The Formal Argumentations

 
The Formal fallacies are the violations of the rules on 
Either inference or reasoning 
 
Inferential Fallacies are committed when the rules on 
Inferential argumentations are violated. It can be found.  
On the Principle of Contradiction, subalternation, Contrariety and Subcontrariety. 
 
The Principle of Contradiction   
 It is the outright denial of an opposing proposition.  
Contradictory is related to the verb contradict, which means to say or do the opposite. 
Example “No citizens are presidentiables” will have its contradictory proposition “Some citizens are
presidentiables.” 
Is contradictory statement true or false?   
A contradictory between two statements is a stronger kind of inconsistency between them, meaning a
situation in which two things do not match and are opposed or opposite If two sentences are
contradictory then one must be true and one must be false, but if they are inconsistent then both could
be false . 
 
The Principle of Subalternation 
 
-The truth of general instance subsumes the truth of a particular instance
-Subalternation – “Truth Flows downward, falsehood flows up” 
         ➡️⬅️ 
 
Example: “If all presidentiables are citizens of a country” is true 
 It follows that “Some presidentiables are citizens of a country” is also true.   
However, the truth of a particular instance precludes the truth of the general instance.  

Example: All S are P 

                  Some S are P 
  
Therefore 
It is not the case that some S are not P 
It is not the case that no S are P  
  
If the particular is false, then the universal is false. 
If the universal is true, then the particular is true. 
 
Otherwise their status cannot be determined. 
 
The Principle of Contrariety 
 
This principle clearly states that the truth of a general instance will make an opposing general instance
false. 
 
Example: If the proposition, “Presidents are citizens of a country” is true, necessarily it follows that
“Presidents are not citizens of a country is false. 
On the other hand, if a general instance is assumed false, the opposing proposition may be true or false.
thus, “Presidents are citizens of a country” is false, the proposition “Presidents are not citizens of a
country” 
May either be true or false or indeterminate. 
 
If one contrary proposition is false it does not. 
Necessitate the truth or falsity of the other one.  
 
Remember the relationship between A statement E statements  
A -------- E – Contrariety  
I --------- O- Subcontrariety  

If one of them is false, the other one could be false 

  If E is False, A can also be false. 
 JUST BECAUSE ONE IS FALSE DOESN’T  
NECESSARILY MEAN THE OTHER IS TRUE 
 
However, if one of them is true, then the other one has to be false 
That means. 
That they both can’t be true but they 
Can both be false. A <> E -contrariety 
 
They cannot be true at the same time. 
However, they can be false at the same time.” 
 
Reminders: 
 
They can both be false they can’t both be true.  
 
Contrariety- is the relationship between A and E statements. 
 
The Principle of Subcontrariety 
 
 
The principle states that there is plurality of things. The plurality of things implies various indicating 
Plurality of truths, and it is in this instance.the deduction as true-false continuum cannot be 
Immediately ascertained. 
 
Hence to the truth of a particular instance does not 
Necessarily mean the falsity of another instance. However, the falsity of a particular instance 
Necessarily implies the truth of an opposing. 
Instance Thus, “if the proposition, some brand-new cars 

Are expensive,” is false, immediately it follows that “some brand-new cars are not expensive” is true. 
 
Subcontrariety 
Reminder: 
 The relationship between I and O Propositions 
 
I – some is P  
0-Some s is not P 
Statement 
 
Can be both true at the same time 
Example:  
     I statement 
“Some cats are four legs creature 
      O statement 
“Some cats are not four leg creature. 
 
Subcontrariety propositions are the opposite of,Contrariety they can both be true at the same time,
while contrariety they cannot be true at the 
Same time however they can be false at the same time” 
 
- If one is false the other must be true 
-Cannot both be false 
- If one subcontrary proposition is true it does not 
Necessitate the truth or falsity of the other. 
 
Eductive Inference 
 
The four types of simple categorical propositions (A, E, I, O) that we study also implied.an equivalent
relation or an immediate inference. Immediate inference is a process of deriving a conclusion of
assumption from an original argument while retaining the truth value of the original proposition. What
is implied by the statement:”All men are bipeds?” 
 
This proposition, “All men are bipeds,” implies that those who do not belong to the class of bipeds are
not men. Thus, we can deduce that “No men are non-bipeds.” If we assume as true that “All men are
bipeds,” then it follows to assume that “No men are Non-bipeds.”  
 
 This type of argument or propositional derivation is called eduction. By definition, eduction is a process
of immediate inference, whereby, from any proposition taken 
As true, we derive others implied in it, through differing from the first in subject or predicate or both
(Bittle, 1950:155). There are three main forms of eduction: obversion, Conversion, and contraposition. 

Conversion

Conversion is a process of immediate inference in which the inferred judgment takes the subject of the
original proposition as its predicate.

There are three rules to obverse in making the conversion.

1.Swap subject and predicate terms to maintain quality and quantity.

Example
Convertend:No carabao are pigs.
Converse: No pigs are carabaos.

2.The converse must be affirmative or negative.

Example

Convertend:Some students are athletes.

Converse:Some athletes are students.

3.The quality of a term must not be affected in conversion, and the predicate term of affirmative
propositions must remain particular.

Example:

convertend: No rubies are diamonds. (In this case, the predicate is universal)

Converse: No diamonds are rubies.

Convertend: Some Filipinos are millionaires. (In this case, the predicate is particular)

Converse: Some millionaires are Filipinos.

Convertend: All plants are living beings.

Converse: Some living beings are plants. (Conversion by limitation)

Convertend: All men are rational animals.

Converse: All rational animals are men. (Full conversion) Convertend : Some plants are not trees.

Converse: Some trees are not plants.

Obversion

Obversion is a process of immediate inference in which the inferred judgment has the complementary
class of the original predicate. Education involves two phases: quality and status of the predicate term.
The original proposition is called obvertend while the derived proposition is the obverse.

1. The obvertend is replaced with the complementary class of its predicate.

 Obvertend: All men are rational animals.

Obverse: No men are non-rational animals

2. The obvertend is an E proposition with its predicate replaced.

Obvertend: No dogs are rational animals.

Obverse: All dogs are non-rational animals.

3.The obvertend predicate is replaced with the complementary class predicate

Obvertend: Some students are scholars.

Obverse: Some students are not non-scholars.

4.The obvertend is an I proposition with its predicate replaced.

Obvertend: Some bipedal animals are not birds.

Obverse: Some bipedal animals are non-birds.

Contraposition
Contraposition is the process of eduction which combines conversion and obversion.

It is formed by two steps:

1. Application of the conversion process.

2. Substitution of the subject and predicate terms of the converse with their complementary class.

The original proposition is referred to as contraponend while the equivalent proposition is called the contrapositive.

Example: Contraponend: All men are mortal beings.

Contrapositive: All non-mortal beings are non-men.

Or All immortal beings are non-men. Thus, if the proposition, “All men are mortal beings” is true, then its
contrapositive “All immortal beings are non-men” is also true.

Example:

Contraponend: Some prisoners are not innocent individuals.

 Contrapositive: Some non-innocent individuals are not non-prisoners. Concerning the I propositions, the
contrapositive is generally invalid. For the E proposition, its contrapositive is an O proposition. This procedure is
called as partial contraposition, Hence, if we argue

No spiritual beings are moral being.

Its contraposition will be:

Some non-mortal beings are not non-spiritual beings.

If we want to check our contrapositive propositions for its validity, the following procedure can be adopted:

Original Proposition Step 1: Form the obverse.

Step 2: Form the converse of Step 1.

Step 3: Form the obverse of

Step 2. This is the contrapositive. And per and pre-Fall Ext The in this of four Fall terms.

Syllogistic Fallacies

-are brought about by the violation of the rules of reasoning as enumerated in the classic rules of
syllogism by Aristotle as adopted by the scholastics and perpetuated by the universities.

The rules and the present examples based on the rules:

Fallacy of four terms – known as quadruped syllogism this fallacy used four terms in its argumentations
which is a gross violation of the syllogistic which states a syllogism must have only three terms, the
major term, minor and middle term.

Ex. All birds are oviparous animals.

The Philippine eagle is a national treasure.

Therefore, the Philippine eagle is a bird.

The terms in italics indicate the number of terms used in this example. Hence, the syllogism committed
the fallacy of four terms.

Fallacy of excluded third – this fallacy arises when the quantity of the middle terms are both particular.
The rule states that at least once, the middle term should be universal.

Ex. Dogs are animals.

Labrador retrievers are animals.

 Therefore, Labrador retrievers are dogs.

Note that the middle terms ‘’animals’’ are both particular, hence, the fallacy. It may be acceptable that
the terms ‘’dogs’’ and ‘’labrador retrievers’’ belong to the class ‘’animals,’’ but the fact remains that the
middle terms are particular.

Fallacy of illicit process – when the quantity of either the major or the minor terms are particular in the
premises, and in the conclusion the quantity of either of the terms becomes universal, the fallacy of illicit
process is committed. If the error is with the major term, then the fallacy is called Fallacy of illicit major.
on the other hand, if the error is with the minor term, the fallacy is called fallacy of illicit minor.

Ex. Birds are oviparous.

No four-legged animals are birds.

Therefore, no oviparous are four-legged animals (illicit minor)

Men are rational animals.

No four-legged animals are men.

Therefore, no four-legged animals are rational animals (illicit major).