
face the daunting task of compressing essential animation courses into a
traditional four-year program of study. Due to competing forces and
limited resources, courses addressing soundtrack development are often
under-represented. Consequently, there are gaps relating to soundtrack
aesthetic and workflow that can potentially impede the independent
animators ability to collaborate effectively. This book seeks to bridge this gap
and assist the animator and sound design team in collaborative storytelling.
all three elements at the final mix and preparing them for a variety of release
formats. Sound design is a term that is often used to denote persons
responsible for developing the sound effects and dialogue stems of the
soundtrack. Though the term is typically reserved for SFX and dialogue, for
the purpose of this text, we will from time to time use the term to include
those persons responsible for the musical score as well.
SCOPE OF BOOK
The majority of writings on sound for image focus on live action, making only
brief mention of the unique design considerations associated with animation.
For example, the animation soundtrack is not tied to production audio (sound
acquired on a live set) and must be completely constructed. In addition, there
is a greater emphasis on the animatic (moving storyboard) created in
pre-production, providing a working model by which initial components of
the soundtrack can be developed. As with any collaborative effort, each
participant must develop a working understanding of the aesthetics, tools,
and workflow associated with aspects of the production; consequently, this
book must serve multiple audiences: the animator, the sound designer, and
the music department. At times, the animator might feel overwhelmed with
the technical aspects of this book while the sound designer may feel a need
for greater depth. A conscious decision was made to consider the needs of
the animator first. The bibliography contains many of the significant writings
on sound design to date for those seeking greater depth.
spelled out, in the hope of closing the gap between conceptualization and
application. Chapters 3 through 6 define the primary components or stems
used in animation: dialogue, music, and sound effects. Each chapter explores
the unique potential that individual stems contribute to the art of
storytelling. Chapters 7 through 9 explore the production arc from the
preproduction to layback. Chapter 10 contains references to a variety of
feature length animations. These annotated references are designed to
contextualize the concepts discussed throughout the book and guide your
future listening efforts.
Few words resonate more with sound designers than Ben Burtt's quote
regarding films escaping. His statement rings equally true for animators, Films are never
released, they just
composers, and authors. For most of us, there is rarely a second chance to
escape.
revise our work once it has been screened or published. It is with this
understanding that I wish to express my appreciation to Focal Press and the Ben Burtt
ONLINE CONTENT
Online delivery provides a seamless bridge between the written word and
other forms of media. The second edition of Designing Sound for Animation
comes with a full complement of online materials including four films, each
presented as a full mix or as isolated stems. Also included in the online
content area is a sound design kit containing the film Pasttime and a folder
of sounds that can be used to re-create the soundtrack. This kit is intended to
provide a hands-on experience with many of the concepts and techniques
addressed in the book. Feel free to use these sounds or to substitute them
with your personal library. Additional QuickTime movies have been provided
to further explain some of the more abstract concepts covered in Chapter 1.
XXVIII INTRODUCTION
Many of the illustrations and photos presented throughout the text are also
available for download as high resolution, resizable, color .tif files. Finally, a
test bank has been created for each chapter to assist instructors who use this
text to complement their courses.
CHAPTER 1
F O U N D AT I O N S O F A U D I O F O R I M A G E
OVERVIEW
PERCEPTION OF SOUND
SOUND
There are three basic requirements for sound to exist in the physical world.
First, there must be a sound source, such as a gunshot, which generates
acoustic energy. The acoustic energy must then be transmitted through a
medium such as air. Finally, a receiver, such as a listener’s ears, must perceive
and interpret this acoustic energy as sound. In Film, the animator creates the
first two conditions, the sound designer represents these conditions with
sound, and the audience processes the sound to derive meaning. Sound can
also be experienced as a part of our thoughts, in a psychological process Audio without
known as audiation. As you are silently reading this book, the words are image is called
radio, video without
sounding in your head. Just as animators visualize their creations, composers audio is called
and sound designers conceptualize elements of the soundtrack through the surveillance.
process of audiation. Voice over (in the first person) allows us to hear the
Anonymous
interior thoughts of a character, an example of scripted audiation.
2 FOUNDATIONS OF AUDIO FOR IMAGE
LOCALIZATION
SFX ROUND
B A C K GSFX
SFX
Off-screen action can be implied by panning sound to the far left or right in
the stereo field (Figure 1.2).
Independent film submission requirements typically call for a stereo mix but
there is an increasing acceptance of multi-channel mixes. Multi-channel
sound extends the sound field behind the audience (surrounds). The surrounds
have been used primarily to deliver ambient sounds but this role is expanding
with the popularity of stereoscopic (3D) films. Walt Disney pioneered
multi-channel mixing with the Fanta-sound presentations of “Fantasia”
in the late 1930s, adding height perspective for the sixtieth anniversary
screening.
+3dB -3dB
±0dB ±0dB
-3dB +3dB
ACOUSTICS
Rhythm is the identifiable pattern of sound and silence. The speed of these
patterns is referred to as the tempo. Tempo can remain constant to provide
continuity, or accelerate/decelerate to match the visual timings of on-screen
images. Footsteps, clocks, and heartbeats are all examples of sound objects
that typically have recognizable rhythm and tempo. Vehicles, weapons, and
dialogue are often varied in this respect. Many sounds such as footsteps or
individual lines of dialogue derive additional meaning from the rhythm and
The aesthetic definition of noise includes any unwanted sound found in the
soundtrack. Noise always exists to some degree and sound editors and It’s the space
between the notes
mixers have many tools and techniques to minimize noise. Backgrounds are
that give them
sometimes mistakenly referred to as noise. However, backgrounds are meaning.
carefully constructed to add depth to a scene whereas noise is carefully
Nathan East
managed as not to detract from the narrative. Silence is perhaps the least
understood component of sound design. Silence can be an effective means
of creating tension, release, or contrast. However, complete silence is
unnatural and can pull the audience out of the narrative. Silence before an
explosion creates contrast, effectively making the explosion perceptually
louder.
SOUND WAVES
The sine wave is the most basic component of sound. The horizontal line
shown in Figure 1.4 represents the null or zero point, the point at which no
Compression (PEAK)
AMPLITUDE
CYCLE
TIME
0 ENERGY
Rarefaction (TROUGH)
energy exists. The space above the line represents high pressure
(compression) that pushes inward on our hearing mechanisms. The higher the
wave ascends, the greater the sound pressure, the more volume we perceive.
The highest point in the excursion above the line is the peak. The space below
the line represents low pressure (rarefaction). As the wave descends, a
vacuum is created which pulls outward on our hearing mechanism. The
lowest point in the downward excursion is the trough. A single, 360°
excursion of a wave (over time) is a cycle.
FREQUENCY
1 3 5
Original
6 Hz cycle
00:00:00:00 00:00:01:00
2 4 6
AMPLITUDE
L R
Track Panner
Master
Fader
The strength of the sound waves emanating from the speakers as shown in
Figure 1.6 is measured in a unit called dB SPL (decibel sound pressure level).
Volume or perceived loudness is our subjective interpretation of SPL.
Audiences perceive volume in terms of relative change more than specific dB
levels. The continuum beginning from the softest perceptible sound to the
loudest perceptible sound is referred to as the dynamic range. Dialogue, if
present, is the most important reference used by audiences to judge the
volume levels for playback. Re-recording mixers use amplitude or level to
create intensity, provide emphasis, promote scale or size, and establish
proximity of sound objects. An audience’s perception of volume is also linked
with frequency. Human hearing is most sensitive in the mid-range
frequencies. More amplitude is required for low and high frequencies to
match the apparent loudness of the mid-range frequencies. This perceptual
curve is known as the equal loudness curve. This curve influences how we mix
and why we seek to match the playback levels on the mix stage with the
playback levels in theaters (reference level).
FOUNDATIONS OF AUDIO FOR IMAGE 9
TIMBRE
WAVELENGTH
Overtone # 3
Overtone # 2
produces
=
+
Overtone # 1
Fundamental
SPEED OF SOUND
Sound travels at roughly 1130 feet per second through air at a temperature
of 70°F; the more dense the medium (steel versus air), the faster the sound
travels. The speed of sound is equal at all frequencies. In reality, light travels
significantly faster than sound. Therefore, we see an action or object before
we hear it; however, the cinematic practice for sound editing is to sync the
audio on or slightly after the action; this is referred to as hard sync.
DIGITAL AUDIO
DIGITIZING AUDIO
SAMPLING RATES
A/D Conversion
Hard Drive
Mic Pre-amp Sound Card Audio Software
Digitized Audio Saved
Audio File
A/D Chip (AIF. SDOO,
BWF)
(Raw PCM Data)
Analog Audio
D/A Conversion
Hard Drive
Audio Software Sound Card
Saved Monitor Output
Audio File Digitized Audio
(AIF. SDOO,
BWF) D/A Chip
the image begins to flicker (persistence of vision). Similar thresholds exist for
digital audio as well. Frequency is captured digitally by sampling
at more than twice the rate of the highest frequency present, referred to as
the Nyquist frequency (Figure 1.10).
If the sampling rate falls below this frequency, the resultant audio will
become filled with frequencies that were not present in the original
Original
6 Hz cycle
00:00:00:00 00:00:01:00
Alias Frequency
Sampled at 4 Hz
00:00:00:00 00:00:01:00
1 3 5 7 9 11
Sampled at 12 Hz
00:00:00:00 00:00:01:00
2 4 6 8 10 12
(harmonic distortion). The minimum sampling rate for film and television is
48 kHz with high definition video sample rates extending up to 192 kHz. The
sampling rates of web delivery are often lower than the NTSC standard. The
process of converting from a higher sample rate to a lower sample rate is
referred to as down sampling.
BIT-DEPTHS
In theoretical terms, each added bit increases the dynamic range by 6.01 dB
(16 bit = 96 dB). The professional delivery standard for film and television
soundtracks is currently 16 to 24 bit. However, sound editors often work at bit
depths up to 32 bit when performing amplitude based signal processing. The
process of going from a higher bit depth to a lower bit depth is called dither.
AUDIO COMPRESSION
OVERVIEW
The pairing of audio and visual media is part of our everyday experiences. No theory is good
Armed with an ipod and earbuds, we intuitively underscore our daily except on condition
that one use it to
commutes and recreation time through carefully selected song-lists. We
go beyond.
visualize while listening to the radio and we audiate while reading. In the
absence of either sound or picture, audiences will create that which is not Andre Gide
SOUND CLASSIFICATIONS
CHION CLASSIFICATIONS
Michel Chion (a noted sound theorist) classifies listening in three modes:
causal, semantic, and reduced. Chion’s typology provides a useful design
framework for discussing sounds function in a soundtrack. Causal sound is
aptly named, as it reinforces cause and effect (see a cow, hear a cow). Sound
editors often refer to these as hard effects, especially when they are used in a
literal fashion. The saying “we don’t have to see everything we hear, but we
need to hear most of what we see” describes the practical role that causal
sounds play in the soundtrack. The term semantic is used to categorize sound
in which literal meaning is the primary emphasis. Speech, whether in a native
or foreign tongue, is a form of semantic sound. Morse code is also semantic
and, like foreign languages, requires a mechanism for translation (e.g.
16 SOUND DESIGN THEORY
NARRATIVE FUNCTIONS
GUIDED PERCEPTION
If that squeak The images presented within a scene are often ambiguous in nature, inviting
sounds kind of sad the audience to search for non-visual clues as they attempt to clarify both
and you never
meaning and intensity. Within these shots are creative opportunities to guide
meant it to sound
sad, it will throw it the audience perceptually from frame to frame. The editors and composers
that way, so you for the early Warner and MGM shorts understood this and became masters at
can’t ignore it.— guiding the audience’s perception. They accomplished this by using non-
literal sound for subjective scenes. Disney also uses this design approach
Andrew Stanton
when producing films for younger audiences. For example, in Beauty and the
SOUND DESIGN THEORY 17
Beast, the final conflict between the villagers and the castle’s servants is
underscored with a playful rendition of “Be our Guest”. Here, the score guides
the audience to a non-literal interpretation of the visuals, promoting a
“softer” perception of the content, thus making the film appropriate to a
wider audience.
Figure 2.2 The Picture Displays a Martini Glass, an Ashtray, and a Wine Bottle. By Pairing a Seemingly
Unrelated Sonar Ping with this Frame, Audiences Are Challenged to Find a Relationship or Gestalt between the
Two, the Desired Effect Being that the Eyes are Directed to the Submerged Olive
18 SOUND DESIGN THEORY
In a scene from Ratatouille (2007), Remy and Emile (rats) are being chased by
an elderly French woman in her kitchen. When we experience the scene
through their perspective, the principle dialogue is spoken in English.
However, when the perspective shifts to the elderly women, their dialogue is
reduced to rat-like squeaks. This is an example of dialogue effectively
transitioning with the point of view (POV) within a scene. In Toy Story (1995),
Gary Rydstrom (sound designer) and Randy Newman (composer) contrast
diegetic sound and underscore in a street-crossing scene. The world as heard
from the perspective of the toys is primarily musical. In contrast, distance
shots of the toys are covered with hard effects and BGs. Cinema has
borrowed a technique from Opera where specific thematic music is assigned
to individual characters. This approach to scoring is referred to as Leitmotif
and is often used to establish or clarify the POV of a scene, especially where
more than one character is present. Sound designers often pitch shift or
harmonize props in an attempt to create a sonic distinction between
characters.
During the silent film era, actors were prone to exaggerated expressions or
You have to find gestures to convey the emotion of a scene. With the arrival of synchronized
some way of sound, the actor was liberated from exaggerated acting techniques. When a
saying it without
character is animated with a neutral or ambiguous expression, an opportunity
saying it.
for the soundtrack to reveal the characters’ inner thoughts or feelings is
Duke Ellington created. When a music cue is written specifically to clarify the emotion of the
scene, it is referred to as subtext scoring. Subtext scoring is more immediate
and specific than dialogue at conveying the emotion. The subtext can also be
clarified through specific design elements or BGs.
of shots. Our field of vision is limited to roughly 180°, requiring visual cuts
and camera movements to overcome this limitation. Multi-channel
soundtracks, on the other hand, are omni-directional and can be used to
extend the boundaries of a shot beyond the reach of the eye. The classic
camera shake used by Hanna-Barbera is a visual approach to storytelling
where off-screen sound is used to imply that which is not shown. This
approach serves to minimize the perceived intensity of the impacts while
avoiding costly and time-consuming animation. Multi-channel mixing has
the potential to mirror front-to-back movements while extending the depth
of a scene to include the space behind the audience. With the growing use of
stereoscopic projection, there is increased potential for multi-channel mixing
to mirror the movement of 3-dimensional images.
Tension and release is a primary force in all art forms. Film composers have
many means of creating tension, such as the shock chords (dissonant clusters
of notes) featured prominently in the early animations of Warner Brother and
MGM studios. Another approach common to this period was the
harmonization of a melody with minor 2nds. The suspension or resolution of
a tonal chord progression or the lack of predictability in atonal harmonic
motion can produce wide ranges of tension and release. A build is a cue that
combines harmonic tension and volume to create an expectation for a given
event. Some sounds have inherent qualities that generate tension or release
and are often used metaphorically. For example, air-raid sirens, crying babies,
emergency vehicles, growling animals, and snake rattles all evoke tension.
20 SOUND DESIGN THEORY
Conversely, the sound of crickets, lapping waves, and gentle rain produce a
calming effect. Either type of sound can be used directly or blended
(sweetened) with literal sounds to create a subliminal effect on the audience.
CONTINUITY
Figure 2.3 In the Film Painting Day (2003) Directed by Daesup Chang, Elements of the
Soundtrack Were Intentionally Limited to Those that Existed in the Old West
SOUND DESIGN THEORY 21
An effective soundtrack helps us identify with the characters and their story.
Animators create characters, not actors. Much of the acting occurs in the
dialogue while SFX reinforce the character’s physical traits and movements.
The score is perhaps the most direct means of infusing a character with
emotional qualities. Character development is not limited to people. In
animation, virtually any object can be personified (anthropomorphism)
through dialogue, music, and effects. Conversely, humans are often
caricatured in animation. For example, the plodding footsteps of Fred
Flintstone are often covered with a tuba or bassoon to emphasize his
oversized physique and personality.
Figure 2.4 An Acoustic Bass Covers the Individual Footsteps (Sneak Steps) in the Sandlot Fantasy Pasttime (2004) Directed
by Todd Hill
industry. World War II air-raid sirens and steam-powered trains are historical
icons that help to clarify the time period. Characters are often developed
through associated props, such as a typewriter (journalist) or a whistle blast
(traffic cop). Many sounds elicit emotional responses from an audience due to
their associative nature. Sounds have the potential of revealing or clarifying
the underlying meaning or subtext of a scene. For example, the pairing of a
gavel with a cash register (sweetening) implies that justice is for sale. Visual
similarities between two objects such as a ceiling fan and a helicopter blade
can be re-enforced by morphing their respective sounds as the images
transition, this is referred to as a form edit (Table 2.1). Sound effects are often
used to de-emphasize the intensity of the visuals, especially when used to
represent off-screen events and objects.
24 SOUND DESIGN THEORY
OVERVIEW
In the early years of film, picture editors handled many of the tasks now
In Hollywood there handled by sound editors. They intuitively understood how the picture editor
are no rules, but directed the flow of images, established a rhythm, maintained continuity, and
break them at your
own peril.
facilitated the narrative. They were also sensitive to the implications of
camera angles, camera movement, and framing. As a result, their sound edits
Peter Guber were visually informed. As sound design evolves into a more specialized field,
it is important for sound editors to maintain this perspective. This can be a
challenging proposition for when properly executed, picture editing is nearly
transparent to the audience. Sound designers and composers must develop an
awareness of visual cues and their implications for sound design. The purpose
of this section is to establish a common language for both picture and sound
editors. There is a danger when discussing this broad a topic in a shortened
format. While reading the following, be mindful that the craft and creativity
of editing cannot be reduced to a set of rigid rules. As you work on each film,
allow that film to evolve by never allowing methodology to be a substitute
for personal logic and feelings. No filmmaker ever hoped his audience would
leave the theater saying “boy that was a well-edited film.”
SHOTS
The most basic element of the film is the frame. A series of uninterrupted
frames constitute a shot or, in editor language, a clip. A sequence of related
shots are assembled to create a scene. Some shots are cut and digitally
spliced while others are given a transitional treatment such as a wipe or
dissolve. In most cases, the goal of picture and sound editing is to move from
SOUND DESIGN THEORY 25
shot to shot with the greatest transparency. Storyboards, shot lists, and
spotting sessions are all important means of communicating the vision of the
film and the nuance associated with each frame, shot, and edit.
Framing
During the storyboard stage, the animator designs a series of shots to develop
a scene. There is a multitude of approaches to individual shots and a wide
range of verbiage to describe each. One aspect of the shot is framing, which
establishes the distance of the audience from the subject. From close-up to
extreme long shot, framing has its counterpart in the foreground and
background of the soundtrack. For example, close-up shots (CU) isolate an
action or expression, eliminating peripheral distractions. Therefore the
soundtrack supports this perspective by minimizing off-screen sounds. Long
shots, on the other hand, provide a more global perspective, and are better
suited for sonic treatments of a more ambient nature. When designing sound
for animation, it is important to consider individual shots in the larger
context of a sequence. For example, in an action sequence, it is common to
frame the same subject from many different perspectives. As a result, the
movements of these objects appear to move faster or slower depending on
the framing. To promote continuity, this type of sequence is often scored at a
continuous tempo, creating a unified sense of pacing when played through
the scene.
Camera Placement
Camera placements offer a variety of ways to portray a character. The most
common camera placement is at the eye level. This placement implies a
neutral or equal relationship with the subject. When the camera angle points
up to a character, the intent often indicates a position of power. The reverse
might also be true but it is important to clarify intent before designing sound
based on camera placement alone. The over-the-shoulder shot blocks our
view of the character’s mouth, creating an opportunity to add or alter lines
of dialogue in post-production. This placement also shifts the perspective to
another character, often revealing that character’s reaction to what is
being said.
26 SOUND DESIGN THEORY
Camera Movement
Camera movements can be horizontal (pan), vertical (tilt), or move inward and
outward (zoom). Both pan and vertical shots are often motivated by the need
to reveal more information in an extended environment. Pan shots are often
underscored and/or designed with static backgrounds that provide continuity
for the camera move. Tilt and zoom shots are more common in animation as
they often promote an exaggerated feel. Isomorphic cues are commonly used
to score these types of camera movements. A pull back shot gradually moves
away from a subject to reveal a new environment. This type of shot can be
supported by morphing from one set of BGs to another or by opening up the
sound field in the mix. Though not a camera move, the shift of camera focus
from the foreground to the background, known as pulling focus, is a natural
transition within a scene. The re-recording mixer can mirror this transition by
shifting elements of the soundtrack from the sonic background to the sonic
foreground.
Movement of Objects
Fly-bys and fly-throughs refer to objects moving in relationship to a fixed
camera position to create the illusion that an object is passing left to right or
front to back. Fly-bys are re-enforced by panning sound left or right as
indicated by the on-screen movement. Fly-throughs can be realized by
panning to and from the screen channels and the surround channels as
indicated by the on-screen movement. When panning bys of either type, it is
still important to observe the line. Processing the sound object with Doppler
and/or adding whoosh effects can provide additional motion and energy to
the visual by. Doppler is the dynamic change of pitch and volume of an object
as it approaches and passes by the audience.
CUTS
A cut is the most common type of edit and consists of two shots joined
without any transitional treatment. In Walter Murch’s book In the Blink of an
Eye (2001), Murch discusses the cut as a cinematic experience unique to
visual media and dreams. As part of our “willing suspension of disbelief,”
audiences have come to accept cuts as a normal part of the film experience.
Sound editors often use the terms audio clip and audio region
interchangeably. When discussing sound edits, they refer to the beginning of
a clip as the header, the end of the clip as the tail, and a specific point within
the clip as a sync point. The point where two clips are joined is called the edit
seam (Figure 2.5).
The question of where to cut involves timing and pacing. The question of why
to cut involves form and function. When a visual edit interrupts a linear
motion such as a walk cycle, the edit jumps out at the audience. Jump cuts
present a unique challenge for the sound editor in that any attempt to hard
sync sound to the linear motion will further advertise the edit. If sound is not
required for that specific motion, it is better to leave it out altogether.
However, if sound is essential, the sound editor must find a way to cheat the
28 SOUND DESIGN THEORY
.t .. .t
TRANSITIONS
Dissolves
A visual dissolve is a gradual scene transition using overlap similar to an
audio cross-fade. Dissolves are used to indicate the passage of time or a
change in location. The sonic equivalent of a visual dissolve is an audio
cross-fade, a technique commonly used in connection to visual dissolves.
In Antz (1998), as the male character Z waits excitedly for his love interest
Princess Bala to join him on a date, the instrumentation of the underscore
gradually thinned through the many dissolves, finally ending on a solo
instrument to play his isolation and disappointment for getting stood up.
Wipes
A wipe is a transitional device that involves pushing one shot off and pulling
the next shot into place. Unlike the dissolve, there is no overlap in a wipe.
Blue Sky uses wipes cleverly in the Ice Age films, integrating seasonal objects
like leaves and snow to re-enforce the passage of time. This approach lends
itself to hard effects, BGs, and score. In the Flintstones television series, wipes
are frequently used and often scored with cues timed specifically to the
transition.
SOUND DESIGN THEORY 29
Fades
A fade uses black to transition the audience in and out of scenes. Fade-outs
indicate closure and are timed to allow the audience time to process what
has recently transpired. Closure can be supported through music cues that
harmonically resolve or cadence. In many episodes of the Flintstones, Hoyt
Curtain’s music cues would half cadence prior to the first commercial break
and fully cadence prior to the second commercial break indicating the
resolution of the first act. Fade-ins invite the audience into a new scene.
BGs, underscore, and dialogue are often introduced off-screen as the film
fades in from black. The mixer typically smoothes fade transitions by
gradually increasing or decreasing levels in the soundtrack.
Sound Transitions
Not all sound edits are motivated by the literal interpretation of picture edits.
As discussed earlier, pre- and post-lap techniques are useful transitional
devices. Pre-lapping sound or score to a subsequent scene can be an effective
smoothing element when moving between shots, whereas a hard cut of a SFX
or BG can advertise the transition and quickly place the audience in a new
space. Post-laps allow the audience to continue processing the narrative
content or emotion of the preceding scene. In many cases, audio simply
overlaps from cut to cut. This technique is used for dialogue, SFX, and source
music. A ring-out on a line of dialogue, music cue, or SFX can be a very subtle
way to overlap visual edits. Ring-outs are created by adding reverb at the end
of an audio clip, causing the sound to sustain well after the clip has played.
This editing technique will be covered more extensively in Chapter 6.
Dialogue is sometimes used to bridge edits. For example, in Finding Nemo
(2003), the backstory is delivered through a series of characters handing off
the dialogue in mid sentence from cut to cut. With each of these transitional
treatments, there are no hard fast rules as to guide the editor. This is why
editing is both an art and a craft.
SCENES
Parallel Edit
Parallel editing or cross cutting is designed to present two separate but
related characters or actions through a series of alternating shots. This
editing approach often implies that the actions are occurring simultaneously.
30 SOUND DESIGN THEORY
Though the audience is made aware of this relationship, the characters are
often unaware; this is an important design consideration. When a music cue
plays through the scene, it typically indicates that characters on both sides of
the edit are aware of each other and the presenting conflict. If the sound
design and score are made to contrast with each cut, this typically indicates
that the characters are unaware of their shared experience.
Montage Sequence
A montage sequence consists of rapid visual edits designed to compress the
narrative. Montage sequences typically feature songs or thematic score with
little or no dialogue or SFX. The songs used in montage sequences often
contain lyrics that relate to the narrative (narrative lyrics). Songs or thematic
score contain melodic lines that create linear motion across the non-linear
video edits. In a scene from Bee Movie (2007), Barry B Benson falls asleep in
the pool of honey. During the dream sequence that follows, Barry’s
relationship with love interest Vanessa Bloome develops through montage
and is scored with the song “Sugar Sugar,” a clever play on words.
CONCLUSION
If something works
when it “shouldn’t” The term sound design implies the thought process that begins at the
that’s when we storyboarding stage and continues through the final mix. It is an inclusive
have to pay approach to soundtrack development that facilitates both technical and
attention and try creative uses. In film, sound and image are symbiotic. Consequently, sound
to figure out why.
designers and composers must integrate visual thought into their creative
And that’s when
real learning about process as animators must integrate aural thought into theirs. The ability to
editing results. design and execute a film from this mutual perspective will be seen, heard,
and, most importantly, felt by the audience.
B.J. Sears
CHAPTER 3
DIALOGUE
OVERVIEW
NARRATION
Narration differs from principal dialogue in that the speaker is unseen and
Look, up in the sky, cannot be revealed through changes in camera angles. Many animations
it’s a bird; it’s a develop a storybook quality for their projects through the use of narration.
plane, it’s
Narration is an effective means of introducing the story (prologue),
Superman.
providing back-story, and providing closure (epilogue). The use of narration
Jackson Beck as an extension of the on-screen character’s thoughts is referred to as first
person. This technique is used effectively in Hoodwinked! (2005) to support
the Rashomon style of re-telling the plot from multiple perspectives. The
third-person narration is told from an observer’s perspective. Boris Karloff
exemplifies this approach in the 1966 version of How The Grinch Stole
Christmas. When used effectively, audiences will identify with the
narrator and feel invited to participate in the story. Even though narration
is non-sync, it is still recorded prior to animating and used to establish the
timings.
group ADR is intelligible, Walla is non-descript. Walla is often cut from SFX
libraries or recorded in realistic environments with actual crowds. It can
effectively establish the size and attitude of a crowd. Due to its non-descript
nature, Walla is included in the FX stem.
The script begins to take shape at the storyboard stage where individual lines
are incorporated into specific shots. Once the storyboards are sufficiently
developed, an animatic (story reel) and recording script are created. At this
early stage, scratch dialogue is recorded and cut to the animatic to test each
shot. Oftentimes it is fellow animators or amateur voice actors who perform
these recordings. In some workflows, professional voice actors are brought in
at the onset and allowed to improvise off the basic script. With this
approach, it is hoped that each read will be slightly different, providing the
director with additional choices in the editing room. Once a shot is approved
and the accompanying script is refined, the final dialogue is recorded and
edited in preparation for lip sync animation.
CARICATURE
To do is to be.
Voice actors are often asked to step outside their natural voices to create a
Socrates caricature. Mimicry, sweeteners, and regional accents are important tools for
developing caricature. Animal speak such as the dog-like vocalizations of
Scooby Doo or the whale-like speech in Finding Nemo are but a few examples
To be is to do. of this unique approach to dialogue. In Stuart Little (1999), cat hisses are
Jean-Paul Sartre added (sweetened) to Nathan Lane’s dialogue to enhance the character of
Snowbell, the family cat. In Aladdin (1992), Robin Williams’ voice morphs
from a genie into a sheep while vocalizing the phrase “you baaaaaaaad boy.”
Do be do be do. Regional accents are often used to develop the ethnicity of a character. In
Lady and the Tramp (1955), the Scottish terrier, the English bulldog, and the
Frank Sinatra
Siamese cats are all voiced with accents representative of their namesake.
Caricature can add a great deal of depth to a character if used respectfully.
It can also create a timbral separation between characters that help make
Scoobie Doobie them more readily identifiable in a complex scene.
Doo.
Don Messick
RECORDING DIALOGUE
Figure 3.3
Character Displays his
Flip Book Idea in the
Film The Machine
(2003) Directed by
Jason Davies
Figure 3.4 Concept Art from the Film Trip to Granny’s (2001) Directed by Aaron Conover
40 DIALOGUE
important to select video monitors and computers that are relatively quiet.
Whenever possible, they should be isolated from the microphone or positioned
at a distance that minimizes leakage. If the room is reverberant, sound
blankets can be hung to provide additional dampening and sound isolation.
MICROPHONES
Microphones are the sonic equivalent of a camera, capturing varied degrees
of angle (polarity) and focus (frequency and transient response). Most
dialogue mixers prefer large diaphragm condenser microphones as they
capture the widest frequency range with the greatest dynamic accuracy. The
Neumann U-87 microphone is a popular yet pricey choice (Figure 3.5). There
are many condenser microphones that meet high professional standards yet
are priced to suit smaller budget productions.
The polar pattern of a microphone is analogous to the type of lens used on a
camera (Figure 3.6). However, unlike a camera lens, microphones pick up
sound from all directions to some degree. The omni-directional pattern picks
up sound uniformly from all directions. Consequently, this pattern produces
the most natural sound when used in close proximity to the voice talent.
Some microphones are designed with switchable patterns allowing for
experimentation. Regardless of the pattern selected, it is wise to be
Cardioid
A.
A. On-Axis
Full Frequency
Super Cardioid Full Amplitude
Direct Sound
On-Axis
B..
Bi-Directional B. 90 º Off -Axis
Less High Frequency
Approx -6 db
90º Reverberant Sound
time
180º Off-Axis
Omni-Directional
C.
C. 180º Off-Axis
Even less High Frequency
Approx -18db
Very Reverberant Sound
time
Figure 3.6 The Sound Characteristics Associated with Various Types of Polar Patterns
consistent with that choice from session to session. Whether the dialogue
is intended as scratch or if it will be used in the final soundtrack, avoid using
microphones that are built in to a computer.
RECORDING SET-UP
rustling sounds. Avoid placing the microphone between the actor and other
reflective surface such as computer screens, video monitors, or windows.
Improper microphone placement can produce a hollow sounding distortion of
the voice known as comb filtering. A pop-filter is often inserted between the
talent and the microphone to reduce the plosives that occur with words
starting with the letters P, B, or T. Headphones are usually required when
shooting (recording) ADR with three preparatory beeps; many actors like to
keep one ear free so they can hear their voice naturally. In some workflows,
multiple characters are recorded simultaneously to capture timings of lines
interacting and to allow the actors to react to other performers. With this
approach, it is still advisable to mike up each character for greater separation
and control in postproduction.
CUEING A SESSION
Some directors prefer to keep individual takes intact rather than creating a
composite performance. This approach preserves the natural rhythm of each
line while also reducing editorial time. In the second approach, multiple
takes are play-listed and portions of any given take are rated and promoted
to a composite playlist. When compositing dialogue, the most transparent
place to cut is during the spaces between words. With this type of edit, the
main concerns are matching the level from take-to-take and developing a
rhythm that feels natural. If an edit must be made within a word, cutting
on the consonants is the most likely edit to preserve transparency.
Consonants create short visible waveforms with little or no pitch
variations and are easily edited. It is very difficult to match a cut
occurring during a vowel sound due to the unpredictable pitch variations
that occur from take-to-take. Regardless of the approach used, once the
DIALOGUE 43
and listen for these stress points, marking specific frames where lip sync
needs to hit. At the most basic level, consonants like M, P, and B are
represented with a closed mouth position. Vowels are animated with an open
mouth position. Traditional animators use exposure sheets or applications like
Flipbook to mark specific frames for mouth positions.
In 3D animation, the animator imports the dialogue audio files into the
animation software, key framing the timeline at points where lip sync needs
to hit. Many animators begin lip sync by animating body gestures and facial
expressions that help the audience read the dialogue. They view these
gestures and facial expressions as an integral part of the dialogue. When
effectively executed, this approach leads the audience to perceive tight sync
regardless of the literal placement.
ADR
Once the lip sync animation is completed, any changes to the existing
dialogue must be recorded in sync to picture in a process known as ADR or
replacement dialogue. When recording replacement dialogue, the editor cues
each line to a specific time code location within the character’s respective
track. Three preparatory beeps are placed in front of the cue at one-second
intervals to guide the voice actor’s entrance. Alternatively, streamers and
punches are overlaid on the video to provide a visual preparation for an
entrance. Some DAWs provide a memory location feature useful for cueing
ADR digitally (Figure 3.8). With this feature, the location of individual cues
can be stored in advance and quickly recalled at the session.
44 DIALOGUE
Whether recorded as scratch, final dialogue, or ADR, there are many objective
criteria for evaluating recorded dialogue. It is the responsibility of the
dialogue mixer to ensure that the dialogue is recorded at the highest possible
standards. The following is a list of common issues associated with recorded
dialogue.
■ Sibilance — Words that begin with s, z, ch, ph, sh, and th all produce a
hissing sound that, if emphasized, can detract from a reading.
Experienced voice talents are quick to move off of these sounds to
minimize sibilance. For example, instead of saying “sssssnake” they
would say “snaaaake” maintaining the length while minimizing the
46 DIALOGUE
DIALOGUE EDITING
You want to create
the illusion of tight The dialogue editor is responsible for cleaning tracks, compositing takes,
sync without tightening sync, and preparing tracks for delivery to the mix stage. Even
losing the feel. when recorded in studio conditions, dialogue tracks often contain
David Stone environmental noise, rustling of paper, cloth sounds, headphone bleed, and
extraneous comments from the voice actor. The dialogue editor removes
these unwanted sounds using a variety of editing and signal processing
techniques. Dialogue editors are also responsible for tightening the sync for
ADR and foreign dubs. Even the most experienced voice actors have difficulty
matching the exact rhythm of the original dialogue. Dialogue editors resolve
sync issues using editing techniques and time compression/expansion (TC/E)
software. Most DAWs come with TC/E plug-ins to facilitate manual sync
adjustments. However, specialized plug-ins such as Vocalign were developed
specifically for tightening lip sync. Vocalign maps the transients of the
original dialogue and applies discrete time compression/expansion to the
replacement dialogue. For foreign dubs, Vocalign has a sync point feature
that allows the user to align specific words from both takes (Figure 3.10).
Once the editing and signal processing is completed, the dialogue editor
consolidates and organizes the tracks in a manner that is most facilitative for
the mixing process.
DESIGNED LANGUAGES
Some animations call for a designed or simulated language, such as the alien
language of the Drej in Titan A.E. (2000). Simulated dialogue establishes
plausible communication in the context of a fantasy. One common approach
is to reverse an existing line of dialogue (Figure 3.11). The resultant line
contains a logical structure but lacks intelligibility.
DIALOGUE 49
Figure 3.10 Vocalign Is Applied to a Foreign Dub Using the Sync Point Feature to Aligned Specific Words
Reversed
MUSIC
OVERVIEW
UNDERSCORE
During the golden age of animation, underscore was anything but subtle.
Most of the action on and off-screen was covered by musical cues that were
often indistinguishable from the SFX stem. Composers of this era pioneered
54 MUSIC
Streamers PUNCH
Figure 4.2 White Vertical Lines Stream across the Frames toward the Circular Punch where the Score Will Hit with the
Action
SOURCE MUSIC
Source music is the diegetic use of songs to contribute to the implied reality
of the scene. To maintain this realistic feel, source music is often introduced
“in progress,” as if the audience were randomly tuning in. Songs are
commonly used as source material, effectively establishing time period,
developing characters, or acting as a cultural signifier. Source music also
supports time-lapse sequences by changing literally with each shot. Source
music can be either on-screen (emitting from a radio or phonograph) or off-
screen (such as elevator music or a public address system). The songs used in
source music are almost always selected for their lyric connection to the
narrative. Source music is processed or futzed to match the sonic
characteristics of implied sound source. Like hard effects, source music is
treated like a SFX and panned literally to the on-screen position. Cues often
MUSIC 55
SONGS
During the golden age of animation, familiar songs were routinely quoted
instrumentally, and the implied lyrics were integral to the sight gags. Original Story is the most
important thing . . .
songs such as “Some Day My Prince Will Come” from Snow White (1934)
not the song as a
blended narrative lyrics with score to create a musical monologue. Walt Disney song, but the song
Studios was largely responsible for the animated musical, developing fairy tale as development.
stories around a series of songs performed by the characters. These songs are
Richard Sherman
pre-scored, providing essential timings for character movements and lip sync.
In animated musicals, it is not uncommon for a character’s speaking voice to
be covered by a voice actor while the singing voice is performed by a trained
vocalist. Great care is taken to match the speaking voice with the singing
voice. An effective example of this casting approach can be heard in
Anastasia, where Meg Ryan’s speaking voice flawlessly transitions to Liz
Callaway’s vocals. A more recent trend in animation is the use of pre-existing
songs as the basis for the score. This is known as a song score; examples of
this approach include Shrek (2001), Lilo and Stitch (2002), and Chicken Little
(2005). It is sometimes desirable to create a new arrangement of an existing
tune as a means of updating the style or customizing the lyrics. An example of
this occurs in Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius (2001) in a montage sequence where
Thomas Dolby’s “She Blinded Me with Science” is covered by Melissa Lefton
singing “He Blinded Me with Science” to reflect the POV of Cindy Vortex
(Jimmy’s female adversary/love interest). Songs continue to play an important
roll in short form independent animation, especially if the film does not
incorporate dialogue. However, there are potential risks associated with the
use of songs in animation. Songs can give a film a dated feel over time, which
is why the accompaniments of songs in animated musicals are primarily
orchestral. They also introduce the potential for copyright infringement, an
issue that will be addressed later in this chapter.
TEMP MUSIC
Temp music is perhaps the most effective vehicle for communicating the type
of score required for a specific film. As the name implies, a temp (temporary)
track is not intended for inclusion in the final soundtrack. Temp tracks are
edited from pre-existing music to guide the picture editing process, facilitate
test screenings, and provide a musical reference for the composer. The
responsibility of creating a temp track often falls on a picture or sound editor.
Editors select music that matches the style and dramatic needs as
MUSIC 57
Music Editor:
Film composers must be able to write in all styles and for a wide range of
instruments. Chord progressions, rhythmic patterns, and instrumentation are
My job is to make elements that can be emulated to capture the essence of the temp track.
every moment of They are often used to provide the foundation for an original theme resulting
the film and every
in a similar, yet legal cue. Today, most films are scored to digital video using
frame of the film
come to life. extensive sample libraries that emulate a wide range of instrumentation.
Much of the writing occurs in a project studio utilizing MIDI technologies,
John Debney
recording, and editing capabilities to fully produce each cue. The composer
does not work directly with the animator when writing individual cues.
Instead, they meet periodically to audition and approve individual cues.
Composers use the feedback gained from these sessions to hone in on the
musical direction for individual cues. It is important to note that additional
picture edits occurring after this point can result in significant qualitative,
budget, and scheduling implications. Most scores are created as works for
hire, requiring the composer to surrender publishing rights to the production
company. Creative fees are negotiated based on experience and the amount
of music required. Smaller budget projects often require the composer to
handle all tasks associated with producing the score. This type of contract is
referred to as a package deal, and includes: orchestration, part writing,
contracting musicians, recording, conducting, and music editing.
PRODUCTION LIBRARIES
Hoyt Curtain (composer for Hanna-Barbera) developed a distinctive in-house
music library for shows such as The Flintstones and The Jetsons. The cues
contained in this library were re-used in subsequent seasons as well as other
series. This provided Hanna-Barbera with a low cost music approach to
scoring that also contributed to the continuity while promoting their brand.
Commercially available production libraries have been developed for similar
purpose. The days of “canned music” have long since passed and modern
production libraries are providing a high quality, low cost, and expedient
means of developing specialized cues or an entire score. The music tracks
Figure 4.4 Production Music Library from DeWolfe, available on disks or hard drive.
60 MUSIC
SEARCHING A LIBRARY
As with all scores, the process begins with a spotting session to determine where
cues are needed and the nature of individual cues. This information guides the
music editor in searching production libraries for musical selections that might
potentially become music cues. Commercial production libraries can be rather
expansive, containing thousands of hours of music. Most production companies
have online search engines to assist the music
editor in a search. Categories, keywords, and
musical styles are the most common type of
search modes (Figure 4.5). Categories are
broad and include headings such as
Instrumentation, Film Styles, National/Ethnic,
and Sports. Keyword searches match words
found in titles and individual cue descriptions.
Emotional terms prove to be most effective
when searching with keywords. Musical styles
are also common to production library search
engines. Many musical styles are
straightforward but others are more difficult
to distinguish. This is particularly true of
contemporary styles such as rock, pop, and
hip-hop. If you are unfamiliar with a
Figure 4.5 APM and DeWolfe particular style, find someone who is and get
Search Categories them to validate the style.
MUSIC 61
MANAGING A PROJECT
Figure 4.7 Playlists Containing Three Potential Music Cues for “Flight Lessons” Directed by Neil Helm (2010). These Cues
Were Downloaded in Full Resolution from the APM Library
62 MUSIC
DEVELOPING CUES
A skilled music editor can edit cues to create the illusion that the music
was scored for a particular scene. They do this by matching the emotional
quality of a scene, conforming cues to picture, and developing sync
points. Oftentimes, it is the editing that “sells” a particular music
selection. Once the cues are developed, the director is brought in to
audition and approve the cue. Many of the techniques used by the music
editors are also used by dialogue and SFX editors and will be discussed in
greater length in Chapter 8.
LICENSING CUES
Once the final placement of the music is determined and the director
approves the cue, the music editor or supervisor completes the process by
obtaining the necessary licensing. Most production music companies have
online quote request forms to assist the music supervisor in defining the
nature of the use (Figure 4.8). It is important to accurately define the extent
to which the cue will be used, as this will influence the licensing fee.
Licensing parameters can always be expanded at a later time at an additional
cost. Once licensing fees are determined, an invoice is issued to the music
editor or production company. This invoice constitutes the formal agreement
that becomes binding when payment is received.
OVERVIEW
fees, and establish terms for any music synced to picture. A publisher often
controls the synchronization rights and the record companies typically hold
the master rights.
PUBLIC DOMAIN
Works that are public domain can be used freely in an animation. Any music
written before January 1, 1923 is public domain. Works written after that
date can enter public domain if the term of the copyright expires. Use of the
copyright notice (©) became optional on March 1, 1989. It is up to the music
supervisor to ensure that a given selection is in fact public domain. One way
to establish public domain is to search the selection at www.copyright.gov.
Once material is in the public domain, exclusive rights to the work cannot be
secured. It is important to differentiate public domain from master rights.
Although the music contained on a recording might be public domain, the
master rights for the actual recording is usually copy protected.
MUSIC 65
FAIR USE
PARODY
Parody is an art form that can only exist by using work that is already
familiar to the target audience; therefore, provisions had to be made in the
Copyright Act for parody or this form of expression would cease to exist.
Parody involves the imitation of a recognizable copy-protected work to create
a commentary on that work. The commentary does not have to serve
academic purposes; it can be for entertainment value. However, both the
66 MUSIC
MUSIC SUPERVISION
Figure 4.9 A Search for the Rolling Stones Title “I Can’t Get No Satisfaction” Using the BMI
Search Engine
In 1928, Walt Disney released his first sound animation, Steamboat Willie, an
animated short driven primarily by score. Within a decade, Carl Stalling and
Scott Bradley established a unique style of cartoon music through their
68 MUSIC
The soundtrack budget is typically less than 10% of the entire budget. Some license administrators will ask you to
state the budget for the project.
Term:
The period of time for which the license applies, such as 1 year (as in the case of student films) or for the life of
the copyright (as in the case of a commercial release).
Territory:
Clearly define where the animation will be exhibited such as locally, regionally, nationally, or internationally.
Synopsis:
Provide a brief summary of the story and discuss how the song contributes to the story.
Contact information:
Phone
Fax
E-mail
Figure 4.10 This Form Contains Most of the Information Fields Required when Making a Licensing Request for
Synchronization, Master, and Videogram Licensing
MUSIC 69
respective work with Warner Brothers and MGM. This music featured harsh
dissonance, rapid changes in tempo, exaggerated performance techniques,
and quotations from popular tunes. Stalling and Bradley both had a
propensity for hitting the action with music, an approach that would become
known as Mickey Mousing. Though Raymond Scott never scored an
animation, his music, especially “Powerhouse,” had a profound influence on
this musical style and can be heard in many of Carl Stallings scores. Many of
the early animations featured wall-to-wall (nonstop) music that functioned
as both underscore and SFX. Not all animation of the Golden Age featured
this approach to scoring. The early Fleisher animations were dialogue driven
and contained fewer sight gags. These animations were scored using a more
thematic approach associated with live-action films. Winston Sharples and
Sammy Timberg composed or supervised many of these scores for films like
Popeye and Superman.
The arrival of television in the late 1940s signaled the end of the Golden Age
of animation. As animation migrated to television, decreased budgets and
compressed timelines gave rise to a new approach to scoring. Hanna-Barbera
emerged as the primary animation studio for this emerging medium. They
employed Hoyt Curtain to create the musical style for their episodic
animations. As a jingle writer, Curtain had a talent for writing melodic
themes with a strong hook. He applied this talent to create some of the most
memorable title themes, including The Flintstones, Johnny Quest, and The
Jetsons. He also created in-house music libraries used consistently from
episode to episode. These libraries accelerated production time, cut costs, and
gave the studio a signature sound.
In 1989, Disney released The Little Mermaid, which featured an original song
score by composer Alan Menkin and lyricist Tim Rice. In that same year, Alan
Silvestri composed the score for Who Framed Roger Rabbit? Both films were
financially successful and renewed studio interest in feature-length
animation. In 1995, Pixar released their first feature animation Toy Story,
scored by Randy Newman. By the mid-1990s, Alf Clausen had established
parody scoring as a familiar element of The Simpsons. Clausen’s skill at
70 MUSIC
parody is well represented in the episode entitled “Two Dozen and One
Greyhounds,” which features the song “See My Vest,” a parody of Disney’s
“Be Our Guest.” Feature animation continues to emphasize scoring, attracting
A-list composers, editors, and supervisors.
CHAPTER 5
OVERVIEW
Design
Elements
72 SOUND EFFECTS (SFX)
right under our noses. When Hanna and Barbera left MGM, they brought a
large portion of the SFX library used for Tom and Jerry with them. With the
help of Pat Foley and Greg Watson, Hanna and Barbera developed one of the
most iconic SFX libraries in the history of animation. Contemporary sound
designers such as Gary Rydstrom, Randy Thom, Ben Burtt, and Dane Davis
continue the strong tradition established by these innovators.
The SFX stem is divided into several layers including hard effects, Foley,
The challenging backgrounds (BGs), Walla, and Design Elements. Together, these layers are
thing about the
responsible for the majority of the tracks comprising a soundtrack. Hard
animated film is
that you have to effects and Foley cover much of the basic sounds and movements in the
entirely invent the soundtrack. Hard effects differ from Foley in that they are cut or edited
world. rather than performed. Foley is such an important element in animation that
it will be discussed in a separate chapter. Until recently, backgrounds (BGs)
Randy Thom
were rarely used in animation and underscore often provided the
environmental background. Today, BGs are a common element in the
soundtrack, providing the sonic backdrop for the animated world. In the
opening sequence of Disney’s Dinosaur (2000), notice the many different BGs
represented as the Iguanodon egg travels through the multitude of
environments. In Pixar’s Toy Story, the backgrounds heard outside Andy’s
window support his warm and playful nature. In contrast, the backgrounds
accompanying Sid accentuate his sadistic and edgy qualities. Walla, though
built on non-descript dialogue, functions in a similar fashion to backgrounds
and is included in the SFX stem. As the name implies, design elements are
created by layering sounds to cover sonically complex objects critical to the
narrative.
Animation differs from live action in that sound editorial need not wait for
picture lock to begin soundtrack development. Temp FX, scratch dialogue, and
temp music are useful when developing shots and scenes with an animatic.
They help establish timings, mood, and environments, while providing
important story points that may not be visually represented. Temp effects
provide additional feedback for motion tests such as walk cycles and
accelerating objects. As the animation process nears completion, the film is
SOUND EFFECTS (SFX) 73
screened (spotting session) with the director, the supervising sound editor,
and lead sound editors to finalize SFX and dialogue for the film. Since the
soundtrack for an animation is entirely constructed, every sound is deliberate.
Important considerations for the inclusion of sound are:
■ Is the sound object important to the narrative or is it ambient?
■ Is the sound object intended to support realism or fantasy?
■ What are the physical characteristics of the sound object?
■ How does the sound object move or interact in the environment?
■ Are there any existing models to base the design on?
SOUND EDITORS
Sound editors cut or edit elements (SFX) and dialogue to picture. They are
responsible for insuring that audio properly syncs to image and conforms in If I find a sound
length. Sound editors are also responsible for cleaning up the tracks and isn’t working
within a scene, I’ll
re-conforming the soundtrack when additional picture edits are made. There
abandon the
are two basic workflows for sound editing. The first involves assigning science and go
individual reels to editors who are responsible for all of the elements within with what works
that reel. In the second workflow, editors are given responsibility for specific emotionally.
elements across multiple reels. The first approach is useful when schedules Ben Burtt
are compressed; the second approach facilitates continuity from reel-to-reel.
The lead or Supervising SFX, Dialog, and Foley editors are also asked to cue
sessions for ADR and Foley as well as preparing the tracks for the mix stage.
74 SOUND EFFECTS (SFX)
Many of the sounds that editors cut to picture are pulled from commercial
SFX libraries (Figure 5.2). These libraries are expedient and cost effective,
containing hard-to-obtain sounds such as military equipment, dangerous
animals, and historical props. As such, they are a practical reality in modern
media production. Database software has been developed for the specific
purpose of managing these extensive libraries. They contain search engines
that recognize the unique metadata associated with sound effects. In
addition, they allow the sound editor to preview individual sounds and
transfer them to media editing software. Numerous delivery formats are in
use for commercial sound effects, including CDs, preloaded hard drives,
and on-line delivery. Hollywood Edge, Sound Ideas, and SoundStorm are
three popular SFX libraries that deliver in CD and hard drive formats.
Individual SFX can also be purchased online at www.sounddogs.com and
www.audiolicense.net.
Figure 5.2 Commercial SFX Libraries Are a Practical Reality in Media Production
SOUND EFFECTS (SFX) 75
All of the major commercial libraries are licensed as buyouts, meaning the
SFX can be used on any media project at no additional cost. There are many
sites on the Internet offering free SFX downloads: many of these sites contain
highly compressed files taken from copy-protected libraries. Therefore to get
the best quality and to protect the project from infringement, additional care
should be taken when using files obtained in this manner.
In the early years, individual sound effects were stored on film and cataloged
using note cards. Today, we can store thousands of hours of SFX on a single
drive and access them using customized database software. To effectively
search a SFX library, the sound editor must acquire a very specialized
vocabulary and some basic search techniques (Figure 5.4).
Most search engines use Boolean logic which utilizes three basic qualifiers to
narrow a search; and, or, and not. To narrow a search and to make the search
results dependent on the presence of multiple keywords, use AND in
conjunction with keywords (e.g., gLASS AND BREAKING). To expand a search
utilizing independent keywords, use OR in conjunction with keywords (e.g.,
GLASS OR BREAKING). To narrow a search and exclude specific keywords, use
NOT in conjunction with keywords (e.g., NOT BREAKING). Parentheses allow
users to combine AND, OR, and NOT in the search; for example, GLASS AND
(PLATE NOT EYE) will produce a more refined result. Placing quotations on a
group of terms focuses the search to specific phrases that contain all
Commercial libraries are cost effective and convenient, but they also have
their limitations. Many effects are derived from low-resolution audio sources
such as archival film stock and aged magnetic tape. As commercial libraries,
they are non-exclusive and can be heard on a multitude of projects. In
addition, some library effects (such as those of Hanna-Barbera) are icons for
well-known projects, therefore users run the risk of attaching unwanted
associations to new projects. For these reasons, many SFX editors prefer to
record original sound effects uniquely suited to a specific project. Sound
SOUND EFFECTS (SFX) 77
FIELD RECORDERS
Figure 5.6 The H4n Zoom and Sound Device Hard Disc Recorders Used in Field SFX Acquisition
FIELD MICROPHONES
FIELD ACCESSORIES
When field recording, it is wise to remember that you only have what you
bring with you in your kit, so plan carefully. The following is a list of
accessories that are useful for the many situations that can arise in the field.
a. Microphone cables come in a variety of lengths. It is a good practice to
include cables of varied lengths in your field kit. A three-foot cable is
useful for hand-held microphones, while longer cables are needed for
boom pole work and multiple microphone placements from varied
distances.
b. Field recording without headphones is like taking a photograph with
your eyes closed. Headphones reveal sound issues such as handling noise,
wind noise, and microphone overloading that are not indicated on the
input meters. Headphones also bring to the foreground sounds to which
our ears have become desensitized, such as breathing, cloth movements,
and footsteps. Headphones should sufficiently cover the ears and have a
good frequency response. The earbuds used for portable music devices
are not sufficient for this purpose. The windscreens that come with most
microphones provide limited protection from the low frequency noise
caused by wind.
c. The wind sock is effective at reducing wind distortion with minimum
impact on frequency response (Figure 5.7). Wind socks are essential for
outdoor recording, even when conditions are relatively calm.
d. There are many uses for a boom pole outside of its traditional role in live-
action production audio (Figure 5.8). Boom poles are thin and lightweight
and can be varied in length to overcome physical barriers that effect
80 SOUND EFFECTS (SFX)
Objectivity
Often when we go into the field to record, we listen so intently for the
sound that we are trying to capture that we fail to notice other sounds
that if recorded, may render the take unusable. Our ability to filter out
certain sounds while focusing on others is known as the cocktail effect.
It is important for the field recordists to remain objective at all times and
to record additional safety takes to guard against this perceptual
phenomenon.
Signal-To-Noise Ratio
The world is filled with extraneous sounds that make it increasingly
challenging to capture clean recordings. The balance between the
wanted sound (signal) and the unwanted sound (noise) is referred to as
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio). Selecting remote locations or recording
during quiet hours can minimize these issues.
Dynamic Range
Field effects recordists should be familiar with the dynamic range (volume
limitations) of their equipment and the volume potential of the signals being
recorded. Distortion results when the presenting signal overloads the capacity
of either the microphone or recorder. In digital audio, distortion is not a gradual
SOUND EFFECTS (SFX) 83
DARKER
and less ARTICULATE
.........
BRIGHTER
and more ATTACK
DARKER
and less ARTICULATE
FILE MANAGEMENT
Sound objects that are complex or subjective in nature often require more
creative approaches to their design. The job of creating design elements is
assigned to highly experienced sound editors, known as sound designers.
Sound designers use techniques that transcend editing and include sampling,
MIDI, synthesis, and signal processing. Examples of design elements include
fictitious weaponry, futuristic vehicles, or characters that are either imagined
The trick is to make or have ceased to exist. Design elements are typically built-up or layered
the sounds useful from a variety of individual elements. It is important to develop an
to the scene, but
not make them so
understanding of how characters or objects interact in the environment, what
attention getting they are made of, and their role in the narrative. When creating a design
that they snap you element, it is also important to deconstruct the sound object to identify all
out of the movie. related sounds associated with the object or event; for example, a customized
Randy Thom
gun sound might be derived from any or all of the key elements shown in
Table 5.1
SOUND EFFECTS (SFX) 85
Figure 5.12
ADSR
The sound envelope (ADSR) can be a useful tool for organizing the individual
layers that comprise a design element (Figure 5.12). Once each element is
identified, sounds can be pulled from a library and combined through editing.
keyboard (Figure 5.14). Once the individual elements for the object are
identified and pulled from a library, they are assigned to specific keys on a
MIDI controller. Multiple samples can be assigned to a single key and
triggered discretely based with varied key velocities. Sounds mapped to a
specific key will play back at the original pitch and speed. However, they can
also be assigned to multiple keys to facilitate pitch and speed variations.
Various components of the design element can be strategically grouped on
the keyboard, allowing the sound designer to layer a variety of sounds
simultaneously. For this approach, systematic file labeling is required to
insure the proper key and velocity mapping. For example C#3_Glassshards_03
indicates that the glass shard will be assigned to C#3 on the keyboard and be
triggered at the 3rd highest velocity setting. Once a patch is created,
individual elements can be performed to image, creating with a multitude of
variations in an efficient and organic manner.
Figure 5.13 The Magnetic Giant from the Film Cueb (2010) Shooting Fragments of Its Body at the Space Traveler. The
Sounds Used to Represent the Creature’s Movements Were Performed using a Sampler Triggered by a Keyboard
SOUND EFFECTS (SFX) 87
Figure 5.14 Individual Samples Are Loaded into a Sampler and Performed to Picture Using a Standard MIDI Keyboard
CHAPTER 6
FOLEY
OVERVIEW
Those familiar with the polished look of commercial recording facilities might
be taken back by the appearance of a Foley stage (Figure 6.1). The towering
collection of props gives the appearance of an un-kept garage rather than a
high-end production facility. A functioning Foley stage can be constructed
with modest means. Many Foley stages are designed with a live room for the
Foley artist and a control room for the Foley mixer. Both rooms are treated
acoustically to minimize reverberation. To minimize unwanted noise,
computers, projectors, and other competing sounds are placed in an isolated
machine room. Vaulted ceilings accommodate projection/video screens and
oversized props. Foley pits can be built on top of existing flooring or sunken
into the flooring (Figure 6.2). Prop storage with adequate shelving is in
90 FOLEY
Figure 6.1 Foley Stage at Sound One, New York. Photo Courtesy: Sound One/CSS Studios, LLC
constant demand. At the heart of the control room is the DAW (digital audio
workstation), the audio interface, and a basic mixing console. As Foley is
recorded on relatively few tracks at any given time, there is no need for the
large consoles associated with film mixing or scoring sessions. A limited
number of high quality microphones and pre-amps are sufficient and can
serve equally well for Voiceover and ADR. The audio software used in Foley
must support video playback and basic cueing functions. A small pair of
speakers can provide an adequate level of talkback to facilitate the session.
Always place your best speakers in the control room so the mixer can hear
potential issues with individual takes.
FOLEY 91
SPOTTING FOLEY
If it’s asteroids
As with music cues, Foley is recorded in post-production. When spotting a film exploding and
for SFX, the question often arises as to whether to record Foley or cut the rocket ships flying
effect. The decision to Foley often comes down to the need for a performance by, that wouldn’t
in sync to picture. Foley is the logical choice for effects that are either too be us. We carry the
reels that have a
complex or too specific to be cut from a library. The performance element of
lot of people that
this technique yields organic timings and interactions that are impractical are moving, and
with most editing techniques and production schedules. In some cases, cut walking, and doing
effects and Foley effects are combined or “married.” For example, the sound of stuff.
a gun firing is a cut effect while the handling of the gun, shells dropping to
Dennie Thorpe
the ground, and flesh impacts are Foley effects. A supervising Foley editor can
readily identify which cues require Foley and cue the session appropriately.
Foley artists are physical actors who possess a strong sense of timing and a
keen understanding of dramatic nuance. Dancers and musicians tend to excel
in this field as they can break a scene down into rhythmic subdivisions and
match their performance to these complex patterns. Foley artists often
92 FOLEY
FOOTSTEPS
Footsteps, human or otherwise, are Foley effects, performed by the artist’s feet
or hands. In traditional animation, footsteps were often covered by music cues
Once we get in our or sound making devices creating the classic sneak step. In contemporary
shoe, we’re kinda animation, footsteps are being represented with greater realism. For example,
in that character.
the sound of a tiny mouse nervously scurrying across the kitchen floor is
Zane D. Bruce performed by the Foley artist patting individual footsteps with their hands.
(Men in Black) Then, as the giant man enters the room, the Foley artist straps on an oversized
pair of boots and stomps about on a representative Foley pit. When a Foley
artist walks a character, we are often able to determine the size, age, gender,
and emotional state of that character without ever seeing the image. This
dimension of character development is at the core of why we record Foley.
PROPS
Foley artists are as creative at selecting props as they are performing them.
They spend countless hours auditioning shoes, props, and cloth to develop
their personalized repertoire. When they select the “perfect” prop to support
a character’s movement, there is a sonic gestalt created which makes the
prop inseparable from the action. Props are to the Foley artist what a SFX
Figure 6.3 Foley Footsteps from the Film Cueb (2010) Directed by Alex Knoll
FOLEY 93
library is to the sound editor. Their collection grows over time and represents
the individual aesthetic and technique of the Foley artists. An attempt to list
every prop used in cinema would be futile and many of the best props are
kept secret by the Foley artists. Table 6.1 shows an abbreviated list of props
essential to any Foley prop room.
The cloth pass is the last Foley element to be recorded and is typically done in
a single take or pass. The practice of performing a cloth pass in animation is
relatively new. The primary purpose of the cloth pass is to provide a subtle
life-like feeling for individual characters. While props are specific, the cloth
pass is more generic, and Foley artists focus on the larger eye catching
movements. By recording the cloth pass on a separate track, the mixer can
play the cloth at very low levels. The cloth track is typically panned in the
center channel of the mix to blend with the dialogue. Featured cloth
movements such as a leather jacket or a villain’s cape are recorded on a
separate track and mixed in the same fashion as props.
CUEING A SESSION
Once the Foley cues are decided at the spotting stage, the supervising Foley
The best Foley editor begins to cue the session. In digital workflows, individual cues are built
Artists learn to be
into the session (Figure 6.4).
discriminating . . .
to help focus the In this approach, the cueing process begins with an edit selection that
scene with the encompasses the length of the cue. The edit selection is then consolidated to
Foley, not clutter
create a separate region that is visible on the track. Once consolidated, the
it.
region is labeled to reflect the specific prop used. The cue is then stored in a
Vanessa Theme Ament memory location that also includes general viewing properties and a
(The Foley Grail)
comments window (Figures 6.5 and 6.6). The information stored in the
comments window can be extracted to create a traditional cue sheet.
OVERVIEW
The Foley mixer must have proficiency with recording technologies, a good
eye and ear for sync, and good communication skills. As mixers, their first
task is to import the pre-cued session, adjust the I/O, and assign microphones
to the track inputs. There are varied opinions regarding microphone selection
and placement. Since animation does not have to match production effects
FOLEY 95
(PFX), there is less need for using production microphones or to record with
perspective. The MKH 416 (more common to production audio) and the
Neumann U87 are favored for both Foley and ADR. There is no codified
workflow dictating how a Foley session should run. Instead, the mixer works
with the Foley artists to develop recording procedures that suit the working
style of both. Some artists prefer to walk the footsteps of an entire character
96 FOLEY
moving from surface to surface. This approach helps the artist stay in
character and achieve a flow. This approach is also helpful to the editor and
mixer by having all of the footsteps for an individual character located on a
single track. Some Foley artists prefer to use separate takes or tracks when
using multiple surfaces. This first approach is useful when the surfaces are
not conveniently positioned or when different footwear is required.
For some cues, preparatory cues such as streamers and punches or beeps are
placed in front of the cue to guide the Foley artist’s entrance (Figure 6.6).
When recording with headphones, the 3-beep system is often used. A 1kHz
tone is often used for the individual beeps; however, lower frequencies are
equally effective and often more comfortable for the Foley artist. Each beep
lasts a single frame and is spaced one second apart. An additional second of
silence is added after the third beep to assist in the placement. Once created,
a 3-beep clip can be saved with a session template and used for multiple
cues.
Once a cue is recalled with a memory location, the mixer places the tail of
the three beep at the header of the cue. If working with a pre-roll, set the
length of the pre-roll to be slightly longer than the 3-beep clip.
Figure 6.7 Digital Cue with Pre-Roll that Exceeds the 3-Beep
98 FOLEY
PLAYLISTING
Playlists are nested tracks within a track where alternate takes can be
recorded, stored, and edited. Once recorded, entire clips or edited portions of
a clip can be rated and promoted to the main playlist. Should the Foley mixer
need to hear additional takes at a later date, he or she can open the playlist
window and audition individual takes without having to move clips into
place. The session is delivered to the mixer with the circled takes placed on
the main playlist (Figure 6.8).
LOOPING
FOLEY EDITING
You can cut sync.
The lead or supervising Foley editor is responsible for cueing a session, You can’t cut feel.
cleaning up the audio, tightening sync, and preparing tracks for the mix.
Bob Rutledge
They attend the spotting session with the supervising sound editor and (The Foley Grail)
develop a full understanding of where and why Foley is needed. Once
recorded, the editor’s job is to clean the takes, removing extraneous sounds
and additional material recorded in the take. In most cases the Foley artist
will “land the cue” meaning that the sync is satisfactory. However, there are
times when the performance is compelling yet the sync is slightly off. When
this occurs, the Foley editor must decide if and how much editing should be
used to tighten the sync. Like dialogue, footsteps and prop movements
possess an internal rhythm that is best preserved when possible. This decision
to edit is often contextual as sync is less critical when the sound plays in
the background. Props are more likely to require sync adjustments as they
often occur during well-defined sync points. Some scenes are so visually
complex that you have to abandon sync and find a rhythm or composition
that feels natural.
CHAPTER 7
T H E P R O D U C T I O N PAT H
OVERVIEW
Figure 7.1
Production Triangle
102 THE PRODUCTION PATH
PREPRODUCTION
To achieve great
things, two things OVERVIEW
are needed; a plan,
and not enough Preproduction is the planning and design phase where the story is refined and
time. project logistics are worked out. First time directors are often unsure at what
Leonard Bernstein point sound designers and composer are brought into the process.
Storyboarding session are an effective opportunity to introduce the supervising
sound editor and composer to the project (Figure 7.2).
When storyboarding, the animation team acts out
individual shots, speaking dialogue in character, and
mouthing SFX and humming music. These sessions are
often more insightful than the spotting sessions that
occur in postproduction. In addition, they provide the
sound team with opportunities for creative input,
expanding the director’s options as they refine each
shot or scene. Through this process, the supervising
sound editor and composer develop a budget and
production schedule that is integrated into the master
budget and schedule.
generate interest. There are three primary individuals that the animator must
enlist to develop a soundtrack. These include the supervising sound editor, the
composer, and the re-recording mixer. The supervising sound editor will
recruit and head the sound department that develops the dialogue and SFX
assets. The composer works independently from sound editorial, heading up a
team of music editors, music supervisors, and musicians to produce the score.
The re-recording mixer(s) will receive dialogue, music, and FX tracks and
shape them into a cohesive mix. There are many supporting roles in each of
these departments that were outlined in earlier chapters. If each of the
primary roles are properly staffed, the remaining hierarchy will follow and
clear lines of communication and workflow will be established.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Principal Dialogue, Compare SAG (Screen Actors Guild) rates and online sources when developing an estimate
Voice-Over, and ADR for voice talent. Also consider potential studio rental, equipment rental, and engineering
fees, which vary by location.
Foley Most Foley props are acquired as cheaply as possible from garage sales and dumpster
diving. In some locations, prop rental companies provide a wide range of hard-to-find
props at reasonable rates. There will be additional costs associated with studio rental, the
Foley mixer, and the Foley artists.
SFX Libraries Individual SFX can be purchased for specific needs. If a specific library is required, budget
approximately $125 per CD.
Production Music Cues Music Licensing. Production libraries are usually more reasonable than copy-protected
music that has been commercially released. Licensing fees for small independent projects
currently range from $100 to $300 dollars a cue.
Synchronization, Master, These fees are negotiated with the copyright holder. Clearly define the nature of your
and Videogram License request to negotiate the lowest fees. Many publishers are licensing songs at no charge for
projects, hoping to receive performance royalties instead.
Composer or Creative Fees These fees vary by composer. A creative fee only covers the writing of the cues. Additional
cost can occur in producing the cues.
Sound Editors Check the sound editors guild for a current rate guide for union editors. Also check with
area recording studios for local mix/editor rates. https://www.editorsguild.com/Wages.cfm
Rental Fees Most sound equipment needed for an animation production can be rented. Even plug-ins
are now available for rental. The decision to rent or buy often comes down to availability
and production schedules.
Backup Drives It is important to backup your work with at least one level of redundancy. Drives are a cost
effective means of securing your media assets.
PRODUCTION STANDARDS
Figure 7.3 A Production Website Features Many of the Collaborative Tools Useful for the
Production of Animation
The sound designer and composer will use the time code displayed in the
burn-in window to set their session start timing to match (Figure 7.4). The
burn-in is also useful to check for monitor latency that can result from
converting digital video to NTSC for ADR and Foley sessions. Even though the
animation is done at 24 fps, each render to the sound designer should be at
29.97 if releasing in standard definition NTSC. The work print should provide
sufficient video resolution while not monopolizing the edit or mix windows.
106 THE PRODUCTION PATH
Figure 7.4 The Burn-in Window Indicates the Current Timecode of the Film in Progress. The
Larger Time Code Window Indicates a Typical Session Start Time Set in the DAW
THE PRODUCTION PATH 107
RELEASE FORMATS
Table 7.3 Audio Specifications for Theatrical and Home Theater Release Formats
PRODUCTION
It is a child’s play
deciding what OVERVIEW
should be done
compared with The production time required to produce each minute of animation is
getting it done. significantly longer than that of live action. This extended schedule can work
Alan Brooke to the advantage of the sound crew, providing time for ideas to germinate.
Though the focus in production is primarily on visuals, there are opportune
moments for soundtrack development as well. During the production phase,
motion tests are made and multiple versions of the animatic are generated.
Motion tests provide an opportunity for sound designers to test their initial
design concepts for moving objects. As each new animatic is generated,
progressively more detailed movements, gestures, timings, backgrounds, and
props are revealed. These added details could be used to refine the temp FX
and music. At later stages in production, the animatic is a nearly completed
version of the film. Many aspects of the temp effect can be used in the final,
blurring the line between production and postproduction.
Animatics are assembled from storyboards, creating a format where temp FX,
music, and scratch dialogue are initially cut. Temp tracks can serve as an
important reference for picture editors developing the timings of a track. The
animatic is also an important means for script development as the scratch
dialogue is evaluated during this stage. It is important (at this stage) to
identify any copy-protected music that may influence the animation process
(pre-score). By identifying these cues in advance, the music supervisor creates
lead-time needed to secure the licensing before the production schedule
begins. The 2D animatic is the first and most basic work print consisting of
still images that are imported from the storyboard. These stills are gradually
replaced with rough animation and preliminary camera work to produce a
pre-visualization work print. For the sound designer new to animation, early
versions of the animatic can be a bit of a shock. Boxy looking characters float
across the floor, arms stretched out and sporting blank facial expressions. This
THE PRODUCTION PATH 109
print can be used for initial screenings to demonstrate the soundtrack to the
director or test audiences. When the basic animation has been completed,
timings are locked and a temporary work print is produced. The final stage of
animation production includes compositing, lighting, special effects,
rendering, and end-titles. A title sequence (if used) is added at this point in
preparation for picture lock. When these elements are combined, the final
work print is generated and the postproduction phase begins.
Just as the animatic is a work in progress, so too are the temp tracks.
Preliminary work at the production stage promotes creativity, organization, If you don’t show
up for work on
and acquisition. However, it is important to be flexible during production as Saturday, don’t
the timings are still evolving. Animation studios have long recognized the bother coming in
benefits of researching the subject matter in the field; this approach can on Sunday.
extend to audio research as well. Designers can explore the physics of how
Jeffrey Katzenberg
objects move, gain insight into the specific props needed, and experiment
with various design approaches. Composers can develop initial themes based
on the research of period, ethnic, or stylistic music. The production phase is
an ideal time to acquire a specialized SFX library for the project. This library
can be developed with original recordings or acquiring commercially. Any
work completed during the production phase may potentially be included in
the final soundtrack, blurring the distinction between production and
postproduction.
POSTPRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
In live action “picture lock” signals the beginning of the formal postproduction
phase. In animation, the timing of the animatic is set much earlier, blurring If it weren’t for the
last minute,
the point in which production ends and postproduction begins. During the
nothing would get
spotting session, the director screens the film with the composer and done.
supervising sound editor to map out the specific needs for the soundtrack. At
Anonymous
this point, the supervising sound editor may bring on additional crew to meet
the remaining production deadlines. Nearly all scoring takes place in post as
music cues are timed closely to the picture. Where the production phase is a
time to explore ideas, the postproduction phase is the time to commit.
110 THE PRODUCTION PATH
PICTURE LOCK
ADR (Automated Dialog Replacement) There are several reasons to record additional Voice-Over and ADR near the
and Additional Voice-Over. final stage of the production. These include . . .
1. Changes to the script.
2. Availability of new voice talent.
3. The potential for a better interpretation resulting from the increased visual
detail available near the final stage.
4. The development of foreign language versions.
Scoring A spotting session for score occurs immediately after the picture is locked.
After that point, individual cues are written or edited from commercial
libraries.
Creating Design Elements At this stage, characters, objects, and environments are fully flushed out in both
appearance and movement. Design elements are created to represent the
characters, objects, and environments that are too specific or imaginative to cut
from a library.
Sound Editorial Sound editors clean up tracks, tighten sync, re-conform picture edits, and
organize tracks for delivery to the mix stage.
Mixing Mixing is the final process in soundtrack development. This process varies
considerably based on the track count and length of the film. The director,
supervising sound editor, and music editor should attend the final mix to insure
that each stem is properly represented.
Layback Once the mix is completed, the printmaster is delivered to the picture editor for
layback. During the layback, the mixer and director screen the film for quality
control, checking for level and sync issues.
CHAPTER 8
SOUND EDITING
OVERVIEW
Editors are routinely called on to cut sound to picture in sync. In most cases,
this means aligning the header of a clip to a specific frame or time code
location. Often, additional adjustments to the initial placement are needed to
tighten/slip the sync or re-conform to a new picture edit. This can be
accomplished by nudging by frame, snapping to position using keyboard
shortcuts, or spotting to time code. When the sync point occurs within the
clip, that specific location is marked, providing the editor with a spotting
reference (Figure 8.1). The clip is aligned to the sync point rather than the
clip header. The editor must then determine how best to approach and exit
the sync point. This technique is referred to as backtiming.
114 SOUND EDITING
Figure 8.1 Clip Marked with a Sync Point Indicating where the Score Reaches a Climatic Point. The Sync Point Field of the
Spot Dialog Box is Highlighted, Indicating that its Current Value Will Be Applied to the Music Cue
Whether the goal is to adjust the length of a clip or remove unwanted sound,
trimming and cutting are two of the most basic edits performed by sound
editors. The trim tool is used for reducing or extending the length of a clip
from the header and tail (Figure 8.2). Lengthening is only possible if hidden
material (handle) already exists.
Figure 8.2 In this Example, the Trim Tool Is Being Used to Pull out Existing Handle from the Header of the Clip
SOUND EDITING 115
Cutting differs from trimming in that it removes sound from a specified edit
selection rather than adjusting length (Figure 8.3). Some editors substitute
the delete key for the cut command, though, unlike the delete key, the cut
command creates break points that preserve the underlying automation that
exists before and after the edit.
Intercuts are applied to edit selections within a clip. Intercuts are a common
technique used by music editors to conform songs and production music to
specified lengths (Figure 8.4). Intercuts reduce the length of a cue while
preserving the song introductions and endings. Intercuts are typically
performed in shuffle mode, allowing the remaining clips to snap together
once the intercut is made. Several musical factors must be considered when
performing an intercut, including lyrics, form, tempo, instrumentation, and
key signature.
Figure 8.3 In these Examples, the Volume Graph of an Edit Selection Changes Based on the Use of the Cut Command
Verses the Delete Key
Figure 8.4 In this Example, the B-52 Hit “Love Shack” Has Been Separated into 33 Individual Clips to Facilitate Intercutting
116 SOUND EDITING
Customized FADES
Fades are commonly applied to the head and tail of clips to eliminate the
sonic ticks or pops that occur when the audio is not trimmed at the zero
crossing. Cross-fades are applied to edit seams to smooth out differences
in volume levels that often occur. They are useful when compositing,
intercutting, or looping clips. Pre-set fades are fast and easy, but for
highly exposed edits, customized fades will often produce a more
transparent transition across the edit seam (Figure 8.5).
Preset
COMPOSITING TAKES
Figure 8.6 In the Playlist View Shown, Alternate Takes Can Be Displayed, Auditioned, and
Separated while Showing the Composite Track
TIME-SCALING
Figure 8.7 In the Screen Shot Shown, the Track View Selector Is Set For (fx a) RVerb with the Automation Playlist
Displaying Wet/Dry Automation. Notice How Reverb Is Introduced near the End of the Clip
b. To move transients within a clip without changing the clip’s head or tail
position. For example, tightening dialogue sync or making a specific
point in a music cue hit to specific on-screen action.
c. Speeding up the disclaimer dialogue for a TV commercial.
d. Superimposing phrasing on a line of dialogue or a lyric.
Pro Tools has a time-scaling feature called elastic audio that is built into its
application. The range warping feature is particularly useful for tightening
sync or making a cue hit precisely on the action (Figure 8.8). Vocalign
(discussed in Chapter 3) is an industry standard for tightening dialogue sync
and superimposing phrasing.
SOUND EDITING 119
Figure 8.8 Notice How the Middle Warp Marker Has Moved to the Center of the Left and Right
Markers. None of the Audio Before or After the Outside Markers Are Altered
PITCH SHIFTING
Figure 8.9 Repetitive SFX Are Being Pitch Shifted with Melodyne to Create Variation
VARI-SPEED
Figure 8.10 A Vari-speed Process Is Applied to a Jet Throttle Using Pitch’n Time
122 SOUND EDITING
SOUND REPLACEMENT
NOISE REDUCTION
while some are more narrow and discrete. The control that adjusts the width
of frequency impacted by an equalizer is referred to as the Q. Gates and
expanders approach noise reduction from the amplitude domain. The better
the signal-to-noise ratio, the more effective they become. Gates and
expanders operate by setting a threshold for amplitude. Any signal that
drops below the threshold is effectively muted. Noise reduction is most
transparent when multiple approaches are used. Thus, noise reduction
software often incorporates both EQ and Expansion/Gating. Noise reduction
plug-ins can manipulate a multitude of narrow frequency bands or notch
filters to achieve substantial reduction of unwanted noise while preserving
the intended signal.
SIDE-CHAIN GATE
Sounds are often given greater weight when layered with additional sounds.
When this approach involves multiple iterations of the sound, side-chain
gating becomes a practical alternative to multiple edits. As discussed earlier,
the gate is a signal processor that uses amplitude thresholds to determine
whether a sound will play or be muted (gated). One common application to
side-chain gating is to create a secondary track that hosts a constant signal
(typically low frequency). The gate is placed on the secondary track but
receives its input (key) from the primary track. When the sound on the
primary track exceeds the threshold (like a gun going off), the gate opens and
the secondary track is un-muted. When the primary tracks signal falls below
the threshold, the secondary track returns to its muted state, effectively
automating cuts.
FUTZING
Figure 8.12 The Portion that Is Grayed Out Represents Frequency Content in a Signal that Has Been Eliminated
from Iron Giant (1999) where Eli and his mother converse by phone. In this
scene, Mrs. Hughes’ voice is futzed only when she is off-screen. For additional
realism, the sound editor included futzed BGs in Eli’s phone, representing the
diner where his mother was working. Futzing is not limited to frequency
bandwidth limiting. Third party plug-ins like Speakerphone (Figure 8.13) and
Futzbox provide the sound editor with additional futzing parameters. These
include physical modeling of devices and spaces and the addition of sonic
artifacts such as radio squelch, vinyl ticks, and pitch warping. One advantage
to using futzing plug-ins is that all of the parameters can be automated to
transition from source to underscore or vice versa.
DOPPLER
The Doppler effect combines pitch variation with volume and panning to
enhance the sound of an object as it passes. This perceptual phenomenon
reflects the perspective (point of view) of an observer in relation to a moving
object (Figure 8.14). As an object approaches, it travels into its own sound
waves, compressing them and causing the observer to perceive a rise in pitch.
The opposite occurs as the object moves away. Many SFX are recorded with
Doppler, oftentimes making more work for the editor as they attempt to
match the clip to the picture. Doppler plug-ins allow the editor to take a
static version of a sound and customize the pitch variation, volume, and
panning to match the on-screen movements with exacting levels of realism.
Doppler is frequently added to vehicles that pass or fly by a character. They
are also added to whoosh effects to give them additional motion. The GRM
Doppler plug-in can also generate circular or rotating effects such as
tornadoes, helicopter blades, or twirling particles radiating from an explosion.
Figure 8.14 Signals Pitch Up and Down as They Pass by a Character. Objects Can Also Rotate Sonically Using Circle
Amplitude and Frequency Controls
126 SOUND EDITING
LOOPING
In some cases it is necessary to extend the length of the clip beyond the
range in which time-compression tools are practical or transparent. In these
situations, the sound editor may opt to extend the audio by means of
looping. Music editors use looping to vamp a selection within a cue to meet
certain length requirements. When looping musical material, it is important
that the loop point match rhythmically, harmonically, and dynamically. If
lyrics or a melodic line is involved, care should be taken to observe the line.
FX editors commonly loop BGs for extended scenes. When looping BGs, the
editor should avoid using portions of a clip that contain spikes or patterns
that might advertise the loop. Most DAWs have a batch-fading feature that
allows the editor to customize and apply a cross fade at the edit seam of
each loop.
Even in short form animation, clip and track counts can accumulate and
become overwhelming if not properly managed. Tracks and clips should be
ordered and labeled in a clear and logical manner so as not to confuse or
create additional work for the mixer. Any unused tracks, plug-ins, or busses
should be removed to optimize the system’s resources and storage
requirements. If a unique plug-in was used, duplicate the track and render
the effect, providing the mixer with both a processed and unprocessed
version in the event that the particular plug-in is not available on the mix
stage. Sessions must be properly archived and labeled to insure that all assets
are present.
CHAPTER 9
transparent to the mixing process. Mixers are responsible for developing pre-
dubs, building stems, and recording the printmaster. They are also involved with
mastering and encoding the audio for various release formats. They shape a
multitude of tracks created by the sound and music departments into a
cohesive soundtrack that is integral to the storytelling process. They use faders
and panners to focus the scene and control its intensity. They strive to
understand the narrative implications of every subtle adjustment; smoothing
transitions between edits or scenes, defining spaces, and developing continuity.
Mixers accomplish this by being sensitive to the narrative qualities of the film
and the vision of the director. Mixers work collaboratively with directors, sound
editors, and other mixers. They must be able to work for long periods of time
under incredible pressure while maintaining a high level of diplomacy.
THE FINAL MIX 129
SPEAKER CALIBRATION
translate beyond the mix stage, reference levels have been established to
guide the mixing process. Before mix levels can be properly set, monitor
levels need to be calibrated to these reference levels. In film the most
commonly accepted reference level is 85 dBspl (sound pressure levels in
decibels) at -20 (Figure 9.3). When calibrating a speaker at this reference
level, the engineer will play a reference tone (pink noise at -20) through each
Figure 9.3 The Output Meters of a Master Fader at -20db Measuring 85dB on the SPL Meter.
This is the Standard for Mixing a Theatrical Release in a Large Room
THE FINAL MIX 131
DYNAMIC RANGE
If the sound editors have labeled and organized tracks and clips in a logical
manner, the task of combining multiple sessions to create the master session
will be greatly simplified. Some mixers color-code tracks by stem as a means
of visually organizing a session, especially in mix view. Separating the video
into shots or scenes provides a useful navigational map for the film
(Figure 9.5). In addition, these regions can be used to define edit selections
for static or snapshot automation. Memory locations and window
configurations can be used to show or hide a variety of track configurations
and display options.
PRE-DUBS
As a project grows in track count, there often comes a point where the
number of tracks exceeds the practical limitations of a DAW or mix console.
132 THE FINAL MIX
Head Room
DYNAMIC RANGE
OF FILM MIX
Noise Floor
Figure 9.5 The Video Track Shown is Separated by Shots to Facilitate Navigation and Signal Processing by shot
The dialogue, music, and SFX elements are pre-dubbed separately. Each of the
pre-dubs that will become a stem are leveled and panned in the context of
the full mix to create the dialogue, music, and SFX stems. Reverb is added
(if needed) at this stage, reinforcing the spaces or environments that appear
134 THE FINAL MIX
on-screen. Directors attend the mix at this stage to provide input and
feedback as the mix progresses. In many cases, the dialogue, music, and FX
editors are also on hand to perform any additional fixes that may be required.
When building stems, the director and mixers are often faced with difficult
choices regarding which sounds will play and how prominently they will be
mixed. Dialogue, if present, will always take priority, consequently, much of
136 THE FINAL MIX
the debate centers around the FX and music stems. Once these issues are
resolved, the stems are combined to form the printmaster or complete
soundtrack.
PANNING
The stereo mix is still the most common format for short form films. There
are no specific rules for mixing but several panning conventions have
emerged over the years. In most cases, principal dialogue is panned to the
center, providing the most uniform coverage for the audience. Narration and
Group ADR are often split out to the left and right channels to provide
separation from the principal dialogue. Hard effects are panned to the
position of their respective on-screen objects. Foley that is linked to
dialogue (the cloth pass and footsteps) are panned to the center; otherwise
Foley is panned to the on-screen position. Backgrounds or BGs are typically
panned hard left and right, depending on the framing of the shot.
Underscore is panned in stereo and source music is panned to the on-screen
position as with hard effects.
LEVELING
SIGNAL PROCESSING
If the sound editors have been thorough in their work, very little corrective or
sound shaping signal processing will be required at the mix stage. Signal
processing is a broad and contextual topic deserving volumes of discussion.
However, there are three processes that are universal to the mix process:
reverb, EQ, and dynamic compression/limiting.
Reverb
Reverb is used to define the space where a given action is occurring. Reverb
is processed in real time (RTAS) so that parameters can be adjusted as
characters move through a variety of environments within a given scene. The
primary controls for reverb include:
■ Pre-Delay, the time interval between the direct sound and the first
reflection.
■ Time, determined by the rate the reverberant signal decays by 60 dB.
■ Wet/Dry, the mix ratio between the dry (unprocessed) version and a
wetted (processed) version.
■ The Reverb Type, selectable algorithms that accurately mimic various
spatial properties.
In addition to defining a space for principal dialogue and hard FX, a separate
reverb is added to underscore and narration as a means of establishing their
non-diegetic function.
Equalization (EQ)
The frequency range of human hearing can be divided up into 10 octaves,
each contributing differently to our perception of the soundtrack as a whole.
Re-recording mixers use EQ (equalization) to balance the frequency spectrum
of a mix (Figure 9.8). EQ can also be used to pre-emphasize specific
frequencies that will be most affected by the encoding process. Table 9.1
gives a breakdown of the 10 octaves and their specific contribution or affect
on the mix.
Peak Limiting
Mixes can get very loud at times, approaching and exceeding full scale
(clipping) when tracks are summed. To prevent clipping and the distortion
138 THE FINAL MIX
Figure 9.8 The Waves PAZ Frequency Analyzer Is Placed on the Master Fader to Create a Visual Representation of the
Frequency Characteristics of an Entire Mix
that follows, a peak limiter is often placed on the master fader (Figure 9.9).
Notice in the screenshot shown that both the ratio and threshold are
extremely high (83.2:1 at -2.7 dB). When properly mixed, little or no signal
will exceed the threshold of the limiter. However, having one in place
provides a useful safety net.
1st Octave (20 Hz to 40 Hz). This octave is more heard than felt. Few speakers can reproduce these frequencies with
adequate power. There is little musical content at this range. The LFE in a Dolby or DTS file starts at 20 Hz and
extends to 120 Hz.
2nd Octave (40 Hz to 80 Hz). This octave is associated with the rumble of an LFE associated with SFX like
earthquakes and the bottom end of an explosion. This octave can reduce the headroom in a mix without making it
sound louder.
3rd Octave (80 Hz to 160 Hz). This is the octave where the lower end of the music score and SFX can be pushed with
less risk of rumble.
4th Octave (160 Hz to 320 Hz). This octave is sometimes referred to as the mud-range when given too much level.
However, this octave also contributes to the fullness of a mix when properly leveled.
5th Octave (320 Hz to 640 Hz). This is the lower portion of the mid-range where most of the dialogue, SFX, and Music
compete for the foreground. Watch for masking of dialogue in this octave. When properly balanced, this octave can
contribute to the subjective fullness and roundness to the mix. Our ears are most sensitive to the 5th and 6th octaves.
Most playback devices are capable of reproducing these octaves accurately. Consequently, this component of the mix
will effectively translate across multiple playback devices.
6th Octave (640 Hz to 1.28 kHz). Shares characteristics with the 5th octave. Excessive cuts and boosts in this range are
responsible for nasal characteristics in the mix.
7th Octave (1.28 kHz to 2.56 kHz). This is the upper mid-range. Use this octave to add volume and definition to the
5th and 6th octaves. This is the bottom range for sibilance. Too much level at this range can create a harsh sounding
mix that is fatiguing.
8th Octave (2.56 kHz to 5.12 kHz). This is the lower range of the treble portion of the mix. This octave is sometimes
referred to as the presence range since boosting these frequencies brings out the consonants in words that contribute to
intelligibility. This octave brings out articulations and transient details as well as making the mix brighter. Boosting too
aggressively at this range will bring out sibilance.
9th Octave (5.12 kHz to 10.24 kHz). This octave emphasizes the brightness and high frequency details of the mix.
10th Octave (10.24 kHz to 20 kHz and up). Like the 1st octave, this octave is often more felt than heard. It is generally
associated with a subjective airiness or open feeling. Too much level at this octave can bring out unwanted noise.
STEREO
C
L
R 5.1
30˙
110˙
Ls Rs
Figure 9.10 A 5.1 Mix is an Extension of a Stereo Mix, Having Mono Components As Well
In the mid 1980s, THX theaters were developed to match the mix
environment to the playback environment. This meant that mixers could
predict to a greater extent how their mixes would translate to theaters
around the world. At that time, theatrical exhibition was the consumer’s
initial experience with a film. Soon after, the film would be released on
various formats for home viewing. Gradually, the film would be premiered on
a network. At each stage, the film would be modified to optimize playback for
the specific release format. Today, the distribution model for media has
expanded to include online delivery and personal devices. Content developers
must consider these release formats and consumer monitoring options when
developing mixes. Headphones or earbuds represent the single biggest shift in
consumer listening habits. Consequently, it is now necessary to audition a
mix on a good set of reference monitors, television speakers, and a set of ear
buds, each time, noting differences that exist between playback and
monitoring devices and adjusting the mix accordingly. With the exception of
film and television, there are currently no mix standards for online delivery
formats or personal devices. However, there are some guidelines that will
contribute to a mix that effectively translates over multiple playback and
monitoring devices:
■ Mix at a level that approximates the listening habits of your target
audience (reference level).
■ A/B your mixes on the playback devices and monitors that consumers
will be using and note how the mix is translating; a basic concept of
mastering.
■ Mix and master projects through monitoring plug-ins such as the Waves
360 Manager or the Sonnox mp3/AAC encoder.
■ Add compression, especially on dialogue for non-theatrical release
formats.
THE FINAL MIX 143
■ Use fewer channels with greater transfer rates when quality is more
important than the number of channels.
■ Focus on the mid-range of the mix; this is the frequency range common
to all playback devices and monitors.
■ Codecs perform more accurately when processing files at higher sample
rates and bit depths. Resolutions of 24 bit/48 kHz or higher are
recommended although there is no advantage to up sampling prior to
encoding.
■ Since you cannot control the levels or type of monitoring used by a
consumer, create a mix that conveys your vision for how the project
should be experienced.
ENCODING
DVD, BluRay, Internet, and personal devices all use codecs to address storage
and transfer rate issues. These codecs utilize a variety of perceptual or
redundancy encoding schemes to achieve data reduction and to set transfer
rates. Audio resolution is affected to varying degrees with all lossy codecs.
Content developers often pre-emphasize aspects of their mix to offset losses in
frequency and dynamic range that result from encoding. It is important for the
mixer to be able to monitor the mix through an encoder. In film, this is
accomplished by monitoring the mix through hardware Dolby and DTS
encoders. For mp3 and AAC encoding, Sonnox has created an auditioning
144 THE FINAL MIX
plug-in that allows the mixer to compare settings of up to five different codecs
in real-time (Figure 9.11). The user can toggle monitoring between the original
input signal, the codec’s output, or the difference signal (the audio that will be
removed). This plug-in also provides estimations of how the resultant file size
and transfer rates.
Encoding is an art unto itself, requiring a well-trained ear, a variety of
monitoring options, and a bit of experimentation to optimize the mix for a
multitude of monitoring systems and levels.
LAYBACK
CASE STUDIES
Many of the design principles discussed in this book can be heard on the
great animation soundtracks of the past. With focused listening, we can Learn to read the
reverse engineer these soundtracks and effectively reveal the many creative unwritten books.
ideas contained within. These design principles can then become the Ancient Chinese Proverb
foundation for designing soundtracks on future films. The timings provided in
the following case studies are approximations based on the playback timings
displayed on a standard DVD player. Take time to LISTEN to these films,
noting the special contributions made by these creative composers and sound
designers. Learn to read the unwritten books.
08:58 A car skid and bowling pin crash are used to exaggerate
movements in this foot chase.
20:07 Jafar’s evil laugh post-laps to next scene.
36:13 An isomorphic cue is created to emphasize the handshake
between the Genie and the Magic Carpet.
42:39 The parrot swooping movement is exaggerated by layering it
(sweetening) with the sound of a dive-bomber.
53:20 The dialogue levels and reverb shift with the picture cut to
establish Jasmine’s proximity to her suitors.
148 CASE STUDIES
08:56 The underscore hits with each line of dialogue. “I’m Locked”
(door knob) “Oh no” (Alice).
17:55 Reverb and volume are added to the underscore to support the
flashback and to initiate the transition from underscore to song.
29:05 Rasputin’s performance of “In the Dark of the Night” is performed
in a recitative style.
38:17 The sound of the train falling is treated with Doppler.
50:09 Various BGs are used to toggle back and forth from Anastasia’s
dream state and the reality of her present danger.
1:12:56 The thunder post-laps via a ring-out.
17:18 The source music, “Almost like being in love,” contains narrative
lyrics and sets up the misdirection that will follow. The factory
horn is pitched to the key of the song and is a transitional device,
moving from source to underscore. The instrumentation thins out
and the tempo slows down to support the time lapse.
22:19 The song provides narrative lyrics “The Ants go Marching.”
56:21 This montage sequence is scored with an updated cover of the pop
single “I Can See Clearly Now.”
1:10:25 Dialogue is used to bridge a cut as Z hands off the line to Princess
Bala at the picture edit.
150 CASE STUDIES
00:00 The title sequence music is an establishing element for the French
setting. The second verse is sung in French without subtitles.
05:26 The source music emitting from the gramophone establishes the
time period while sonically transitioning the audience through
various rooms in the house.
06:30 SFX are muted during the freeze frames, yet the underscore plays
through the shot.
16:39 The underscore slows down as the bees de-accelerate and land on
the tennis court. The Theremin is used to create an uneasy feel for
the backgrounds. The SFX are exaggerated in level and low
frequency content to establish the Bee’s perspective.
19:03 The underscore suddenly stops as the mother yells “freeze.”
30:04 The dialogue gets muffled as Barry submerges in the pool of
honey. This treatment is part of the transition to the montage
sequence, scored with the song “Sugar Sugar.” The emotional
character of the music and lyrics sets up the ensuing misdirection.
40:30 The dialogue pre-lap implies narration but is soon revealed as
diegetic.
44:30 The venetian score implies that Barry is floating on a Gondola
rather than a sugar cube. A sonic analogy.
1:10:50 Cockpit voices are futzed when off-screen and play in full
resolution when on-screen.
09:12 The silence before the explosion helps exaggerate the intensity of
the explosion.
11:25 This scene features a postproduction room where the source audio
is futzed to imply raw footage and production audio. The boom
pool adds a nice visual touch.
1:00:05 The caged dogs in the kennel speak the word ball in English. As
the camera shifts to the perspective of a human kennel worker,
the word ball morphs into real dogs barking.
1:16:18 Rhino (the hamster) dialogue is presented in English until the POV
shifts to the actor who only hears hamster squeaks.
152 CASE STUDIES
0:00 The opening scene begins with BGs rather than music.
19:20 The underscore for Flick in flight is suddenly interrupted when he
hits the rock (misdirection).
20:04 The initial dialogue treatment for the bug fight sets up a
misdirection as it is soon revealed to be a stage production.
27:28 The isomorphic scratching of the violin dramatically covers the
sound of an inebriated bug scratching his legs.
29:53 Slim’s (Walking Stick) dialogue “Swish swish, clang clang” is
making fun of clichéd sound design.
35:48 This cue is an extended pre-lap that functions like underscore to
source.
38:14 The megaphone is futzed with added feedback loop for realism.
42:40 An accelerated whoosh plays in sync with camera zoom.
44:50 The off-screen applause transitions to on-screen, finally post-
lapping to an interior shot with Francis (Ladybug) recuperating.
48:25 A single line of dialogue is broken up and delivered by multiple
characters, bridging a series of visual cuts.
52:49 The underscore is later revealed as source as the camera moves
from exterior to interior. The song “La Cucaracha” establishes the
proximity of grasshoppers from the ant colony.
1:20:44 A loud beetle roar is followed by the sound of an injured dog,
implying a role reversal.
CASE STUDIES 153
1:21:17 Raindrops are sweetened with the sounds of jet engines and
missiles to represent the magnitude of rain from a bug’s
perspective.
10:12 The sound of a bull whip creates an exaggerated feel for the coach
whipping out a dodge ball.
10:30 The donkey kicks are exaggerated with machine gun fire.
15:30 Heavily reverberant bat cracks and crowd cheers support the
flashback as the backstory is presented.
28:50 Excessively loud singing triggers car alarms, providing an off-
screen commentary on the quality of Chicken Little’s voice.
58:00 The song “It’s the End of the World” provides narrative lyrics for
the Alien invasion. Subtitles are provided for the Inter-galactic
dialogue.
1:11:3 The whip cracking sound is used to exaggerate the captain’s neck
movements, creating an over-the-top feel for the scene.
154 CASE STUDIES
9:50 A Harp gliss plays isomorphically in sync with the opening of the
curtains.
14:00 Underscored sneak steps are used for on and off-screen
movements.
24:15 Reverb is added to the dialogue for contrast as the helmet is
closed.
25:58 Isomorphic figures support the camera moves. The reverb shifts as
the characters move from room to room.
CASE STUDIES 155
19:44 The lyrics to the song “Die Die” provides the back-story for the
bride. The instrumentation (marimbas and xylophones) is
consistent with the skeleton characters. This cue post-laps with an
extended ring-out.
27:00 The score and the elevator bell progressively pitch up as the
elevator ascends.
04:20 The soundtrack features nearly three minutes of varied BGs as the
egg moves through many environments.
10:45 The angry growls, monkey screams, and intense underscore set up
the misdirection.
18:27 The soundtrack gets silent just prior to the meteor hitting the
earth, providing dynamic contrast.
20:06 BGs are treated with bandwidth filtering to support the shift from
the surface to the submerged shot.
49:49 The off-screen dripping sounds develop the characteristics of the
cave.
56:57 In this clip is heard an extended post-lap of a scream using the
ring out technique.
1:03:33 Hard effects and BGs start from one side of the mountain and
transition to the other.
156 CASE STUDIES
01:24 Epic underscore sets up the misdirection for Shepherd getting hit
by a bus.
15:42 Song “The Girl from Ipanema” pre-laps and later post-laps with a
substantial reverb ring out.
28:01 Vari-speed is applied to the underscore.
43:00 Gru counts to three, just prior to the third number, we cut to the
dance studio with the dance teacher saying “three.”
55:49 Whoosh follows camera for both zoom in and out.
12:45 Nanette the frog says “you look hot” in Japanese translated in
subtitles. Soon after, she says another line in Japanese, this time
the subtitles are left out because the action implies the meaning.
22:36 Nanette’s laugh is sweetened with water bubbles.
23: 38 Nanette’s dialogue pans from center to hard right as she prances
off-screen.
31:15 Mock-up commercial on Terfirminator using heavy metal music
and futzed dialogue, ending with a TC/E disclaimer.
42:39 A parody of Elton John’s “This Song” is modified to include lyrics
about pesticide and miracle grow. This parody is used to
unfavorably characterize Juliet’s un-wanted suitor.
1:01:25 Gnome inadvertently plays “Bennie and the Jets” as he walks on
the computer keyboard and finger pad.
1:00:04 The underscore builds toward the kiss which is interrupted by the
helicopter sound substituted for horse wings.
1:01:26 The sound for the slow motion shot is treated with echo to play
the subjectivity of the shot.
50:55 Hiccup’s dialogue line bridges the edit between the arena and the
secret lair of the dragon.
1:00:30 Reverb is added to Stoick’s address to support perspective shifts to
the arena where Hiccup prepares to battle the dragon.
08:41 Cue hits with each word in the dialogue “still have ice.”
15:06 Reverb is added to dialogue as the character sticks his head into
the hole.
38:40 Whooshes are used as transitional sound for flashback.
59:50 The sound is muffled to play the subjectivity of the moment.
06:11 The phone ring pre-laps and the off-screen voices of the phone
split are futzed.
21:02 The dialogue of the Giant is digitally treated.
56:55 This cue is a tick tock, marking time and influencing the
pacing.
10:05 The teacher has a caw-like quality added to her voice, caricaturing
her beak-like nose.
13:32 A ring-out is added at the end of the teacher’s scream.
17:02 Jimmy’s off-screen fall is treated with a descending whistle and
reverb for added perspective.
CASE STUDIES 163
17:57 Tween cover of “He Blinded Me With Science” updates the tune
and shifts the gender focus.
20:20 Futzed game show music with vari-speed effect.
1:04:25 Source music “The Chicken Dance” heard from a distance to
establish proximity.
07:06 Varied BGs are used to define space and show time lapse.
26:07 Reverberant off-screen dialogue pre-laps.
32:55 Simba’s growls are initially dry then treated to echo.
37:45 The echo helps reinforce Simba’s isolation and helplessness.
50:34 The vocal pre-lap is treated with reverb, transitioning from
off-screen to on-screen.
54:47 Pumbaa the warthog’s scream is sweetened with elephant
trumpet.
107:04 Reverb is applied to Mufasa’s voice to contrast him from his living
son.
117:23 Bowling pins exaggerate Pumbaa’s charge through the crowd of
hyenas.
119:59 Reverb and pitching supports the slow motion (subjective)
sequence.
25:25 Empty metal can drop sound is used to cover Sebastian’s jaw
dropping.
32:41 Foley crab footsteps are blended with musical sneak steps.
45:45 Piccolo isomorphism for Ariel’s wiggling her newly acquired feet.
50:38 A door hinge and slam used to cover Sebastian passing out.
58:30 Off-screen dialogue transitions to on-screen, saving on
time-consuming lip animation. The BGs in this sequence are
prominent as well.
106:43 Boxing ring fight bell is used to exaggerate Scuttle’s impact
against the boat.
1:08:39 Dive-bombers used to cover birds attacking the boat.
CASE STUDIES 165
53:30 The ring of the wine glasses are pitched in the resolution of the
underscore.
1:02:43 Score hits with each floor crash.
00:05 Title sequence has a vari-speed effect and a vinyl rip added to play
the 35 mm print burning.
02:22 Creepy breathing and light flashes establish the misdirection
revealed when Susan’s friends wake her on her wedding day.
23:33 Screams are post-lapped with a ring-out.
52:52 Derek’s (weatherman) dialogue transitions from futzed (looking
through the camera) to full frequency when he is off-camera.
20:38 Ancestors’ voices are treated with lots of reverb to contrast them
from the living. The voice of the Chinese dragon is played by an African-
American comedian (Eddie Murphy) yet there is no disconnect.
26:50 The absence of sound during the visual black makes the
impending violence even more implicit.
46:02 A typewriter covers the sound of ChaCha (the cricket) writing a
letter in Chinese script as he hops on the page.
59:38 Subjective moment as Ping looses consciousness. Dialogue is
processed with reverb to create the transition.
CASE STUDIES 167
05:00 The sound of the clock transitions from the present reality to the
subjectivity that is the extended dream sequence.
168 CASE STUDIES
21:35 The song is the narrative element that links Moses to his past. The
song is sung in his thoughts, perhaps to conceal his understanding
from the Egyptians.
39:01 The song “Through Heaven’s Eyes” is presented as a montage but
ends with source music.
54:38 This recitative style of song delivery is common for the villains in
animated musicals.
4:54 Ave Maria underscores the slow motion shot that ends in the
terrarium crashing through the car window. The underscore is
abruptly interrupted to transition back to reality.
5:52 Exaggerated sounds as Rango is exposed to the intense heat. The
sound of the water drop exiting the glass implies a dry spigot.
The water sizzles as it hits his tongue for an exaggerated effect.
14:04 The lizards line “you son of a” . . . (interrupt) . . . Hawk squeak,
infers the profanity rather than being overt.
1:05:22 Wagner’s “Ride of the Valkyries” is customized with banjo, jew’s
harp, and harmonica to give it a western feel.
57:01 The dialogue pre-lap is extended, as the father says “My son has
returned . . .”
1:13:10 The underscore hits with each of Remy’s words.
1:23:30 Heartbeats morph to footsteps and a door knock as we transition
out of the dream sequence.
1:36:25 Transitional whooshes that follow the camera move, followed by
exaggerated FX for slow motion pen dropping to floor.
1:41:13 Voice over to diegetic dialogue as Remy is revealed as the
storyteller.
00:35 Title sequence begins with ambience that morphs into a Samba.
Each type of bird contributes to the musical layers.
12:15 The sound of the airplane pre-pals as Linda and Blu fly to Rio.
56:52 Boxing ring bell morphs into a trolley bell (form edit).
65:00 The SFX and dialogue in this subjective scene are pitched down
and rhythmically slowed down, yet the underscore remains
unaffected.
72:30 1980s pop ballad is used to creates a romantic mood which gets
interrupted (misdirection) as Blu and Jewel’s beaks collide.
82:25 Nigel’s ultimate doom is completed with off-screen sound.
03:10 Car tire skids are used to exaggerate the arm extension. A door
opening is used for hand movements over the eyes.
44.00 The score builds toward misdirection, ending in a vinyl rip.
CASE STUDIES 171
0:00 The ticking clock morphs into the underscore. The clock is a
metaphor for what makes a robot tick.
5:28 Television source music is futzed.
8:07 Off-key underscore “Pomp and Circumstance” establishes the
narrative that he is graduating. The time lapse is designed with
35 mm snapshots sounds.
10:10 A vari-speed effect is used to reinforce the failure of the
dishwasher.
18:30 The tempo of the cue follows closely with the visual pacing.
20:05 The underscore sets up the misdirection.
23:55 This isomorphic cue ends with three hits.
31:55 The SFX are pitched up even as the robot falls.
37:30 Aunt Fanny’s large posterior is exaggerated using the beeping
sound of a truck backing up.
40:30 The impact of the flatulence sounds are exaggerated with car
alarms.
52:34 “Singing in the Oil” is an homage to “Singing in the Rain,” this
rendition sets up a misdirection.
100:58 Extended post-lap as Fender screams for help.
119:45 Bigweld asks the microphone to stop echoing.
172 CASE STUDIES
00:00 The opening music establishes a fairy tale mood that sets up a
misdirection.
14:00 Shrek’s yell is treated with an audible delay.
20:38 The panning for this character movement is very literal.
21:20 The source music is typical lounge music in a Latin style, a
comedic choice for a film set in the mythical time period.
48:45 The dialogue for the magic mirror is treated with vari-speed and
reverse effects.
52:55 The cue suspends harmonically as the princess prepares to kick
the two men.
00:22 The opening music sets up the misdirection as the horse is soon
revealed as a prop. The soundtrack is gradually futzed as camera
zooms out.
08:07 Underscore ends abruptly as the window shade is closed, showing
his unwillingness to show feeling toward the cat.
09:30 The music supports the misdirection of the King’s death.
19:21 The ship’s horn masks Fiona’s proclamation that Shrek is a dad.
21:07 The sound supports a double dream sequence.
36:41 Whooshes are used for each transition as the gingerbread man’s
life passes before his eyes.
52:15 Underscore to source cue as the piano is revealed and Donkey says
“lookout, they have a piano.”
07:42 The dialogue pre-laps and is scored with futzed Hawaiian music
playing on the radio. The boom pole dipping into the shot adds a
nice touch.
10:08 Various ethnic music cues establish the many locations visited.
11:09 Exterior to interior environments are established with reverb.
14:22 The volume on the montage music is dipped momentarily for
dialogue.
26:40 Foley footsteps
30:44 Futzed sound of 35 mm film is added to the shot to reinforce the
archival footage.
38:00 Romantic music gets interrupted for comic effect. Subsequent
audio is treated to imply bad production audio.
40:40 Feedback is added to the boom pole movement to make fun of the
notion of production audio in animation.
52:57 Extended vari-speed effect to show how hard he is working.
1:06:55 This scene is a musical duet with Rapunzel and Flynn Rider. The
song is presented through their interior thoughts rather than lip
sync. This design approach plays nicely on the notion that
Rapunzel must not reveal her feelings or her location. By the end
of the song, Rapunzel and Flynn are able to share their thoughts
openly through song.
1:16:20 This cue builds as Rapunzel’s true identity is revealed. Whooshes
provided transitional sound for flashbacks and camera moves.
CASE STUDIES 175
09:13 Group ADR for children attending the birthday party, mostly
off-screen.
11:17 Futzed radio
14:47 Buzz Lightyear breathing from inside his helmet. POV
18:56 Toy plane sound transitions to WW II dive bomber for
exaggeration.
21:43 Pleasant BGs coming from Andy’s window.
32:20 Dialogue enhancement as Buzz discusses his mission.
34:34 Toolbox crash post-laps with a ring-out.
176 CASE STUDIES
00:49 The opening sequence is futzed and sweetened with film warping
sound. The soundtrack transitions from diegetic to non-diegetic,
as the narrator becomes a product of Carl’s imagination.
12:04 Exaggerated cracking sound to direct the audience’s attention to
Carl’s bad back. This is followed by off-screen sound of electric
stair chair. Both sounds are used to develop the character.
21:50 This sequence is an extended fantasy sequence with non-literal
treatment as not to reveal the misdirection.
26:34 A radio squelch is added to Carl’s hearing aid as he turns it down
to avoid hearing Russell talk (POV).
50:08 The word “roof” as spoken by Dug is substituted with an actual
bark that sounds similar.
178 CASE STUDIES
02:15 Futzed propaganda reel with period music. The cash register sound
represents quality enlists and the Kalooga horn is used for the
rejects.
06:24 The BGs and score are dark for scenes with the bad guys.
29:00 Dialogue enhancement.
45:06 The use of reverb to transition movements from the street to the
sewer.
47:43 Source music.
02:45 The beeps for the eyes are used as a transitional device for the
form edit that follows.
23:32 Car alarm is used to represent the securing of the greenhouse.
27:45 Underscore is revealed as source as a comic effect.
CASE STUDIES 179
39:20 The ringing of the dog’s eyes transition via a form edit to actual
bells.
47:25 Cliché thunder claps for repeated dialogue and whooshed for
camera move.
51:02 Music cue syncs each time the dog points his finger.
00:33 Homage to Carl Stalling and the early Warner Brothers cartoons.
09:01 Underscore to source.
22:13 Dialogue from Marvin Acme transitions to Roger Rabbit “Patty
Cake.” The sound is meant to make upsetting off-screen action
implicit.
111:05 Isomorphic cue follows camera moves.
113:20 Foley footsteps transition to a train sound for exaggeration.
30:41 The clock slows down and has reverb added, making it a
transitional device to the dream sequence.
42:06 Underscore cadences and dialogue pre-laps with parachute wipe
followed by futzed radio.
46:20 Ham radio split is futzed when voice is off-screen.
47:25 Elephant trumpet sound has a ring out to post-lap.
54:58 Cue fades in with visual wipe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SOUND THEORY
SOUND TECHNIQUES
Adam, T., The Best Effect Settings for Sound Design and Mixing. Bremen,
Germany: Wizoo GmbH, 2000.
Ament, V., The Foley Grail: The Art of Performing Sound to Film. New York, NY:
Focal Press, 2009.
Apple Computers Inc, Mastered for iTunes: Music as the Artist and Sound
Engineer Intended, January, 2012.
Bell, D., Getting the Best Score for Your Film. Beverly Hills, CA: Silman-James
Press, 1994.
Berg, R., The Physics of Sound, 2nd edn. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994.
Churchill, S., The Indie Guide to Music Supervision. Los Angeles, CA: Filmic
Press, 2000.
Collins, M., Audio Plug-Ins and Virtual Instruments. Boston, MA: Focal Press,
2003.
Collins, M., Choosing and Using Audio and Music Software. Boston, MA: Focal
Press, 2004.
Eargle, J., The Microphone Book. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2001.
Gibson, D., The Art of Mixing. Vallego, CA: Mix Books, 1997.
Huber, D., Modern Recording Techniques. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2001.
Jackson, B., Shark Tale: A different kind of fish story. Mix Magazine, Sept.
2004.
Katz, B., Mastering Audio: The Art and the Science. Boston, MA: Focal Press,
2002.
Kerner, M., The Art of the Sound Effects Editor. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 1989.
Lehrman, P. and Tully, T., MIDI for the Professional. New York: Amsco, 1993.
Lott, R., Sound Effects: Radio, TV, and Film. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 1990.
Lustig, M., Music Editing for Motion Pictures. New York: Hasting House, 1980.
Moravcsik, M., Musical Sound: An Introduction to the Physics of Music, St.
Paul, MN: Paragon House, 2002.
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Moulton, D., Audio Lecture Series, Vols. 1–4. Boulder, CO: Music Maker,
2000.
Moulton, D., Total Recording. Sherman Oaks, CA: KIQ Productions, 2000.
Northam, M. and Miller, L., Film and Television Composers Resource Guide.
Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard, 1998.
Purcell, J., Dialogue Editing for Motion Pictures. Boston, MA: Focal Press,
2007.
Rose, J., Producing Great Sound for Digital Video. San Francisco, CA: CMP
Books, 1999.
Rose, J., Audio Postproduction for Digital Video. San Francisco, CA: CMP
Books, 2002.
Rossing, T., The Science of Sound, 3rd edn. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley, 2001.
Shepherd, A., Pro Tools for Video, Film, and Multimedia. Boston, MA: Muska
and Lipman, 2003.
Smith, M., Broadcast Sound Technology. Boston, MA: Butterworth, 1990.
White, G., Audio Dictionary. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press,
1991.
Goldmark, D. and Taylor, Y., The Cartoon Music Book. Chicago, IL: A Cappella
Books, 2002.
Lawson, T. and Persons, A., The Magic Behind the Voices. Jackson, MS:
University Press of Mississippi, 2004
184 BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANIMATION TECHNIQUE
Arijon, D., Grammar of the Film Language, Los Angeles, CA: Silman-James
Press, 1976.
Blair, P., Cartoon Animation. Laguna Hills, CA: Walter Foster, 1995.
Culhane, S., Animation: From Script to Screen. New York: St. Martin’s Press,
1988.
Kozloff, S., Invisible Storytellers: Voice-Over Narration in American Fiction
Film. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
Osipa, J., Stop Staring: Facial Animation Done Right. Alameda, CA: Sybex,
2003.
Simon, M., Producing Independent 2D Animation. Boston, MA: Focal Press,
2003.
Whitaker, H., Timing for Animation. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 1981.
Williams, R., Animators Survival Kit. New York: Faber & Faber, 2002.
Winder, C. and Dowlatabadi, Z., Producing Animation. Boston, MA: Focal
Press, 2001.
REFERENCE BOOKS
Breeze, C., Digital Audio Dictionary. Indianapolis, IN: Howard W. Sams, 1999.
Konigsberg, I., The Complete Film Dictionary. New York: Penguin Group, 1987.
ARTICLES
Benzuly, S., Production music libraries in 2004. Mix Magazine, April 1, 2004.
Droney, M., Avast and away! Mix Magazine, Jan. 1, 2003.
Hawkins, E., Cartoon cutups: music editing for TV animation. Electronic
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PRODUCTION FEATURETTES
Note: Page numbers in italics are for tables, those in bold are for figures.
a-synchronous dialogue 33–4 backgrounds (BGs) 18, 29, 72, 140; looping
AAC 6, 13, 142, 143, 144 126; panning 136
Aadahl, Erik 165, 166 backtiming 113
AC-3 13 backup drives 104
acoustics 4 Bacon, Chris 148
ADR (automated dialog replacement) Baker, Buddy 21
43, 44, 111; group 34, 136, 140; Balfe, Lorne 165
studio 39 bandwidth limiting 123
Ahrens, Lynn 53 bass roll-off 46
Aladdin 36, 147–148 Beauty and the Beast 16–17
Alice in Wonderland 148 Beck, Jackson 34
Alpha and Omega 148 Bee Movie 30, 151
Ament, Vanessa Theme 94 Bender, Lon 160, 166, 167, 172
American Tail 33 Benitez, Odin 168
amplitude 7–8, 12, 13, 123 Bernstein, Leonard 102
analog signals 10 Bird, Brad 20, 33
analog-to-digital (A/D) converters 10 bit-depths 12–13
Anastasia 54, 55, 148–149 Blanc, Mel 33
Anderson, Richard 148, 149, 152, 157, 164, blanket libraries 60
165, 167, 172, 173 blanket licensing 60
anempathetic cues 22 BluRay 107, 107, 143
animal speak 36 Bluth, Don 101
Ant Bully, The 26, 149 Bolt 151
anthropomorphism 21 boom poles 79, 80
Antz 28, 149 bouncing to disks or tracks 143
area-specific frequency response 82 Bradley, Scott 67–8
Aristocats, The 150 breaking the 4th wall 21
Atlantis: The Lost Empire 150 Bresnahan, James 43
audiation 1 bridging edits 29
audio clip or audio region 27 Brother Bear 152
audio codecs 6, 13, 143 Brown, Treg 71
audio compression 5, 6, 12 Bruns, George 147, 150, 163, 171
audio cross-fade 28 budget 67, 103, 104
automated dialog replacment see ADR Bug’s Life, A 22, 152–153
INDEX 187
underscore music 16, 18, 29, 30, 53–4, 72, Warner Brothers 19, 69, 71, 127
140; cues 57; panning 136; reverb 137 Watson, Greg 72
Up 177 wavelength 9
Ustinov, Peter 71 Welch, Christopher 162
wet and dry sound 4, 137
Valiant 178 Whittle, Gwendolyn 170
Van Der Ryn, Ethan 22, 166 Who Framed Roger Rabbit? 69, 179
vari-speed 120–121 whoosh effects 26, 122, 125
vertical shots 26 Wild, The 178–9
videogram licensing 64, 104 Wild Thornberry’s, The 180
virtual pre-dubs 131–133 Wilkinson, Kristin 159
vocal slate 83 Williams, Pharrell 156
Vocalign 48, 118 Williams, Robin 36
vocalizations 71 Willie Wonka & the Chocolate Factory 66
voice actors 33, 73; casting 9, 35; Wilson, Wade 85
directing 36–8; nerve-related problems wind distortion 46
46 wind noise 79
voice over 1, 111 wind socks 79, 80
voltage-controlled amplifier (VCA) 133 Winkleman, Kyle 31
volume 8, 17 wipes 24, 28
Wood, Matthew 175, 178
Wall-E 50, 178
wall-to-wall (nonstop) music 69 Yates, Gwendolyn 173
Walla 34–5, 72, 140
Wallace and Gromit: The Curse of the Zimmer, Hans 22, 164, 165, 168, 169, 170,
Were-Rabbit 179 172, 173
Wallace, Oliver 148, 163 zoom shots 26