Institute of Human Nutrition and Food

College of Human Ecology

University of the Philippines Los Baños
Institute of Human Nutrition and Food
College of Human Ecology
University of the Philippines Los Baños

2nd SEMESTER, A.Y. 2022-2023

MODULE 4.
CEREALS, STARCH, FLOURS AND FLOUR MIXTURES
Introduction
Cereal is a staple all over the world. In the Philippines, the major cereal is rice. Majority of the
products you see in the snack aisle section at the grocery store are made from or with cereal
grains. Cereals contain easily digested carbohydrates that provide energy. The largest component
in the cereal grain is the endosperm, which is basically starch, making starch the main
carbohydrates in cereals. Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants. As you have
learned in Module 1, roots and tubers also store nutrients for plants, that is mostly starch. The
composition of cereal starch differs from root starch, and these differences are manipulated and
utilized to make superb dishes and products. Flours are processed forms of the cereal grain and
root crops. In this module, you will learn the different cereal grains and their products, as well as
flour and starch and their role in food preparation.

Learning Objectives
After working through this chapter, you should be able to:
1. describe the different types of cereals and products;
2. discuss the functional properties of starch;
3. differentiate flours and flour mixtures; and,
4. explain the gluten development of common flours.

Instructional Procedures:
1. Read about cereals, starches, and flours in Module 4.
2. View the infographics and watch the videos provided.
3. Answer Knowledge Self-Assessment 4.

Time Allotted: 3 weeks (Apr 3- May 5)

Reading Materials/Videos:

Infographics
1. Gluten development
2. Bread making process
3. Bread mixing methods

Video Links
HarvardX. (2017, October 6). The physics of baking [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXCrTJLk_kY
HarvardX. (2017, May 12). How does flour affect bread texture? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IIomZb_ex_U
I. Cereals and Cereal Cookery

A. Definition

Cereals refers to all cereal products prepared from grains or seeds of the monocotyledonous
grass family Gramineae. Cereals are used in many dishes and applications; this food group is
considered a staple dietary source in most countries. Cereals are used for human food, livestock
feed, and as a source of industrial starch.

1. Common cereal grains

a) Rice

Rice is the staple crop of the Philippines, known as bigas when uncooked, and kanin when
cooked. It is from the grass species commonly Oryza sativa and is one of the most important
crops in Asia. In its grain form, rice is consumed as either brown rice, milled rice, or parboiled
rice. Rice can be classified according to subspecies—japonica (short grain and sticky) and indica
(long grain and less sticky). Rice can also be classified according to amylose content, which is
responsible for the tenderness and firmness of cooked rice so as its staling property. Rice can be
consumed as whole grain or polished (without the bran). Whole grain rice is also known as brown
rice, which still contains the bran. Brown rice has gained its popularity in the health scene as
polished generally contains less vitamins, minerals, protein, and fiber lost during milling.
Unpolished rice, however, is more susceptible to infestation, rancidity, and deterioration than
polished rice.

Table 1. Classification of rice according to amylose content

Classification Amylose content* Example
High 25-30% Wagwag
Intermediate 20-25% Milagrosa
Low <20% Japonica
Waxy 0% Malagkit
*Source: http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ricebreedingcourse/Grain_quality.htm

b) Wheat
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is the most consumed cereal grain in the United States. Wheat grains
are widely used in several applications and market forms—it can be made into flour, breads,
pasta, and cereals (breakfast cereals). It can also be cracked to form bulgur (partially boiled, dried
and cracked whole grains). Wheat is classified according to several factors. It may be classified
according to season—winter or spring wheat. Another classification is color, wheat can be red,
white, or amber, depending on their carotenoid content. Wheat can also be classified by its
texture; hard wheat kernels contain stronger starch-protein bonds than soft wheat. Because of
this, hard wheat flour forms an elastic dough that is ideal for breads whereas soft wheat is
preferred for cakes and pastries. The differences of these flours will be further elaborated in
Chapter 12 (Flours and Flour Mixtures). Gluten is the protein complex that influences the texture
of most cereal foods, especially wheat. However, there are persons who are gluten sensitive or
gluten intolerant, which is characterized by diarrhea, electrolyte imbalance, and even weight loss.
Wheat is considered as one of the most common allergens (Big 8 allergens) together with milk,
eggs, tree nuts, peanuts, fish, shellfish, and soy.

c) Corn
Corn (Zea mays L.) also known as maize is the third most important crop in the world. Corn is
mostly used for animal feed, but corn is processed to make a plethora of food products and
ingredients such as corn grits, flour, corn starch, porridges, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, snack
foods, oil, and corn syrup or high-fructose corn syrup. Corn can be classified as flint (hard outer
layer, soft endosperm), dent (high soft starch content, has a small dent each kernel of a ripe ear),
floury (soft starchy endosperm, thin pericarp), sweet (high sugar content), popcorn (expands and
pops when heated), waxy (sticky when cooked due to high amylopectin contents), and pigmented
and multicolored.

d) Oats
Oats (Avena sativa L.) are utilized as a source of energy and regarded for its high protein content.
Oats are added to make ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. The hull is removed during milling, then
the oats are steamed and rolled. Oat bran has been of interest by many health enthusiasts
because it contains soluble fiber that can reduce serum cholesterol. Aside from a good source of
fiber, oats are high in essential amino acids, vitamin B1, phosphorus, iron, and unsaturated fatty
acids (oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acid).

e) Barley
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is utilized to make malt, breads, alcoholic beverages, and non-alcoholic
beverages. Barley is the most common cereal used in malt production since it has enough enzyme
(diastase) to hydrolyze starch to sugar. Malt is used in making brewed drinks, breakfast cereals,
candies, baked products, and malted chocolate drinks.

f) Millet
Millet is a group of small seed grass crops. The most common are proso millet (Panicum
miliaceum L.), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), and foxtail millet (Setaria italica). Millet is used
to make soups, cereal, and even breads.

g) Sorghum
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour subs bicolor) is a type of millet but with larger seeds. Sorghum
contains no gluten and has low allergenicity that makes this cereal attractive to individuals with
wheat/gluten sensitivity. Sorghum is utilized as raw material for pancakes, porridge, cakes, pasta,
snack foods, and beverages. Lastly, sorghum also contains high phenolic compounds.
 h) Rye
Rye (Secale cereale) is closely related to wheat—it has higher lysine content than wheat but has
relatively low gluten-forming capacity. Rye can be classified in terms of color which are dark,
medium, and light. Rye bread is usually a combination of rye and wheat flour. In comparison to
pure wheat breads, rye bread volumes are lower by half but are richer in flavor and aroma.
Moreover, rye breads have a longer shelf-life than wheat breads. This is because rye contains
pentosans (D-xylose and L-arabinose) that retain moisture. Rye is used to make whiskey.

i) Triticale
Triticale is a hybrid of wheat and rye. It has the gluten-forming potential of wheat and high lysine
content of rye. It is utilized to make bread and noodles.

B. Composition and Structure

1. Structure of a cereal grain

Cereal grains have similar major components which are husk, bran, germ, and endosperm.

a) Husk – also known as chaff, is the

rough outer covering of the
grain. It protects the grain from
Endosperm
extreme temperatures, insects,
and other environmental factors. Bran

b) Bran – it is the outer coat of the

kernel; it consists of pericarp
(outer covering) and seed coat
(inner layer). It is often removed Germ
during milling. Bran is around Figure 1. Parts of a cereal grain
14.5% of the seed. It has 19%
protein, 3-5% fat, and iron. Bran provides fiber, primarily cellulose and hemicellulose,
which are insoluble fibers. Insoluble fibers serve as roughage that keeps the gut healthy.

c) Germ – also known as embryo, is located at the lower end of the inner kernel. Germ is
2.5% of the kernel, it has the highest fat content (6-10%) among the other components
of the seed and contains most of the thiamin. Its high fat content dictates the shelf-life of
the kernel and its products. Whole grain flour for example, is more prone to rancidity
(both oxidative and hydrolytic) as both bran and germ are included in this type of flour.

d) Endosperm – comprises around 83% of the seed, contains most of the protein,
carbohydrates, iron, B-vitamins (riboflavin, niacin, and thiamin). It is primarily composed
of starch and clasped in a protein matrix. Endosperm is made into flour during milling.
2. Nutrient content

a) Carbohydrate is the main nutrient component of cereals at 79-83% dry matter of grain
which is predominantly starch. Cereal grains are a great source of carbohydrates.

b) Protein is approximately 7-14% of the grain. Cereals are low in tryptophan, methionine,
and lysine. Cereals are incomplete proteins; therefore, the grains are paired with other
food groups such as legumes to achieve protein complementation. Some grains, such as
wheat, contain gluten-forming proteins gliadin and glutenin. Gluten contributes to
strength and elasticity of dough, which is important in bread making. Gluten and bread
making will be discussed in the succeeding chapters.

c) Fat comprises 1-7% of the cereal grain. The lipid profile and amount is dependent on the
type of grain such that rice, wheat and corn contain 1-2% whereas oats 4-7%.

d) Fibers in cereal grains are both soluble (pectic substances and gums) and insoluble fibers
(cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin).

e) Vitamins and minerals are also present in cereal grains. B-vitamins such as thiamin (B1),
riboflavin (B2), and niacin (B3) are most common however some are lost during milling.

Table 2. Percent composition of common cereal grains (100g) *

Grain Carbohydrate Fat Protein Fiber Water
Wheat flour 71.0 2.0 13.3 2.3 12.0
Rice 80.4 0.4 6.7 0.3 12.0
Corn meal 78.4 1.2 7.9 0.6 12.0
Rolled oats 68.2 7.4 14.2 1.2 8.3
Rye flour 74.8 1.7 11.4 1.0 11.1
Barley 78.9 trace 10.4 0.4 10.0
*source: Vaclavik and Christian

C. Market Forms

1. Common uses of Cereals

a) Flour – made from the endosperm of the grain, but for whole grain flours, bran and germ
are included in the milling process. Flour can then be utilized for making breads and snack
foods.
b) Starch – from the starchy component of the endosperm.
c) Oil – obtained by processing the germ.
d) Pasta – from different types of flour, may be dried or fresh form.
 e) Breakfast cereal – also known as ready-to-eat cereals. Most of the breakfast cereals are
made from wheat, corn, or oats. Grains are either extruded, flaked, granulated, puffed,
rolled, and shredded to make breakfast cereals.
f) Alcoholic beverages – some grains are used to make alcoholic beverages through
fermentation. Fermentation is a process of converting sugar to organic acids or alcohol
by yeast or bacteria. Examples of fermented cereals are sake (Japanese rice wine), tapuy
(Philippine rice wine), and beer (maybe made from wheat, barley, maize, and other
cereals).

2. Market forms of different cereal grains

a) Rice

(1) Rice may be processed in different forms, depending on type and processing. It
may be derived from rough rice or paddy rice (whole grain rice with hull), or any
of the milling by-products.
(2) Brown rice is a type of rice where only the hull is removed, the bran and germ are
still intact. The presence of bran provides more fiber but also requires more
cooking time and has a firmer texture than white rice.
(3) White rice on the other hand is produced by milling and polishing thus removing
the husk, bran, and germ. Removal of these components however also takes away
most of the fiber, B-vitamins, and iron. Thus, white rice is enriched to restore some
of the lost vitamins.
(4) Parboiled rice or converted rice is made from soaked, pressure-steamed, and
dried rice prior to milling. Parboiling allows water soluble nutrients from the germ
and bran to travel to the endosperm. Therefore, more nutrients are retained after
milling. This type of rice is generally used in restaurants for the grains to stay
separated and firm.
(5) Pre-gelatinized rice or instant rice is produced by drying cooked rice. This is usually
used for emergency food as it takes only minutes to prepare and its low moisture
provides a shelf-stable product.
(6) Rice noodles can be prepared flat or extruded. Flat rice noodles come in different
widths, used in dishes such as Vietnames Phò and Pad Thai. Rice vermicelli on the
other hand is made by extruding rice flour into vermicelli-sized noodles. Rice
vermicelli is used for stir-fried noodle recipes and spring rolls.
(7) Rice flour is made by milling waxy or non-waxy rice either rolling, stone-milling,
and pounding among others. Rice starch on the other hand is prepared by wet
milling rice with sodium hydroxide to remove protein.

(8) Other common market forms of rice are—pinipig – parboiled waxy rice, pounded,
winnowed, and toasted; rice grits or binlid – broken rice grains; and galapong –
ground rice with water.
b) Wheat

(1) Wheat is popularly known for its flour. There are other forms of wheat products
available in the market.
(2) Wheat berries also known as groats are unprocessed whole kernels. Wheat
berries may be soaked and boiled before consumption. Wheat berries can be
rolled (like rolled oats) and cracked.
(3) Bulgur is made from steamed, dried, and cracked wheat berries. This process
produces a stronger nutty wheat flavor than unprocessed wheat berries. Bulgur is
a popular ingredient in Lebanese cuisines.
(4) Farina is produced from pulverized wheat middlings of endosperm. Farina is used
as a creamy porridge.
(5) Couscous is a processed grain made from semolina flour. Couscous is an
ingredient in several Mediterranean dishes and usually added to salads.
Wheat beer made by allowing yeast to ferment wheat grains. Examples of wheat
beer are Weizenbier or Hefeweizen (German white beer made from malted
wheat), Belgian Witbier (coriander- and orange peel- spiced unmalted wheat
beer), Berliner Weisse (sour beer), and Gose (coriander- and salt-spiced sour
beer). Whiskey, on the other hand, is an example of alcohol distillates made from
wheat.

c) Corn

(1) Corn on the cob is a market form of corn wherein the cereal is eaten directly off
the cob. Kernel corn, on the other hand, is marketed as corn kernel that are
removed from the cob. It is used as a vegetable in several dishes.
(2) Cornmeal is simply coarsely ground corn. Used as an ingredient for breads and
pizza crust. It has higher fat content than wheat flour. Cornmeal is also used as the
main raw material in some corn chips.
(3) Cornstarch is corn endosperm that is ground finely. It is often used for breading
and as thickener for gravies and sauces.
(4) Corn oil is the oil extracted from the corn germ.
(5) Corn syrup is produced by treating cornstarch with enzymes to create a viscous
liquid consisting of fructose, glucose, dextrins, and maltose. High fructose corn
syrup (HFCS) is derived when corn syrup is further processed by addition of
glucose isomerase to convert glucose to fructose. HFCS is used as a sweetener for
fruit juices, soft drinks, and baked products.

d) Oats

Oat groats are whole oats with husks removed. This type of product can be prepared like
rice. Rolled oats are oat groats that were heated then pressed flat with rollers. Rolled
oats are sold as old-fashioned, quick-cooking, or instant oatmeal.
D. Applications and principles of cereal cookery

The main aims of cereal cookery are to improve palatability and increase digestibility through
softening of cellulose and gelatinization of starch.

1. Fundamental principles in rice cookery

a) Proper ratio of water to cereal
b) Complete gelatinization
c) Prevention of lumping
d) Retention of discrete grains
e) Prevention of scorching

2. Changes during cooking

a) Denaturation of proteins during heating, increasing its digestibility;

b) In moist heat methods, such as boiling, steaming, and simmering, starch granules undergo
gelatinization. This phenomenon produces a tender cereal with increased volume and
digestibility;
c) Dry heat cooking methods such as roasting and toasting breaks down starch into dextrins,
decrease its ability to swell and undergo gelatinization;
d) The size of grains as well as its processing method influence cooking time; and
e) Loss of vitamins and minerals are dependent on the cooking method, volume of water
added, and cooking temperature.

3. Preparation of rice grains

a) Preparation
Rice grains are rinsed in water to remove any debris, filth, and insects that might be
present.

b) Moist heat cooking

Moist heat cooking of cereal grains is usually boiling and simmering. Gelatinization occurs
during this process as starch molecules present in the grain absorb water allowing the
grains to expand two to three times their volume. Sufficient amount of water is added to
the grains then allowed to boil in a covered pan. After boiling, heat is reduced to simmer
until the grains are completely cooked. Stirring influences the grain consistency of the
cooked cereal. Stirring causes premature rupture of cereal grains and may yield a gummy
product. Some techniques require occasional stirring to prevent scorching. Doneness of
the grain is characterized by being tender with a firm center. Overcooked are mushy and
the grains are not distinct whereas undercooked grains have a hard texture and starchy
flavor.
 c) Dry/Combination heat cooking
Rice grains can also be prepared by sautéing and baking. Sautéing cereal grains maybe
referred to as pilaf method where rice is sautéed in oil and herbs or spices then boiling
stock is poured over the grain and then simmered until done.

Table 3. Rice to water proportions of cooking rice (Serraon-Claudio et al, 2014).

rice:water Weight of Weight of Cups of Yield of cooked %Water in
(by weight) rice (g) water (g) water rice (cups) cooked rice
1:1 200 200 4/5 2 56
1:1.2 200 240 1 2 and 1/5 60
1:1.5 200 300 1 and ¼ 2 and ½ 62
1:1.8 200 360 1 and ½ 2 and 4/5 68
1:2 200 400 1 and 2/3 3 70
1:2.5 200 500 2 3 and ½ 75
1:3 200 600 2.5 4 78
1:3.6 200 720 3 4 and 2/3 80
1:4.8 200 960 4 6 85
1:6 200 1200 5 7 87

4. Factors influencing cereal cookery

1. Presence of bran or hull increases the required amount of water.
2. pH of water – more alkaline water such as hard water hastens breakdown of cellulose
thus grains are cooked faster.
3. Particle size of the grain – smaller grain size decreases cooking time.

5. Common methods of cooking rice

a) Soaking prior to cooking. Adsorption and absorption of water by the grains will decrease
the cooking time.
b) Boiling (sinaing)
c) Use of rice cooker

6. Role of ingredients in rice cookery

a) Acids, sugar, and fat delay gelatinization therefore, must be added when gelatinization
has taken place or the rice is almost done;
b) Eggs, milk, and gelatin increases the viscosity of the mixture;
c) Alkali makes rice yellowish. Lye or lihia (used in suman sa lihia) is responsible for the
orange-brown color and sticky consistency of the suman.

E. Storage and care

Cereal grains can be stored in dry, refrigerated, and frozen environments. Aside from the
moisture of the grain itself, the moisture of the environment greatly affects the storage stability
of the grains. In dry environments, polished grains are stored in airtight containers to protect the
grains from insects and rodents. It is recommended that the grains are stored at less than 70%
relative humidity as grains will tend to equilibrate with the moisture of the air surrounding it.
Whole grains (with bran and germ) are stored in refrigerated conditions to slow down rancidity
and mold growth.

1. General storage guidelines

a) Store as dry products with 10 – 15% moisture content.

b) Aging or storing grains hardens the kernels and decreases the solubility of starch and
protein.
c) Polished rice and whole corn kernels store longer than the unpolished or whole rice
because the bran and germ shorten the shelf-life.
d) Store in tightly covered containers and in dry cool place because cereal grains are
hygroscopic and thus tend to absorb moisture from the air.

II. Starch and Alimentary Paste

A. Definition

Starch is a polysaccharide found in plants—stored in roots, seeds, and in the endosperm of

the kernel. It supplies 4 kcal/gram. Starch is synthesized by plants through photosynthesis—
glucose is converted to starch then used for energy or stored in roots, tubers, stems, and
seeds. Aside as the primary component of staples (as a source of energy), starches are used
as thickeners, binders, and stabilizers in many dishes. It provides the framework in baked
goods, serves as a humectant (moisture-retaining) in cake fillings and candies, as coating and
dusting in breads, and diluent in baking powder formulations.

B. Food Sources and Kinds

1. Sources of starch

a) Cereals – wheat, corn, rice

b) Root crops – cassava, sweet potato, potato, purple yam (ubi)
c) Legumes – mungbean, cowpea, soybean
d) Fruits – bananas
e) Sago palm – stems and trunks

2. Kinds of starch

a) Natural starch – unmodified native starch, isolated from the plant cell.
b) Modified starch – chemically modified natural starches done to improve shelf-life,
appearance, and process handling of food and ingredients.
 (1) Pre-gelatinized – a type of starch that has been gelatinized then dried, by doing
this, pre-gelatinized starch is dispersible in cold water and swells in liquid even
without heat. It is used for gravies, and instant pudding mixes.
(2) Acidified – starch that is treated with acid and heated less than the gelatinization
temperature. This type of starch is less viscous when hot but forms a strong gel
upon cooling.
(3) Cross-linked – starches that underwent a molecular reaction cross-linking two
starch molecules (at their hydroxyl (-OH) groups). Cross-linking is done to allow
starch to withstand high temperatures, low pH, and high shear thus making it
resistant to rupture than native starch.

C. Physical Structure and Chemical Composition

1. Physical Structure
Starch granules from different sources differ in size and shape. Sizes range from 2 to 150µm
while shapes vary from being round or polygonal. Wheat starch has spherical and flat-circular
granules, rice and corn have polyhedral granules, and potato starch has oval-shaped
granules. Rice starch granules are very small at about 6µm in diameter, corn starch at around
35µm, while potato starch have large granules that can exceed 100µm. More so, pure starch
granules of a crop are not uniform in size, this is the reason why the gelatinization point is a
range of temperature as larger granules gelatinize faster than smaller.

-
\

Wheat Rice Corn

Cassava Potato Sago

Figure 2. Starch granules of selected starches

2. Composition

Starch is composed of several glucose molecules linked together by alpha glycosidic bonds.
Starch consists of two components—amylose (approximately ¼ of the starch granule) and
amylopectin (approximately ¾ of the starch granule). Amylose is a long linear chain of
glucose molecules, connected by alpha-1,4 linkages. Amylose is responsible for the gelation
of cooked, cooled starch pastes as it forms a three-dimensional network as they associate
upon cooling. This phenomenon allows high amylose starches (or mixture of starches) to gel
and hold its shape when molded. Amylopectin on the other hand, also contains alpha-1,4
linkages but with alpha-1,6 branching for every 15- 30 glucose units. Since the chains are
branched, starches with higher amylopectin do not form a gel, unlike amylose. The greater
the amount of amylopectin, the more viscous the paste whereas, higher amylose provides a
stronger gel. Almost all starches contain a ratio of both amylose and amylopectin, there are
a few that consist entirely of amylopectin—these are called waxy starches.

Table 4. Amylose and amylopectin contents of some starches*

Starch Amylose (%) Amylopectin (%)
Potato 21 79
Tapioca 17 83
Corn 28 72
Waxy corn 0 100
Wheat 28 72
*Source: Brown (2011)

Table 5. Properties of amylose and amylopectin

Properties Amylose Amylopectin
Solubility in water Very soluble Less soluble
Translucency of paste Opaque Less opaque
Adhesiveness of paste Very adhesive Less adhesive
Viscosity of paste Less viscous Viscous
Cohesiveness of paste Not cohesive Cohesive
Ability to gel Easily thickens and gels Thickens but do not gel
Retrogradation Easily undergoes Less likely to undergo
retrogradation retrogradation

Amylose

= 1 glucose unit

Amylopectin

Figure 3. Amylose and amylopectin structures

D. Principles of Starch Cookery

1. Gelatinization

Gelatinization is one of the most important phenomena during cooking. Gelatinization

happens when starch granules are heated during moist heat cooking. When starch is
combined with water, it forms a suspension. Here, starch may imbibe a minute amount of
water however, minimal change is observed in the starch granule. Upon heating, more water
is taken up into the granule through a process called imbibition. As heating continues, starch
takes up more water and swells. During this process, some of the short chain amylose
molecules leach out of the granules—this process is known as gelatinization. Thickening is
apparent as more amylose comes out of the granules into the liquid and more swollen
granules taking up space in the mixture. This water-starch mixture is known as a sol. At this
point, the ordered crystalline structure of the starch is lost. Increased translucency in the
mixture is also observed. The increased volume and gumminess caused by gelatinization
greatly affects the texture of many food matrices.

a) Factors affecting gelatinization

(1) Water – as mentioned, gelatinization occurs when starch is heated with the presence of
water. The amount of water must be sufficient and available for absorption of starch.
Water needed is dependent on the concentration of starch in the mixture as well as the
ratio of amylose and amylopectin in the starch.

(2) Acid – acids (pH<4.0) weakens the thickening power of starches as it causes
fragmentation and formation of short chain polymers known as dextrins. As acid causes
hydrolysis of the starch molecule, less water is absorbed by the starch granule producing
a thinner paste and less firm cooled product. It is recommended that addition of acids
such as lemon juice, vinegar, and wine are done after the starch undergoes
gelatinization.

(3) Sugar – delays the onset of gelatinization and elevates the gelatinization temperature
as it competes with starch for the available water thus delaying the absorption of water
by starch granules. This results in decreased starch paste viscosity and less firm cooked
and cooled product. Similarly with acid, sugar addition must be done at the latter part
of the cooking process, moreover, only moderate amounts of sugar must be added as
too much sugar may inhibit gelatinization completely.

(4) Fat/Protein – both fat and protein delay gelatinization by coating starch granules thus
preventing them from absorbing water.

(5) Temperature – different starches have different gelatinization temperatures. Larger

starch granules gelatinize at lower temperatures.
(6) Time – sufficient time is needed to allow all granules to swell. However, continued
heating after gelatinization causes starch granules to rupture thus decreases viscosity of
the paste.

(7) Agitation – stirring allows granules to swell independently and creates a more uniform
mixture. However, too much agitation such as vigorous stirring after gelatinization
ruptures granules that results in thin, slippery pastes.

Table 6. Gelatinization temperatures of some starches*

Temperature
Starch Characteristics of cooked starch
(°C)
Root starches 56-70 viscous, long-bodied, clear
pastes; weak gel upon cooling
Cereal starches 62-75 viscous, short-bodied paste;
opaque gel upon cooling
Waxy cereal starches 63-74 heavy-bodied, stringy, clear
pastes; resistant to gelling upon
cooling
High-amylose starches 100-160 short-bodied pastes; rigid,
opaque gel upon cooling
*Source: Brown (2011)

2. Gelation
Gelation or gel formation comes after gelatinization. Not all starches gel, gel formation is
dependent on the amount of sufficient amylose because amylopectin does not form a gel.
Gel forms as the gelatinized sol cools down. This is because amylose is a linear, straight-
chained molecule so they form strong bonds upon cooling that creates a three-dimensional
network that traps water and increases the rigidity of the gel; while branched amylopectin
forms a weak bond. Cereals such as corn starch and wheat form a gel while waxy cereals and
most root starches do not form a gel.

3. Retrogradation
Retrogradation occurs as the gel cools where starch reverts to a more crystalline structure.
This likely happens in high amylose starches. Freezing (low temperature in general) speeds
up retrogradation however, during the freeze-thaw cycle, melted ice crystals are not able to
combine with starch consequently losing water. Retrogradation is responsible for the staling
of bread and hardening of cooked rice during storage but also the firming and increased
opacity of gel during cooling. This reaction involves amylose initially. Amylopectin also
undergoes retrogradation but with a much longer rate than amylose. Retrogradation of
amylopectin happens due to the association of its outer branches.

4. Syneresis
Also known as weeping, syneresis is the leaking of water out of the gel. This is caused by
retrogradation—as cooled gel ages, further association of amylose follows, causing gel
 contraction and eventually water loss and shrinkage. This is what happens when left over
sauces such as gravy and sweet-sour sauce (for fish balls or lumpiang shanghai) is stored in
the refrigerator. May also be seen in puddings, jellies, custards, gelatin and agar. As the gel
turns rigid, the surface hardens, and the size is reduced due to loss of water that can be
found at the bottom of the container.

5. Dextrinization
It is the breakdown of starch molecules into smaller and sweeter molecules. Dextrinization
occurs during dry heat cooking method. Starches that undergo dextrinization decrease its
thickening power. The process of gelatinization may be observed in toasting bread, toasting
rice flour for kare-kare, and browning flour for polvoron.

6. Problems in starch cookery

a) Lumping – there are several factors that cause lumping – (1) water is not sufficient to
hydrate the product; (2) inadequate stirring during cooking; and (3) failure to separate
the granules before heating. Lumping may be prevented by mixing dry ingredients in cool
water before adding hot water, heat the mixture slowly, and blend and stir thoroughly.
b) Raw starch flavor – raw starch flavor is primarily caused by lumping, however,
undercooking may also lead to this problem. Therefore, measures to prevent lumping
should be done to avoid having raw starch flavor in dishes. Cooking longer after the
mixture has reached maximum gelatinization can also be done.

c) Skin formation – happens due to the loss of water near the surface of the starch
mixture. Covering the container and reducing air space between the gel and the cover
may reduce this problem.
d) Scorching – High temperature and inadequate stirring causes scorching. Thorough
dispersion of starch granules, and temperature control are ways to prevent this.
e) Too tender or tough – A gluey or sticky product is caused by over stirring or vigorous
agitation whereas incorrect measurements of the ingredients, and improper endpoint of
cooking and rate of cooking may either cause too tender or tough gel.

E. Alimentary pastes

Alimentary pastes are pastes of milled grains also known as pasta. Pasta may be extruded through
a die or sheeted in a roller. Pasta is commonly associated with products of semolina or wheat
flour—macaroni is a generic term for all types of dried pasta. Other alimentary pastes (those not
made from wheat) are generally called noodles or Asian noodles. Noodles are made from rice,
cassava, mungbean, soybean, and other root crops or legumes.

1. Types of Pasta

a) Whole wheat pasta is made from whole wheat flour. It has a tough texture and strong
taste.
 b) Flavored pasta is pasta mixed with vegetable purées such as spinach and tomatoes to add
flavor and color. Herbs and spices are sometimes added to the pasta dough to impart
strong flavors.
c) Fanciful pastas are those with unusual shapes that may appeal to consumers such as kids.
d) Fresh pasta has high moisture content and provides a soft texture and short cooking time.
This type of pasta must be stored in the refrigerator.

ziti rigatoni penne

etti
spagh

farfalle orzo macaroni

lasagna
e
u ccin
fett

fusilli

Figure 4. Common types of pasta

2. Types of noodles

Sotanghon Bihon

a) Sotanghon are long, thin, round, b) Bihon is made from corn and rice
and translucent noodles made from or rice alone. Can be sold either
mungbean and cassava starch. dried or fresh.
 Miki Canton

c) Miki are flat, yellowish noodles d) Pansit canton is a pre-fried type of

made from wheat flour, lye, salt, noodle made from egg, flour, salt,
water, and fat. and soda ash.

Miswa Ramen

e) Miswa are hairy noodles made f) Ramen are instant Japanese

from a mixture of cassava flour and noodles that are pre-fried. Frying
wheat flour. results in a porous structure that
makes it more likely to absorb
water—rehydrates easily.

Soba Chow Mien

g) Soba are Japanese noodles h) Chow Mien are Chinese noodles

made from buckwheat and wheat made from flour and egg. May be
four. May be served hot or cold. sold fresh or dry. Usually used in
stir-fried dishes.
 3. Cooking alimentary pastes

Pasta is usually cooked by boiling or simmering until it reaches the al dente stage. Al dente refers
to pasta that is tender but firm enough to resist bite. Undercooked pasta is characterized by a
white core or ungelatinized starch center while overcooked pasta is mushy and limp. Oil may be
added to prevent the pasta from sticking during cooking and cooling. Rinsing pasta is also done
after cooking but may remove remaining B-vitamins that have not been lost in the cooking water,
and rinsing will remove the surface starch that can hold the sauce better. Noodles are easier to
cook than pasta. Dried bihon and sotanghon are washed and soaked in water then cut before
cooking. Canton, since it is precooked, needs short cook time and less water. Miswa is best
cooked in boiling water and must be served immediately, else, it will easily become mushy.

F. Storage and care

Similar to flour, starches absorb the moisture in the air, therefore, raw starch should be kept in
tightly covered dry containers. Cooked starches and gels are a good source of nutrients for
microorganisms—cooling quickly in covered containers and refrigeration may inhibit their
growth. More so, if left uncovered, the surface of the gel will be dehydrated, and film will form
on top. When stored for a long time, gels made from non-waxy starches will undergo syneresis
as manifested by water droplets on the surface of the gel.

Dried pasta must be wrapped tightly in a cool and dry place. Fresh pasta has higher risk of
microbial growth and deterioration; therefore, it must be stored in the refrigerator. Cooked pasta
must be consumed immediately, if not, it can be stored for 2 to 3 days in the refrigerator.
III. Flour and Flour Mixtures

A. Definition

Flour is generally the endosperm portion of the cereal grains or other starchy foods that is
milled to a fine powder (Brown, 2011). Flours are commonly made from wheat, but other
cereal grains such as oats, corn, rice, and barley are also utilized. Flour can also come from
other starchy foods like potatoes, taro, arrowroot, sweet potatoes, and legumes such as
soybeans (Vaclavick and Christian, 2014). In the succeeding discussions, the flour mentioned
is wheat flour, unless specified.

1. Principal classes of wheat (Gisslen, 2005)

a) Hard red winter – commonly used in bread flour; moderately high protein;
b) Hard red spring – highest protein content of the North American wheats;
c) Hard white – high-protein wheat; lighter in color and weaker flavor than red wheat;
d) Soft white – used in cakes, crackers, and pastries; a low protein wheat;
e) Soft red winter – also low protein wheat flour; used in making pastry flour;
f) Durum – hardest among the six wheat classes; pasta flour.

B. Milling, grading and market forms

1. Flour milling process

Milling is the process of grinding and refining cereal grains with the goal of producing a fine
powder. Steps of the milling process include (taken from McWilliams, 2017; Brown, 2011;
Vaclavick and Christian, 2014):

a) Washing – removal of foreign substances such as rocks, dirt, and insects.

b) Tempering – also known as conditioning, done by adding water or subjecting to steam to
facilitate separation of kernel components.
c) Breaking – removal of bran and germ from the endosperm by subjecting the kernel into
special rollers. Steel break rollers remove the bran and germ producing break flour. Break
flour still includes some bran.
d) Purifying – break flour is passed through blowing air to remove bran. The product of this
process is known as middlings.
e) Reducing – the middlings are ground into flour using 10 to 15 smooth-surfaced reduction
rollers. The process of reduction continues breaking the endosperm into fine particles.
f) Sifting – flour is sifted into streams that determines the classification of flours. Stream is
the division of flour according to particle size. As more of the bran and germ is removed,
the resulting flour contains less vitamins and minerals
g) Classifying – the final step of the milling process is classifying the flour. Flour can be
classified from straight flour to patent flour. The quality and grade of flour is defined by
the streams combined.
 (1) Straight grade flour – combination of all mill streams

(2) Patent flour – the highest grade of flour

(a) Long patent flour – high in protein, made from using almost all the
streams, used for bread flour
(b) Medium patent flour – lower protein than long patent flour and less starch
than short patent flour, contains 90 percent of the flour streams.
(c) Short patent flour – high in starch and low in protein, used for making cake
flour.

(3) Clear flour – what is left from patent flour.

2. Common Types of flour

(Brown, 2011; Vaclavick and Christian, 2014; McWilliams, 2017; Gisslen, 2005)

a) Whole-wheat flour – made from the entire kernel which includes the bran, germ, and
endosperm. It is also known as graham flour (Brown, 2011).

b) Bread flour – flour with a high protein-to-starch ratio. Able to form a very strong and
elastic dough structure, ideal for making breads as it can hold air and gases produced by
yeast (Vaclavick and Christian, 2014). It is creamy white in color, feels slightly coarse
when rubbed between fingers (Gisslen, 2005).

c) All-purpose flour – forms a less elastic dough than bread flour. Made from the mixture
of hard and soft wheat flour (McWilliams, 2017).

d) Pastry flour – intermediate of all-purpose flour and cake flour. Contains less protein than
all-purpose flour and less starch than cake flour (Vaclavick and Christian, 2014). It is
composed of 80-80% streams of soft wheat. Used to make tender pastry (McWilliams,
2017).

e) Cake flour – low protein, small particle size flour; low gluten potential; produces a fine
grain, delicate structure, and velvety texture cake (Brown, 2011; Vaclavick and Christian,
2014).

f) Self-rising flour – flour in which baking powder and salt are added and blended uniformly
(Gisslen, 2005). Baking soda and acid salts such as monocalcium phosphate and sodium
acid pyrophosphate and aluminum phosphate are the usual leaving agents used for this
flour (McWilliams, 2017). Used to make quick breads.

g) Gluten flour – high protein content flour, concentrated protein from wheat also known
as vital wheat gluten is added to the flour producing a chewy and tough product
 (McWilliams, 2017). Due to its high protein, it absorbs more water and thus yielding a
moister bread (Brown, 2011).

Table 7. Types of milled flours (Source: McWilliams, 2017)

Mill Protein
Flour Patent Type of wheat
stream content
Cake Fancy and/or short 40-70% 7.5% Soft
Pastry Short and medium 80-90% 7.9% Soft
All-purpose Medium 90% 10.5% Hard or hard and soft blend
Bread Long 95% 11.8% Hard

C. Composition and nutritive values

1. Nutritional value

Flours are primarily composed of starch. Starch contributes to the strength and body of
baked products through gelatinization. Aside from that, starch is converted to dextrin, malt,
and glucose—sugars that add sweetness, color, flavor, and improves fermentation of breads
(Brown, 2011). Fats in flour are mostly unsaturated fatty acids (primarily oleic and linoleic
acid). Whereas cereal flours are low in tryptophan and methionine. High protein flour
absorbs more water and produces tougher products than lower protein flours (Vaclavick and
Christian, 2014). Another significant component that influences the quality of baked
products are the gluten-forming proteins. Flour contains proteins that form a matrix called
gluten that is responsible for the hydration and ease of manipulation of the dough, and the
texture of its products.
 Cleaned grain

Tempering

Grinding

Rolling

Bran + Endosperm + Germ

Whole wheat flour

Extraction: (-) bran and germ

Endosperm
Enrichment

Refined wheat flour

Bread (95% of streams)

All-purpose (90% of streams)

Pastry (80-90% of streams)

Figure 7. Milling process of wheat flour

Table 8. Nutrient composition of wheat flours (Source: McWilliams, 2017)

% Composition
Flour Type
Water Carbohydrate Protein Fat Ash
Whole wheat flour 12 71.0 13.3 2.0 1.70
Straight, hard wheat 12 74.5 11.8 1.2 0.46
Straight, soft wheat 12 76.9 9.7 1.0 0.42
All-purpose flour 12 76.1 10.5 1.0 0.43
Cake flour 12 79.4 7.5 0.8 0.31

2. Gluten

Gluten is a protein complex developed when flour is mixed with water and manipulated by
stirring, kneading, and beating. Gluten determines the elasticity and cohesiveness of the
dough. These protein fractions are glutenin, which contributes to elasticity and gliadin that
gives cohesiveness (McWilliams, 2017). The two major steps of gluten formation include
 hydration and kneading. Hydration occurs as water is mixed with flour. The higher the
protein content of the flour, more water is absorbed. Moreover, water aids in releasing these
gluten-forming proteins from the crushed endosperms. Upon hydration, a gluten network is
formed. The second step is kneading. Kneading is the process of working the dough into an
elastic mass by pushing, stretching, and folding the dough. Kneading distributes the
ingredients throughout the dough. This action transforms the sticky mass.

Figure 8. Gluten development from gliadin and glutenin

to a smooth and stretchable dough that springs back to light pressure as gluten is developed
(Brown, 2011). This three-dimensional structure is capable of stretching without breaking
that coagulates during baking thus forming the body, texture, and volume of the baked
product (Vaclavick and Christian, 2014).

Gluten development is vital in making baked products because it primarily influences the
structure of the baked product. Due to its elasticity and pliability, gluten can entrap air
bubbles during kneading, hold gases as dough rises (caused by leaving agents), and inflate
during baking as gases such as carbon dioxide and steam expand due to heat. The structure
sets as the protein network coagulates and starch gelatinizes (Brown, 2011).

D. Classification of Flour mixtures

1. Different flour mixtures

Flour mixtures are classified as doughs and batters. Dough is a flour mixture that has enough
flour to be molded and kneaded whereas batter are mixtures that have more water than
dough. Doughs can be further classified as stiff dough and soft dough. Stiff dough has a 1:6
liquid-to-flour ratio, used to make cookies, pastry dough, and pie crusts. Soft dough on the
other hand is more pliable than stiff dough by having 1:3 liquid-to-flour ratio, used for yeast
breads. Kneading is an integral method in making doughs as it influences gluten
development. Having high amounts of flour, this type of flour mixture contains much gluten
that it dictates the textural attributes of the products Although gluten forms an elastic,
pliable network, too much mixing or kneading may cause gluten strands to break. Thus,
resting the dough is done to relax the gluten structure. Handling batters, on the other hand,
differs from doughs as it contains less flour and more liquid. Drop batters contain 1:2 liquid-
to-flour ratio. This mixture cannot form a dough, but overmixing may cause tunneling.
Tunneling refers to air tunnels in baked products, specifically cakes and muffins caused by
overmixing or improper oven temperature. Pancakes and popovers are classified as pour
batter, having a 1:1 ratio of liquid to flour. Over stirring pour batters do not greatly affect
the quality of the product as it has fairly low gluten-forming potential (Brown, 2011;
Vaclavick and Christian, 2014; Cauvain and Young, 2006; Mcwilliams, 2017).

pancake muffin brioche pizza

(pour batter) (drop batter) (soft dough) (stiff dough)

Figure 9. Examples of different flour mixtures

Figure 10. Flour mixtures and their difference in flour and water content
(Source: Brown, 2011).

Baked products may be classified according to their ratio of fat-to-flour, and sugar-to-flour
(Figure 12.5). Baked products can be categorized into breads, pastry, cake, and cookies
(Cauvain and Young, 2006; McWilliams, 2017).

2. Breads

Breads are described by having a crust, a dry thin layer of crust that covers a soft, sponge-
like cellular structure. The light golden brown color of the crust is primarily due to Maillard
reaction (Cauvain and Young, 2006). Breads can be classified as yeast breads and quick
breads.
a) Yeast breads – Yeast breads are light and soft breads made from flour and water with
yeast as the leavening agent. Based on the formulation, yeast breads can be classified as
lean dough, rich-dough, rolled-in, and specialty dough (Lai and Lin, 2006).

(1) Lean dough – lean dough is low in fat and sugar. Examples of lean dough are hard
crusted bread rolls such as French breads and pizza, soft bread rolls such as white
bread and dinner rolls, and rye breads.

(2) Rich dough – yeast breads that contain higher fat and sugar proportions.
Examples are brooches, sweet buns, coffee cakes, and breakfast rolls.

(3) Rolled-in dough – these are yeast breads wherein fat is incorporated in several
layers by rolling and folding procedure. These layers of fat and dough give the
product a flaky texture. Examples are croissants and Danish pastry.

(4) Specialty dough – category of yeast breads that include those that do not fall on
the three classifications above, includes—steamed bread (siopao) and fried bread
(doughnuts).

Yeast breads are quite special because the preparation of this type of baked product
requires more steps as compared to other products. Generally, there are nine basic steps
in making yeast breads (Lia and Lin, 2006; McWilliams, 2017).

(1) Scaling – accurately weighing all the ingredients

(2) Mixing – combination of ingredients to form a uniform, smooth dough; to evenly

distribute yeast, and to develop gluten. Kneading is also part of this stage—
overmixing or over kneading the dough results in a less elastic gluten and
consequently, bread with poor texture and low volume.

(3) Fermentation – yeast takes sugar and starches as substrate to produce carbon
dioxide and alcohol. During this process, gluten becomes smooth and elastic as
it stretches to hold more gas produced by the yeast. However, too long
fermentation will result in too sticky and slightly sour dough.

(4) Punching – the process of deflating the dough with the purpose of expelling
carbon dioxide, redistribute yeast, relax gluten, and equalize temperature
throughout the dough.

(5) Make-up – involves dividing the dough to the desired serving portion, rounding,
sheeting, molding, and panning.

(6) Proofing – continuation of the fermentation process. Also known as the final
fermentation wherein the molded or shaped dough is allowed to ferment and
 expand to its desired volume. Overproofing results in coarse texture while
underproofing produces a product with low volume and dense texture.

(7) Baking – the process of cooking the dough in the oven. There are several changes
that take place during baking – oven spring or the rapid rise of the dough due to
expansion of gases and evaporation of water; coagulation of protein and
gelatinization of starches that provides a characteristic structure of baked
breads, and lastly, browning of the crust due to Maillard reaction and
caramelization.

(8) Cooling

(9) Packaging and storing – staling is one of the issues that must be dealt with during
storage. Bread is on the process of become stale as soon as it is removed from
the oven. Changes that occur during store is retrogradation (produces less tender
bread but is reversible during reheating), and evaporation and moisture loss
(forms a leathery crust as water from the center of the bread migrates to the
crust). Refrigeration hastens retrogradation so as the firming of the crumb. But
some breads are refrigerated to delay growth of microorganisms. Freezer is a
more ideal way of retarding retrogradation as well as inhibiting microbial growth.

b) Quick breads – are breads that are leavened by agents other than yeast—usually by
steam or chemical leaveners that produce carbon dioxide from the reaction of acid and
alkali. Three ingredients are identical in all quick breads—these are flour, liquid, and salt
whereas the ratio of flour to liquid differs among the types of quick breads. Common
quick breads are muffins, biscuits, popovers, cream puffs, waffles, and pancakes
(McWilliams, 2017).

(1) Muffins – contains 2 parts flour and 1 part milk, fat, sugar, egg, baking powder,
and salt. The nature and extent of mixing is important as too much gluten
development causes peaked or pointed crust and tunneling.

(2) Biscuits – has a ratio around 3 parts flour and 1 part liquid, it is less sticky than
muffin batter. It contains fat cut into flour, such as baking powder, salt. The dough
is kneaded and rolled and produces a flaky texture.

(3) Popovers – quick breads characterized by a large cavity in the crumb. Made with
equal volumes of liquid and flour resulting in a thin batter. Popovers usually
include two eggs for every cup of flour. The egg proteins are responsible for the
structure of this product and are vital to the popping at the center of the crumb.

(4) Cream puffs – contain high fat and eggs that produce steam that creates a puff.
It has a golden-brown surface, the cavity should be large, crumb moist, and the
volume should be fairly large in proportion to the amount of dough.
3. Pastry

Pastry is a baked product that is basically made from flour, fat, and some water. Pastry comes
in two forms, plain/pie crust, or puff pastry. Pie crust is made with oil, lard, shortening and
sometimes, butter with a ratio of flour to fat is 3:1. While puff pastry, multi-layered pastry
product, uses butter as its fat with a 2:1 flour-to-fat ratio. The type of fat greatly influences
the texture of pastry. Oil has the ability to coat flour and prevent hydration, resulting in
increased tenderness but a mealy texture. Solid fat on the other hand, produces a flaky
product. Flakiness is achieved by cutting fat into flour leaving spaces between gluten strands
during baking (McWilliams, 2017).

4. Cake

Cakes have a crust that is thinner than that of bread. Moreover, the cell structure of cake
crumb is less defined than bread, but there are cakes such as that of sponge cake where the
air cells are discrete. Cakes batters have lower gluten forming potential than doughs, sugar
and moisture are the main ingredients that influence the texture and eating qualities of this
product. Lower moisture batters produce a firm, dry-eating product. Cakes are stored
relatively longer than bread, due to its ingredients, cakes restrict moisture loss and growth
of microorganisms as compared to bread (Cauvain and Young, 2006). Cakes can either be
classified as shortened cakes and foam cakes (McWilliams, 2017).

a) Shortened cakes – a delicate textured cake that is determined by the ratio of fat, sugar,
flour, and liquid. Shortened cake has several variations, including chocolate cake. The
color of chocolate cake is influenced by the cocoa or chocolate used.

b) Foam cakes – light, airy batter baked to produce a cake with coarse texture and large air
cells. Usually made from egg white foams. This class of cakes are structurally delicate.
Foam cakes are baked in a two-piece tube pan and are inverted during cooling to allow
air circulation.

(1) Angel food cake – basic foam cake containing egg white foams, sugar, cream of
tartar, and cake flour. Egg whites with cream of tartar are beaten to produce a
foam to which sugar and cake flour are added producing a white, airy cake.

(2) Sponge cake – made from egg white foam and egg yolk foam. Egg yolks are beaten
extensively to produce a light foam by adding sugar and liquid to the mixture.
After which, cake flour is folded to the egg yolk foams. Egg whites are then beaten
separately until soft peak stage then the egg yolk mixture is folded gently to the
egg white foam.

(3) Chiffon cake – similar to sponge cake but contains baking powder and fat. Chiffon
cakes are considered hybrids between shortened cakes and foam cakes.
 5. Cookies

Cookies are a rich mixture of fat, sugar, and flour. Cookies made from creaming shortening
and sugar are aerated and will expand the cookie during baking. While a compact cookie is
made from melted shortening or oil. Cookies may be classified as bar, rolled, pressed, drop,
and refrigerated. Bar cookies have high liquid contents; drop cookies are made from sticky
dough that can be dropped in the cookie sheet and retain their shape during baking; while
rolled, pressed, and refrigerated cookies are relatively rich (McWilliams, 2017).

E. Basic methods of mixing

1. Straight-dough method

The simplest method of making yeast bread, consists only of a single step—combining all
ingredients in one bowl. It is easy to do however, one drawback is that ingredients may not
be distributed evenly (Gisslen, 2005). This method requires scalding milk and temperature
control during hydration of yeast and preparation of dough (McWilliams, 2017).

2. Sponge-and-dough method

A two-step method of preparing yeast breads. First step is combining a part of liquid, a part
of flour, sugar, and all the yeast mixed into a thick batter or dough—allowing the yeast to
act on the sugar and undergo fermentation until double its size. This is called the sponge or
a yeast-starter or a yeast pre-ferment. Next step is punching down the sponge and adding
the rest of flour and remaining ingredients then mixing until a smooth dough (Gisslen, 2005).
Proofing time is shortened when this method is applied. Moreover, the flavor is more yeast-
like than that of the product of straight-dough method (McWilliams, 2017).

3. Biscuit method

Applied to biscuit, scones, and similar products. Involves the following steps— (1) scaling
ingredients; (2) sifting dry ingredients; (3) cutting-in shortening to the dry ingredients using
a paddle or pastry cutter until it looks like a coarse cornmeal; (4) combine liquid ingredients;
(5) add liquid to dry ingredients; (6) mix lightly until it forms a soft dough ball; (7) knead
lightly by pressing and folding in half; and (8) repeat until dough is elastic. This type of mixing
produces a flaky product (McWilliams, 2017; Gisslen, 2005).

4. Muffin method

A simple, fast, and easy method in making quick breads specifically muffins, pancakes, and
waffles. Muffin method is done by— (1) sifting ingredients; (2) combining all liquid
ingredients, including fat or oil; (3) add liquid to dry ingredients mix until flour is moistened;
and (4) bake immediately. Caution must be taken when applying this method as it is prone
 to over mixing and may cause loss of volume. Results in a coarse, slightly crumbly product
(McWilliams, 2017; Gisslen, 2005).

5. Creaming method (Conventional Method)

Type of mixing methods for high fat and high sugar cakes and muffins. It produces fine-
textured products. Creaming method is done by— (1) creaming fat and sugar; (2) blend until
smooth; (3) gradually blend eggs; (4) add 1/3 sifted dry ingredients; (5) add ½ liquid
ingredients; and (6) sequentially add the remaining ingredients with stirring (McWilliams,
2017; Gisslen, 2005).

6. Single-stage method

A rapid mixing method in which all ingredients except egg and half of the liquid are mixed
vigorously in a bowl then egg and the remaining liquid is added. Also known as one-bowl
method or quick-mix method (McWilliams, 2017).

F. Ingredients in flour mixtures and their functions

1. Flour

The primary role is the structure from gluten and starch. Increased protein yields increase in
gas retention properties of dough thus increase bread volume (Cauvain and Young, 2006).
As starch gelatinizes, it makes the crumb more rigid. Lastly, flour is a source of fermentable
sugar for yeast for leavening (Vaclavick and Christian, 2014).

2. Liquid

Vital for hydrating proteins needed for gluten formation as well as starch gelatinization. Milk
contains proteins, milk salts, and sugar (lactose). Lactose produces a softer crumb,
contributes to flavor and color attributed to Maillard reaction, and holds moisture in the
product. Milk is usually scalded and eventually skimmed to remove whey proteins that may
cause low volume and poor quality (Vaclavick and Christian, 2014).

3. Leavening agents

Responsible for the increase in volume producing light and porous baked products.
Leavening agents include air, steam, yeast, and chemical leaveners such as baking powder
and baking soda (Brown, 2011; Vaclavick and Christian, 2014; McWilliams, 2017).

a) Air and steam – air is incorporated during beating, mixing, creaming, and even kneading.
During baking, air trapped in pockets expands. Steam on the other hand is produced as
the water in the flour mixture evaporates during baking.
b) Yeasts – Saccharomyces cerevisiae; multiply and ferment in a warm environment. Yeasts
use sugar as their food or substrate and produce carbon dioxide and alcohol during this
process. Too much sugar or salt increases the osmotic pressure in the environment and
draws out water from the yeast cells later resulting in their death. Yeasts are available in
several forms—(a) active dry yeast—can be stored at room temperature and warm water
is the ideal condition for reactivating this type of yeast; (b) fresh yeast or compressed
yeast— semi-solid yeast with a short shelf-life, it dissolves easily, and reactivated by
adding warm water; (c) instant, fast acting yeast—reproduces more quickly, makes the
bread rise twice as fast and does not require second rising, although sensitive to
temperature and moisture.

𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 + 6𝑂! + 𝐶" 𝐻#! 𝑂" → 6𝐶𝑂! + 6𝐻! 𝑂

c) Bacteria – some bacteria are used as leaveners for sourdough and salt-rising breads.
These bacteria together with yeast form a starter. Aside from production of carbon
dioxide, bacteria contribute to the slightly sour fermented flavor in breads.

d) Baking soda – produces carbon dioxide as it reacts with an acid upon the presence of
moisture. It is not used by itself and contributes to the color and flavor of baked products.
As it needs an acid in order to produce carbon dioxide, baking soda is used only when
the recipe includes acid ingredients such as vinegar, lemon, buttermilk, cream of tartar,
or sour milk.

e) Baking powder – a mixture of baking soda, acid, and an inert filler that prevents reaction
of the former two components. When baking powder is dissolved in water, acid reacts
with baking soda then produces carbon dioxide. There are two main types of baking
powder—single acting baking powder (should be handled with haste as it produces
carbon dioxide upon dissolution to water) and double acting baking powder (two
reactions, first is when baking powder is moistened; second is during heating).

4. Eggs

Serve as binder as it holds the ingredients together. It contains emulsifiers that effectively
distribute fat in the batter. Egg, particularly egg whites, entrap air that leavens the baked
product. Aside from that, eggs coagulate during heating thus provide structure to the
product so as flavor, color, and nutritive value (Vaclavick and Christian, 2014).

5. Fat

Contribute to the texture of baked products. It impedes gluten development, produces

shorter gluten strands, and yields a soft and tender product. Creamed fats entrap air and
aerate batters and doughs thus increasing the volume of the product. In pies, fats are
responsible for the characteristic flakiness of the crumb and the laminated layers in puff
pastry (Vaclavick and Christian, 2014; Brown, 2011).
6. Salt

Influences yeast activity. Salt slows down fermentation and prevents too rapid fermentation
that may result in sticky dough. But too much salt inhibits yeast activity consequently
reducing the amount of carbon dioxide and producing a firm dough thus decreasing the
volume of the bread (Brown, 2011).

7. Sugar

Responsible for the sweetness and color of baked products. May influence the structure
formation of the product as sugar delays starch gelatinization—as the level of sugar is
increased, the top of the cake becomes flatter and the product sinks (Cauvain and Young,
2006). It contributes to the tenderness of breads, browning of the crust through Maillard
reaction and caramelization, and raises the gelatinization temperature providing more time
for gluten to stretch (Brown, 2011).

8. Baking at high altitudes

Baking at high altitudes requires slight alterations in the proportions of ingredients and the
baking process as areas. Since the atmospheric pressure is lower, the boiling point of water
is lower than 100°C and the leavening action also happens sooner but not relative to the
coagulation of protein and gelatinization of starch. Given that, higher baking temperature
should be applied to catch-up with the earlier evaporation of water and leavening.

Table 9. Adjustments of important ingredients in shortened cakes at high altitudes (Serraon-

Claudio et al, 2014)
Adjustments 3,000 feet 5,000 feet 7,000 feet
Reduce baking powder for each 1/8 tsp 1/8 to 1/4 ¼ tsp
teaspoon by tsp
Reduce sugar for each cup by 0-1 tbsp 1-2 tbsp 2-3 tbsp
Increase liquid for each cup by 1-2 tbsp 2-4 tbsp 3-4 tbsp
Reduce fat for each cup by 1 tbsp 1 ½ tbsp. 2 tbsp
References

Arendt EK and Zannini E. (2013). Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries. Woodhead
Publishing, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

Brown A. (2011). Understanding foods: Principles and preparation. 4th ed. Wadsworth Cengage
Learning, Belmont, CA.

Cauvain SP and Young LS. (2006). Baked Products: Science, Technology and Practice. Blackwell
Publishing, UK.

Gisslen W. (2005). Professional Baking. 4th ed. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New Jersey.

Jackson DS. (2003). Starch: Structure, properties and determination. In: Caballero B (ed).
Encyclopedia of Food Science and Nutrition. Academic Press, Elsevier Science Ltd, USA.

Juliano BO (1993). Rice in human nutrition. International Rice Research Institute and Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/3/t0567e/T0567E00.htm

Juliano BO and Villareal CP. (1993). Grain quality evaluation of world rices. International Rice
Research Institute, Manila, Philippines.

Lai HM and Lin TC. (2006). Bakery Products: Science and Technology. In: Hui YH. (ed). Bakery
Products: Science and Technology. Blackwell Publishing, Iowa, USA.

McWilliams M. (2017). Foods: Experimental Perspectives. 8th ed. Pearson Education, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey.

Nebraska Corn Board. (2014). Corn processing co-products manual: A review of current research
on distillers. https://beef.unl.edu/4ea342c5-839f-45c6-b166-667509fd8296.pdf

Roone LW and Suhendro EL. (2001). Food quality of corn. In: Lucas RW and Rooney LW (eds).
Snack foods processing. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Serraon-Claudio V, Jamorabo-Ruiz A, de Leon-Yuson S, de Lima-Chavez L. (2014). Basic Foods for

Filipinos. 5th ed. Merriam and Webster Bookstore, Metro Manila, Philippines.

Vaclavik VA and Christian EW. (2014). Essentials of food science. 4th ed. Springer, New York.

Wei X and Huang X. (2019). Origin, taxonomy, and phylogenetics of rice. In: Bao, J (ed). Rice:
Chemistry and Technology. 4th ed. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, MA.

Weiser H, Koehler P, and Konitzer K. (2014). Celiac disease and gluten: Multidisciplinary
challenges and opportunities. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.