IPHP
IPHP
The Formal fallacies are the violations of the rules on
Either inference or reasoning
Inferential Fallacies are committed when the rules on
Inferential argumentations are violated. It can be found.
On the Principle of Contradiction, subalternation, Contrariety and Subcontrariety.
The Principle of Contradiction
It is the outright denial of an opposing proposition.
Contradictory is related to the verb contradict, which means to say or do the opposite.
Example “No citizens are presidentiables” will have its contradictory proposition “Some citizens are
presidentiables.”
Is contradictory statement true or false?
A contradictory between two statements is a stronger kind of inconsistency between them, meaning a
situation in which two things do not match and are opposed or opposite If two sentences are
contradictory then one must be true and one must be false, but if they are inconsistent then both could
be false .
The Principle of Subalternation
-The truth of general instance subsumes the truth of a particular instance
-Subalternation – “Truth Flows downward, falsehood flows up”
➡️⬅️
Example: “If all presidentiables are citizens of a country” is true
It follows that “Some presidentiables are citizens of a country” is also true.
However, the truth of a particular instance precludes the truth of the general instance.
Are expensive,” is false, immediately it follows that “some brand-new cars are not expensive” is true.
Subcontrariety
Reminder:
The relationship between I and O Propositions
I – some is P
0-Some s is not P
Statement
Can be both true at the same time
Example:
I statement
“Some cats are four legs creature
O statement
“Some cats are not four leg creature.
Subcontrariety propositions are the opposite of,Contrariety they can both be true at the same time,
while contrariety they cannot be true at the
Same time however they can be false at the same time”
- If one is false the other must be true
-Cannot both be false
- If one subcontrary proposition is true it does not
Necessitate the truth or falsity of the other.
Eductive Inference
The four types of simple categorical propositions (A, E, I, O) that we study also implied.an equivalent
relation or an immediate inference. Immediate inference is a process of deriving a conclusion of
assumption from an original argument while retaining the truth value of the original proposition. What
is implied by the statement:”All men are bipeds?”
This proposition, “All men are bipeds,” implies that those who do not belong to the class of bipeds are
not men. Thus, we can deduce that “No men are non-bipeds.” If we assume as true that “All men are
bipeds,” then it follows to assume that “No men are Non-bipeds.”
This type of argument or propositional derivation is called eduction. By definition, eduction is a process
of immediate inference, whereby, from any proposition taken
As true, we derive others implied in it, through differing from the first in subject or predicate or both
(Bittle, 1950:155). There are three main forms of eduction: obversion, Conversion, and contraposition.
Conversion
Conversion is a process of immediate inference in which the inferred judgment takes the subject of the
original proposition as its predicate.
Example
Convertend:No carabao are pigs.
Converse: No pigs are carabaos.
Example
3.The quality of a term must not be affected in conversion, and the predicate term of affirmative
propositions must remain particular.
Example:
convertend: No rubies are diamonds. (In this case, the predicate is universal)
Convertend: Some Filipinos are millionaires. (In this case, the predicate is particular)
Converse: All rational animals are men. (Full conversion) Convertend : Some plants are not trees.
Obversion
Obversion is a process of immediate inference in which the inferred judgment has the complementary
class of the original predicate. Education involves two phases: quality and status of the predicate term.
The original proposition is called obvertend while the derived proposition is the obverse.
Contraposition
Contraposition is the process of eduction which combines conversion and obversion.
2. Substitution of the subject and predicate terms of the converse with their complementary class.
The original proposition is referred to as contraponend while the equivalent proposition is called the contrapositive.
Or All immortal beings are non-men. Thus, if the proposition, “All men are mortal beings” is true, then its
contrapositive “All immortal beings are non-men” is also true.
Example:
If we want to check our contrapositive propositions for its validity, the following procedure can be adopted:
Step 2. This is the contrapositive. And per and pre-Fall Ext The in this of four Fall terms.
Syllogistic Fallacies
-are brought about by the violation of the rules of reasoning as enumerated in the classic rules of
syllogism by Aristotle as adopted by the scholastics and perpetuated by the universities.
Fallacy of four terms – known as quadruped syllogism this fallacy used four terms in its argumentations
which is a gross violation of the syllogistic which states a syllogism must have only three terms, the
major term, minor and middle term.
The terms in italics indicate the number of terms used in this example. Hence, the syllogism committed
the fallacy of four terms.
Fallacy of excluded third – this fallacy arises when the quantity of the middle terms are both particular.
The rule states that at least once, the middle term should be universal.
Note that the middle terms ‘’animals’’ are both particular, hence, the fallacy. It may be acceptable that
the terms ‘’dogs’’ and ‘’labrador retrievers’’ belong to the class ‘’animals,’’ but the fact remains that the
middle terms are particular.
Fallacy of illicit process – when the quantity of either the major or the minor terms are particular in the
premises, and in the conclusion the quantity of either of the terms becomes universal, the fallacy of illicit
process is committed. If the error is with the major term, then the fallacy is called Fallacy of illicit major.
on the other hand, if the error is with the minor term, the fallacy is called fallacy of illicit minor.