INTRODUCTION

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most important grain crop in

South Africa and is produced throughout the country
under diverse environments.
Successful maize production depends on the correct
application of production inputs that will sustain the
environment as well as agricultural production. These
inputs are, inter alia, adapted cultivars, plant
population, soil tillage, fertilisation, weed, insect and
disease control, harvesting, marketing and financial
resources.

In developed countries, maize is consumed mainly as

second-cycle produce, in the form of meat, eggs and
dairy products. In developing countries, maize is
consumed directly and serves as staple diet for some
200 million people. Most people regard maize as a
breakfast cereal. However, in a processed form it is
also found as fuel (ethanol) and starch. Starch in turn
involves enzymatic conversion into products such as
sorbitol, dextrine, sorbic and lactic acid, and appears in
household items such as beer, ice cream, syrup, shoe
polish, glue, fireworks, ink, batteries, mustard,
cosmetics, aspirin and paint.

Approximately 8,0 million tons of maize grain are

produced in South Africa annually on approximately 3,1
million ha of land. Half of the production consists of
white maize, for human food consumption.

Maize needs 450 to 600 mm of water per season, which

is mainly acquired from the soil moisture reserves.
About 15,0 kg of grain are produced for each millimetre
of water consumed. At maturity, each plant will have
consumed 250 l of water. The total leaf area at
maturity may exceed one square metre per plant.
The assimilation of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
reaches a peak during flowering. At maturity the total
nutrient uptake of a single maize plant is 8,7 g of
nitrogen, 5,1 g of phosphorus, and 4,0 g of potassium.
Each ton of grain produced removes 15,0 to 18,0 kg of
nitrogen, 2,5 to 3,0 kg of phosphorus and 3,0 to 4,0 kg
of potassium from the soil.

No other crop utilises sunlight more effectively than

maize, and its yield per ha is the highest of all grain
crops. At maturity, the total energy used by one plant
is equivalent to that of 8 293 15 W electric globes in
an hour.

The number of kernel rows may vary between four and

40, depending on the variety. Up to 1 000 kernels may
be produced by a single plant. In spite of only one
pollen grain being required to produce one kernel, each
tassel produces some 25 000 000 pollen grains, i. e. 25
000 grains for each kernel. As a result, up to 40 % of
the
tassels in a planting may be lost without affecting
pollination, other factors remaining optimal.

MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Root system

The plant has a profusely branched, fine root system.

Under optimal conditions, the total root length,
excluding the root hairs, can reach 1 500 m.

If root growth is not restricted, the root system of a

mature plant extends approximately 1,5 m laterally and
downwards to approximately 2,0 m or even deeper. The
permanent root system has adventitious and prop roots.
Adventitious roots develop in a crown of roots from
nodes below the soil surface. Normally four to six
adventitious roots are formed per band. After
tasselling, prop roots develop into bands from the first
two to three aerial nodes. These roots are
comparatively thick, pigmented and covered with a waxy
substance. Prop roots have the dual function of
providing support to the plant and taking up nutrients.

Numerous root hairs occur on young

plants. Root hairs increase root surface
area that is exposed to the soil, and play
an important role in absorption of water
and nutrients.

Leaves

The eight to 20 leaves that may form are

arranged spirally on the stem, and they
occur alternately in two opposite rows on
the stem. The maize leaf is a typical
grass leaf and consists of a sheath,
ligules, auricles and a blade. The leaf
blade is long, narrow, undulating and
tapers towards the tip and is glabrous to
hairy. The leaf is supported by a
prominent mid-rib along its entire length.

Stomata occur in rows along the entire

of the leaf surface. More stomata occur
on the underside of the leaf than on the
upper surface. On the upper surface
motor cells are present. These large,
wedge-shaped cells occur in rows,
parallel to and between the rows of
stomata. During moist conditions, these
cells rapidly absorb water, become
turgid and unfold the leaf. During warm,
dry weather, the cells quickly lose their
turgor with the result that leaves curl
inwards exposing a smaller leaf surface
to evaporation.

Stem

The maize stem varies in height from less

than 0,6 m in some genotypes to more
than 5,0 m (in extreme cases) in others.
The stem is cylindrical, solid and is
clearly divided into nodes and internodes.
It may have eight to 21 internodes. The
internodes directly below the first four
leaves do not lengthen, whereas those
below the sixth, seventh and eighth
leaves lengthen to approximately 25, 50
and 90 mm, respectively. Tillers may
develop from nodes below the soil
surface.

The lateral shoot bearing the main ear

develops more or less from the bud on
the eighth node above the soil surface.
The five or six buds directly below the
bud give rise to rudimentary lateral
shoots of which one or two develop to
produce ears.

Inflorescence

Male and female flowers are borne on the

same plant as separate inflorescences.
Male flowers are borne in the tassel and
female flowers on the ear.

Maize ear

The maize ear (the female inflorescence)

terminates one or more lateral branches,
usually halfway up the stem. Bracts
enclose the ear. The silk of the flowers at
the bottom appear first and thereafter
those on the upper part of the ear.
It remains receptive to pollen for
approximately three weeks but after
the tenth day, receptivity decreases.

Maize kernel

Endosperm

Germ Pericarp

Tip cap

FIG. 1. Maize kernel

The maize kernel consists of an

endosperm, embryo, a pericarp and tip
cap (Fig. 1). The endosperm contains the
main carbohydrates. The embryo
contains the parts that give rise to the
next generation, while the pericarp and
tip cap enclose the entire kernel.

The endosperm contains approximately

80 % of the carbohydrates, 20 % of
the fat and 25 % of the minerals, while
the embryo contains about 80 % of the
fat, 75 % of the minerals and 20 % of
the protein found in the kernel.

The starch part of the kernel is used in

foods and many other products such as
adhesives, clothing, and pharmaceutical
tablets and in paper production. The
starch can be converted into sweeteners
and used in products such as soft drinks,
sweets, bakery products and jams, to
name but a few.

The oil from the embryo is used in cooking

oils, margarine and salad dressings. The
protein, hulls and soluble part of the
maize kernel are used in animal and poultry
feed.

TABLE 1. Composition of maize kernels

Components Dent Flint

kernels kernels
% %

Endosperm—hard 54,2
Endosperm—soft 27,5
Endosperm—total 81,7 80,6
Embryo 11,0 13,5
Pericarp and tip 7,2 5,8
cap

TABLE 2. Chemical composition of the

maize kernel
 Components %
Carbohydrates 84,
0
Protein 10,
9
Fat 4,5
Minerals 1,3

Kernels can be of the dent or flint

(round) types. Dent kernels have a dented
crown, which is formed during drying
when the softer starch in the middle of
the kernel shrinks faster than the outer
more translucent sides. The dent kernel
has two flat sides opposite each other and
the one side contains the embryo.

The embryo contains all the parts that

give rise to the next generation.

Flint kernels can be round or flat in

appearance and contain mainly translucent
starch, with only a small part of soft
starch in the middle, hence the name.
The pericarp and tip cap enclose the
entire kernel.

Maize with a high percentage of

translucent of hard endosperm is
preferred by the dry milling industry,
because it produces more of the popular
 high-quality and high-value products
sought after than does soft maize.

Tassel

Ear Leaves

Stem

Brace roots

Roots

FIG. 2. Mature maize plant

Growth and development

Different growth stages are numbered 0

to 10. Growth stage 0 lasts from planting
of the seed up to when the seedling is
just visible above the soil surface.
Growth stage 10 is reached when the
plant is biologically mature (Fig. 2).

Growth stage 0: from planting to seed

emergence

During germination, the growth point and

the entire stem are about 25 to 40 mm
below the soil surface. Under warm,
moist conditions seedlings emerge after
about six to 10 days, but under cool or
dry conditions this may take two weeks
or longer. The optimum temperature
range for germination is between 20 and
30 ºC, while optimum moisture content of
the soil should be approximately 60 % of
soil capacity.

Growth stage 1: four leaves completely

unfolded

The maximum number of leaves and

lateral shoots is predetermined and a
new leaf unfolds more or less every third
day. The growth point at this stage is
still below the soil surface and aerial
parts are limited to the leaf sheath and
blades.
Initiation of tasselling also occurs at this
stage.

Growth stage 2: eight leaves completely

unfolded

During this period, leaf area increases five

to 10 times, while stem mass increases 50
to 100 times.

Ear initiation has already commenced.

Tillers begin to develop from nodes below
the soil surface. The growth point at this
stage is approximately 5,0 to 7,5 cm
above the soil surface.

Growth stage 3: twelve leaves completely

unfolded

The tassel in the growth point begins to

develop rapidly. Lateral shoots bearing
cobs develop rapidly from the sixth to
eighth nodes above the soil surface and
the potential number of seed buds of
the ear has already been determined.
Growth stage 4: sixteen leaves completely
unfolded

The stem lengthens rapidly and the

tassel is almost fully developed. Silks
begin to develop and lengthen from the
base of the upper ear.

Growth stage 5: silk appearance and

pollen shedding

All leaves are completely unfolded and

the tassel has been visible for two to
three days. The lateral shoot bearing the
main ear as well as bracts has almost
reached maturity. At this point demand
for nutrients and water is high.

Growth stage 6: green mealie stage

The ear, lateral shoot and bracts are

fully developed and starch begins to
accumulate in the endosperm.

Growth stage 7: soft dough stage

Grain mass continues to increase and

sugars are converted into starch.

Growth stage 8: hard dough stage

 Sugars in the kernel disappear rapidly.
Starch accumulates in the crown of the
kernel and extends downwards.

Growth stage 9: physiological maturity

When the kernel has reached its

maximum dry mass, a layer of black cells
develops at the kernel base. Grains are
physiologically mature and only the
moisture content must be reduced.

Growth stage 10: drying of

kernels (biological maturity)

Although grains have reached physiological

maturity, they must dry out before
reaching biological maturity. Under
favourable conditions, drying takes place
at approximately 5 % per week up to the
20 % level, after which there is a
slowdown.

ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL

Total yield on any farm is the product

of climate and soil that can be regarded
as the yield potential of that area.
Climatic requirements

Temperature

Maize is a warm weather crop and is not

grown in areas where the mean daily
temperature is less than 19 ºC or where
the mean of the summer months is less
than 23 ºC. Although the minimum
temperature for germination is 10 ºC,
germination will be faster and less
variable at soil temperatures of 16 to 18
ºC. At 20 ºC, maize should emerge within
five to six days. The critical temperature
detrimentally affect- ing yield is
approximately 32 ºC. Frost can damage
maize at all growth stages and a frost-
free period of 120 to 140 days is
required to prevent damage. While the
growth point is below the soil surface,
new leaves will form and frost damage
will not be too serious. Leaves of mature
plants are easily damaged by frost and
grain filling can be adversely affected.

Water

Approximately 10 to 16 kg of grain are

produced for every millimetre of water
used. A yield of 3 152 kg/ha requires
between 350 and 450 mm of rain per
annum. At maturity, each plant will have
used 250 𝑙 of water in the absence of
moisture stress.

Soil requirements

The most suitable soil for maize is one

with a good effective depth, favourable
morphological properties, good internal
drainage, an optimal moisture regime,
sufficient and balanced quantities of
plant nutrients and chemical properties
that are favourable specifically for
maize production.

Although large-scale maize production

takes place on soils with a clay content
of less than
10 % (sandy soils) or in excess of 30 %
(clay and clay-loam soils), the texture
classes between
10 and 30 % have air and moisture
regimes that are optimal for healthy
maize production.

Production potential

Several methods can be used to

determine yield potential, each with its
own limitations. One of the most reliable
methods is long-term yield data collected
 by each individual producer, as this
reflects inherent yield of the specific
environment, as well as the effect of
agronomic practices such as fertilisation,
soil cultivation and plant population and
managerial abilities of the producer.

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Soil tillage

Soil tillage, particularly primary tillage,

is the foundation of any crop
production system and is the biggest
cost factor in maize production.

Effect of tillage practices on soil

physical properties

Soil tillage in a farming system refers to

the physical soil cultivation practices,
changing the soil’s structure, hydraulic
properties and stability to such an extent
that plants will grow and produce
optimally.

Soil physical properties affected by

tillage

Texture and structure

Texture refers to size of mineral soil
particles and is the single most important
physical property of soil. It involves a
ratio of sand, silt and clay in a specific
soil. This ratio determines the capacity
and strength of structures that are
formed, as well as ability to store water.
The objective of soil tillage is to maintain
the existing structure of soil or to
improve the structure of poorly
structured soil.

Effect of tillage on soil

Infiltration and evaporation

The most important processes
affected by soil tillage include
infiltration and evaporation of water.
Because water availability during the
growing season is the single most
important factor in crop production in
South Africa, it is essential that soil
tillage be aimed at optimising
infiltration and minimising evaporation.

Germination and root growth

Germination and root growth are
affected by tillage methods in that the
soil temperature can be manipulated and
evaporation reduced.
Erosion
The type of tillage affects vulnerability
of the soil to either wind or water
erosion. Finely-structured topsoil is
susceptible to both types of erosion,
while a coarse structure limits erosion.

Implements and soil tillage

The aims of soil tillage are weed control,

incorpo- ration of residue, reducing wind
and water erosion and improving soil
structure.

Secondary tillage is applied to control

weeds and prepare a seedbed.

Primary implements are basic implements

used to loosen the soil with the object of
improving structure and countering
compaction. These include mouldboard
ploughs, disc ploughs, chisel ploughs and
rippers.

Primary tillage implements

Mouldboard ploughs

This implement is used to turn sods up to

300 mm depth and is particularly
useful on heavier well-structured
soils. Turning the soil
 also has the advantage that
weed seeds and unwanted
crop residues can be buried
deeply. Mouldboard ploughs
are not recommended on
sandy soils, because poorly-
structured units which may exist,
can be destroyed
and wind erosion be promoted.

Disc ploughs and discs

The disc plough has a slicing action with

the main advantage that better
penetration is obtained under dry, hard
conditions, with an additional advantage
that wear is lower than in the case of a
mouldboard plough. The implement is
useful on hard, dry soils where loss of
structure is not too critical. It is on no
account recommended for sandy soils.

Chisel ploughs

Chisel ploughs are used mainly to loosen

the soil to a limited depth of 250 mm.
Best results are obtained if the soil is
relatively dry, because the chisels break
the soil, creating structural units. If
conditions are too dry, however, big
clods are formed, restricting plant
development.

Rippers

Rippers are used when deep cultivation is

necessary and turning of the soil is
undesirable. If soils are tilled annually to
the same depth, a plough-sole develops.
This confined layer prevents infiltration
and root development. To ensure better
drainage, conservation and utilisation of
water, it is essential to break this layer
regularly. Under wet, clay conditions, the
main disadvantage of the ripper is that it
compacts the soil laterally and inwards,
which can limit lateral root development.

Secondary tillage implements

Rotary tiller

Under ideal conditions, on moist clay

soils, this useful implement can prepare
the seedbed in one operation. On dry,
sandy soils it can, however, destroy the
structure within a very short period.

Tined cultivators

Tined cultivators include a variety of

hoeing implements, which are used mainly
for controlling young weeds, but also
utilised for breaking surface crusts.
These implements are only effective on
moist soils. They are completely
ineffective on dry, clay soils. These
implements are often used for seedbed
preparation.

Harrows

Harrows include a variety of implements.

The tined harrow is primarily used to
level the seedbed once it is in a fine
condition. The primary objective of the
disc harrow is to break surface crusts,
but it can be used to break clods to
obtain a fine seedbed.

Tillage systems

No-till

With this system, soil is left

undisturbed from planting to
 harvesting. A prerequisite for this type
of cultivation is that 30 % of the soil
must be covered with plant residue
after planting to reduce water erosion
effectively.

Stubble-mulch tillage

In this case, soil is disturbed before

planting without burying or destroying.
For this action chisel ploughs, discs,
spring-tooth implements or V-type
blades are used. Weeds are controlled
chemically and/or mechanically.

TABLE 3. Major advantages and disadvantages

of different tillage systems

Tilla Advantages Disadvantages

ge
syste
m
No-till • Lowest fuel • Higher
consumption application of
herbicide and
• Quicker
intensive
adaptation to
herbicide
optimum
management
planting date
necessary
 • Requires:
• Lower machinery – management
costs inputs
– special or
• Best control adapted
of wind and planters
water erosion – more
expensive
equipment
• Possible
compaction of
soil and
accumulation
of nutrients in
topsoil
• Earlier
occurrence of
leaf diseases
• Possible insect
populations

Stub • Fuel saving • Soil preparation

ble- (compared to dependant
mulch ploughing) pendent on spring
ing • Good rains
control/bette • Greater
r management possibility of
of: leaf diseases
– wind and water
erosion
 – soil compaction
– weed control

Redu • Greater fuel • Poor

ced economy (than management
tillag e.g. ploughing) of water
e • Control of: erosion
– Wind erosion • Better weed
– Insect population management
• Accumulation of
nutrients not a
problem
Conventi • Good • Highest:
onal weed and – fuel consumption
tillage insect – machinery costs
control • Waiting period
• Lowest for suitable soil
management inputs water
• No control of
water and wind
erosion

Reduced tillage
This could be any type of tillage practice
which leaves 15 to 30 % of the soil
surface covered with stubble. Weeds
are controlled chemically or
mechanically.
Conventional tillage
This includes tillage that leaves less than
15 % of the soil surface covered with
stubble. Conventional tillage usually
implies a plough action or an intensive
range of cultivations.
It is important to bear in mind that 1 ton
of grain/ha delivers one ton of plant
residue, which is sufficient to cover 10 %
of the soil. If conservation tillage is
considered as an alternative, a minimum
yield of 3,0 ton/ha must be obtained to
provide a surface cover of 30 %.
When conservation tillage is practised
with the aim of conserving moisture, at
least 50 to 60 % of the soil surface
should be covered.
With any tillage system, it is of
paramount im- portance to ensure that a
compacted layer, that may impair plant
growth, does not occur in the effective
root zone. Any soil has the potential to
form a compacted layer and therefore all
cultivated soils should be inspected
regularly for such restric- tions. If a
confined layer is detected, it should be
broken using a ripper implement to
ensure better drainage, conservation and
utilisation of water.
ESTABLISHMENT PRACTICES

Planting date

Planting can commence as soon as

groundwater and soil temperature are
suitable for good

germination. If a minimum air

temperature of 10 to 15 ºC is maintained
for seven successive days, germination
should proceed normally. Virtually no
germination or growth takes place below
10 ºC. Planting should be scheduled such
that the most heat and water sensitive
growth stage of maize (i.e. the flowering
stage) does not coincide with midsummer
droughts.

Planting depth and plant technique

Planting depth of maize varies from 5 to

10 cm, depending on the soil type and
planting date. As a rule, planting should be
shallower in heavier soils than in sandy
soils.

Plant population and row width

Plant population per unit area is more

important than specific row width. Row
widths under dryland conditions can vary
from 0,91 m to 2,1 or 2,3 m, depending
on mechanical equipment available and
type of soil tillage system used.

TABLE 4. Guidelines for choosing row

width

Wide Narrow
rows (1,5 rows (0,91
to 2,1 m) to 1,0 m)
• Low and • Medium and
medium yield high yield
target target
• Low and medium • Medium and high
rainfall rainfall
• Wind erosion • Water and
problems sloping
contours
• Weed problem; • Good weed
weeds control with
controlled complete
chemically in spraying
• Strip tilage only • Total tillage
in rows

TABLE 5. Guidelines for a realistic

plant population

Yield Cool Tempe War

potenti er rate mer
al are area are
(ton/ha as s as
)
Dryla
nd 16 12 10
000 000 000
2
19 16 14
3
000 000 000
4
25 21 19
5 000 000 000
6 31 26 24
7 000 000 000
37 31 28
Irrigati
000 000 000
on
8–10 43 36
000 000
10+
55 50 45
Ultrash
000 000 000
ort
10+ 65 60 55
000 000 000

80 80 90
000 000 000
TABLE 6. Within row spacing (cm) at
different populations and row
widths

Spacing within row (cm)

Plant Row
populati width (m)
on 0,7 0,9 1,5 0,91 x 2,
5 1 2,3 3
90 000 15 12
80 000 17 14
 70 000 19 16
60 000 22 19
50 000 27 22
45 000 30 25
40 000 33 28
35 000 38 32 19
30 000 44 37 22 21
27 500 40 24 23
25 000 43 26 25
22 500 50 29 28
20 000 56 33 31 22
18 000 37 35 24
16 000 42 39 27
14 000 45 31
12 000 53 36
10 000 62 44

CULTIVAR CHOICE

Guidelines for selecting maize cultivars

Cultivar choice, if correctly planned, can

make a great contribution to risk
reduction and should constitute an
important part of production planning.

Cultivars differ from one

another with regard to a variety of
 characteristics. Therefore, every
cultivar has its own adaptability and
yield potential. These differences
between cultivars leave a producer
with alternatives that can be
utilised fully. The producer should,
however, first verify the reaction of
new or foreign cultivars before
abandoning proven cultivars.

Yield potential and adaptability

As a result of a wide diversity of

conditions under which maize is
produced in South Africa, it is essential
that cultivars that are eventually planted
should be adapted to specific production
conditions.

Cultivars with wide adaptability can be

used to stabilise yields under variable
weather conditions of South Africa.
Together with adaptability, stability of
cultivars should also be considered.
Greater stability of a cultivar, leads to
predict ability of yield reaction at a
specific potential.

For further information, consult the

Maize Information Guide (MIG)
published annually and obtainable from:
The Director, ARC-GCI, Private Bag
X1251, Potchefstroom 2520.

Length of growing season

The length of the growing season of

cultivars plays an important role,
especially in cooler production areas. The
cooler environment causes large

differences among cultivars in the

period from planting to flowering and
physiological maturity and accentuates
differences among the various growing
periods.

Disease resistance

Cultivars differ in their susceptibility to

diseases such as ear rot, maize streak
virus disease, grey leafspot, rust, cob-
and-tassel smut, stemrot as well as root
rots. Cultivars with the best levels of
resistance or tolerance to a disease
should be selected for planting where a
specific disease occurs.

Lodging

Lodging of plants has a financial

implication for the producer, because a
 number of ears may be laying on the soil,
making it uneconomical to be picked up by
hand. Good progress has been made with
cultivars showing less lodging, but
differences among cultivars still occur.

Ear prolificacy

Prolificacy can be described as the

potential of a cultivar to produce more
than one ear at maturity. This
characteristic is linked to the
adaptability of a cultivar and can be
used to good advantage where lower
plant populations are required or where
it develops spontaneously
unintentionally.

FERTILISATION OF MAIZE

It is of the utmost importance that the

correct soil sampling methods be used
when submitting samples for laboratory
analysis. Recommended sampling
methods to be used are available in the
Fertilizer Guidelines for Maize, and can
be obtained from: The Director, ARC-
GCI,
Private Bag X1251, Potchefstroom 2520.
 Recommendations supplied by the
Institute should be strictly adhered to, to
obtain the required results in the field.

Application methods

Nitrogen (N)

The following rates of application, band-

placed at planting 50 mm to the side of
the seed and 50 mm below the seed,
0,9 m rows: not more than 40 kg N/ha
should not be exceeded:
1,5 m rows: not more than 30 kg N/ha

2,1 m rows: not more than 20 kg N/ha

Fertiliser
Fertiliser Fertiliser
N and K applications should not exceed 70, 50 and 30
kg/ha for the respective row widths. Larger
quantities can, however, be applied, provided that
these are placed 70 to 100 mm to the side and
below the seed.

N should always be included in the fertiliser plant

mixtures, but weather conditions and residual N in
the soil will determine when most N should be
applied.
Deficiencies in nitrogen give rise to young plants that
are pale, light green or yellow. During later stages
older leaves begin yellowing, showing at first a
characteristic inverted V-shape.

Phosphorus (P)

The general practice is to band-place P at 50 mm to the

side and 50 mm below the seed.

Deficiency symptoms usually occur on

young plants, especially under cool, wet
conditions. Leaves are dark green with
reddish-purple tips and margins.

Potassium (K)

The general practice is to band-place K,

50 mm to the side and 50 mm below the
seed in a fertiliser mixture at planting.
The following application
0,9 m rows: rates
not more than should not
40 kg P/ha

1,5 m rows: not more than 30 kg P/ha

be exceeded:
2,1 m rows: not more than 20 kg P/ha

K and N applications should not exceed 70,

50 and 30 kg/ha for the respective row
widths. Larger quantities can, however, be
band-placed, provided that these are
located 70 to 100 mm to the side and
below the seed.

A potassium deficiency is initially noted

as yellow or necrotic leaf margins,
beginning at the lower leaves and
spreading to the upper leaves. Mature
plants lodge easily when suffering a K
 deficiency, because stems are
predisposed to stalk rot under such
conditions.

Zinc (Cn)

The microelement, zinc, is mostly applied,

as it is included in many fertiliser
mixtures. A deficiency is characterised
by light streaks or bands between the
veins from the leaf base to the tip.
Under cool overcast conditions, these
symptoms suddenly appear but disappear
just as quickly once the sun appears.

WEEDS
Large thorn apple

Successful cultivation of maize depends largely on the

efficacy of weed control. Weed control during the
first six to eight weeks after planting is crucial,
because weeds compete vigorously with the crop for
nutrients and water during this period.

Annual yield losses occur as a result of weed

infestations in cultivated crops. The annual yield loss in
maize because of weed problems is estimated to be
approximately 10 %. The loss occurs as a result of weed
competition for nutrients, water and light.
The presence of weeds during harvesting may slow the
process, pollute grain with seeds, transmit odours to
grain, causing downgrading, or incur additional costs for
removal of seeds. Certain seeds, such as those of the
thorn apple (Datura), may be poisonous when consumed
by animals or humans.

Methods of weed control

Physical methods

Weeds can be removed mechanically, by implements or

by hand. Dense stands of weeds may be burnt as an
emergency measure.

Cultural practices

Ploughing during winter or early spring is an effective

method of destroying the majority of weeds. To control
weeds during the season, crops may be planted in wide
rows for mechanical control. Certain problem weeds in
maize can be controlled by an alternative crop where
crop rotation is practised.

Chemical methods

Chemical liquids, granules or gases are used to kill

germinating or growing weeds, or even weed seeds.

Control of nut grass with pre-emergence herbicides is

not effective when applied after emergence. It is
important to cultivate fields before applying herbicides.
PRINCIPLES OF PEST CONTROL

Integrated pest management

Integrated pest management is a system whereby

various strategies are used to protect crops by
suppressing the insect population and limiting damage.
These management practices incorporate all practical
methods of pest control in a pest management system.
These measures include chemical control, biological
control, plant resistance and cultivation control.

Preventive control

Although preventive control measures may often seem

to be “effective”, this effectiveness can be ascribed to
relatively low population levels of specific insects during
certain years, when epidemic outbreaks do not occur. If
very high infection levels do occur during epidemic
years, preventive control will be ineffective and large
losses may be experienced. It is therefore important to
determine the infestation level before spraying or seed
treatments are applied.

Cultivation control

This implies that pest populations are

suppressed by cultivation practices,
which are detrimental to the pest. These
practices include soil cultivation during
winter, eradicating volunteer plants,
cultivar choice and adapting planting
 times.

Ladybird feeding on aphids

Biological control

Natural control of pests occurs continually in fields

where natural enemies attack all the life-stages of
insect pests. Aphids and hibernating larvae of stem
borers in particular are killed by natural enemies. The
natural enemy complex can be pro- tected to a certain
extent by using insecticides which are more
environmentally friendly, and which are not very toxic
to nontarget organisms.

Insect-resistant plants

The use of plants which are resistant to insects, is

extremely beneficial, because of both short and long-
term benefits. The short-term benefit of plant
resistance is that it limits pest damage, while
economic threshold values are often not reached.
Skilled advice regarding the combination and use of the
different control measures is available at the Plant
Protection Division, ARC-GCI,
Private Bag X1251, Potchefstroom 2520.
Nematode control

Plant-parasitic nematodes are present in all production

areas of South Africa. A progressive yield loss over a
number of seasons is usually the only indication of
nematode infestation. Yield loss is normally a response
to damage to the root system of the maize plant.

Economic control of nematodes in maize is

difficult, mainly because of the high cost
of nematicides.
Maize price fluctuations, different
cultivation practices and differences in
production potential must be taken into
account to determine economic
justification of chemical nematode control.

Irrigated maize

When infestation levels are high,

chemical control in irrigated maize can
readily be recommended from an
economic point of view.

Dryland maize

Yield increases as a result of chemical

nematode control are very erratic, the
exception being with the presence of high
infestations of rootknot nematodes in
dryland maize. Rootknot nematode
populations may, under favourable
 conditions and within one season, increase
to such an extent that

economic yield losses are incurred. In

such cases, it is essential to control the
nematode population, even though the
control measures when regarded over
one season, are not economically
justifiable.

Economic nematode control is therefore

a complex strategy, which cannot be
effectively applied with- out proper
knowledge of the infestation levels and
considering various other factors.

IRRIGATION

Maize can be regarded as an important grain

crop under irrigation, as it produces very high
yields. It can produce from 80 to 100 tons/ha
green
material and 16 to 21 tons/ha of dry material
within a
relatively short period (100 to 120 days). It is
therefore one of
the most efficient grain crops in terms
of water utilisation. Maize is usually
produced under full irrigation in order
to obtain the highest yields.

HARVESTING PROCESS

Maize is predominantly harvested

mechanically, although exceptions do
occur in the case of hand harvesting.

Hand harvesting

The entire plant can be cut and placed

into stacks (stook) while still green. Once
it is dry, the ears

can be picked and threshed, or the entire

plant with the ear can be utilised as maize
hay. Alternatively, the plants can be left
in the field to dry and the ears
harvested.

Mechanical harvesting

In South Africa, maize is usually left in

the field until moisture percentages of
12,5 to 14,0 are reached before it is
 harvested and delivered to a silo.

PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES

Growth stage 0: from planting to

emergence

Planting depth affects the period from

planting to emergence, because the
seedlings of deeply- planted seed will
take longer to emerge than shallowly-
planted seed. If planted too deep, the
mesocotyl may open below the soil
surface and cause the seedling to die
off.

The seedling obtains its nutrients mainly

from seed reserves. Primary roots may be
in contact with band- placed fertiliser
even before emergence. Too much
fertiliser close to the seed may cause
burning.

Growth stage 1: four leaves

unfolded

Some of the problems encountered

during this stage should not have a
permanent effect on yield, provided the
problems are rectified promptly.
During this stage plants are very susceptible to drift-
sand damage.
Hail and light frost may damage the exposed leaves, but
because the growth point is still below the soil surface,
damage should be negligible.

Waterlogging at this stage may be harmful to the

seedling, because the growth point is still below ground
level.

Tilling close to the plants may harm the roots, which

will put the plants under stress and detrimentally
affect yield.

Growth stage 2: eight leaves

unfolded

Nutrient deficiencies will restrict leaf

growth. If necessary, this is the correct
stage to apply a fertiliser as side
dressing. Nitrogen should,
however, be applied to moist soil and
roots should damaged as little as
possible.

Defoliation by hail or other factors may

cause a yield loss of 10 to 20 %.

As long as the growth point is still below

ground level, waterlogging may cause
damping off of plants. Flooding at later
stages, when the growth point stays
above the water, is not as detrimental.

Growth stage 3: twelve leaves

unfolded

Stress as a result of water or nutrient

deficiencies during this stage will affect
the ultimate size and yield of ears.

Plants, breaking below the growth point,

will not recover.

Growth stage 4: Sixteen leaves

unfolded

Hot soil surfaces may affect the

development of prop roots.

The tassel begins to show in the calyx.

Water and nutrient deficiencies may
detrimentally affect silk development
and therefore the number of kernels per
ear.

Hail damage may detrimentally affect

yield.

Growth stage 5: appearance of silks

and pollen shedding
Planting dates should be chosen so as to
ensure that this stage coincides with
normally favourable growing conditions.
Water supply is important because wilting
of plants (water stress) early in the
 morning detrimentally affects pollination.

Growth stages 6 and 7: hard

dough
Denting of kernels begins and this is the
right stage to make silage.D

Growth stage 9: Physiological

maturity
Monitor moisture content of grain
regularly to start harvesting as soon as
possible (below 14 %) to reduce grain
losses.

ENQUIRIES

For further information on maize

production, contact:

• ARC-Grain Crops
Institute Private Bag
X1251 Potchefstroom
2520
Tel. (018) 299 6100

Contact persons: Jéan du

Plessis, Dirk de V Bruwer,
Justinus Mashao, Apie
Pretorius, Thinus Prinsloo
• Resource Centre
Tel. (012) 319 7141/7085

This publication is based on information

from Guide for the production of maize
in the summer rainfall area by W du Toit
and is available at the above address.
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