FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 6-3

January 1998
Interim Revision July 2020
Page 1 of 24

INDUCTION AND DIELECTRIC HEATING EQUIPMENT

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Changes ............................................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 3
2.1 Equipment and Processes .............................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Electrical .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 3
2.4 Protection ......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.5 Contingency Planning ........................................................................................................................ 4
2.5.1 Equipment Contingency Planning .......................................................................................... 4
2.5.2 Sparing ................................................................................................................................... 4
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 4
3.1 Loss History ..................................................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Routine Spares ................................................................................................................................. 5
4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 5
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 5
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 5
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................ 6
C.1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 6
C.2 Dielectric Heating Systems ............................................................................................................. 8
C.3 Microwave and Radio Frequency Ovens ........................................................................................ 8
C.4 Induction Melting Furnaces ........................................................................................................... 14
C.5 Coreless Induction Melting Systems ............................................................................................. 17
C.6 Current Source Power Supply for Induction Heating ................................................................... 20
C.7 Iron and Aluminum Melting ........................................................................................................... 20
C.8 Brass and Bronze Melting ............................................................................................................. 21

List of Figures
Fig. 1. Spark-gap converter for induction heating. (Westinghouse Electric Corp.) ....................................... 7
Fig. 2. Vacuum-tube generator for induction heating. (Westinghouse Electric Corp.) .................................. 7
Fig. 3. World’s largest induction heating installation for heating steel slabs, showing discharge
side of heaters and heated slab on conveyor to mill. (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.) ............................ 8
Fig. 4. Arrangement of power supplies to induction heaters. (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.) ........................... 9
Fig. 5. Rectangular induction coil (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.) ..................................................................... 10
Fig. 6. Induction heater. (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.) ................................................................................... 11
Fig. 7. Induction heaters over heating lines. (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.) ................................................... 12
Fig. 8. Main electrical equipment and controls for induction heaters. (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.) ............ 13
Fig. 9. Vacuum-tube generator for dielectric heating, simplified basis diagram
(Westinghouse Electric Corp.) .......................................................................................................... 14
Fig. 10. Coreless induction tilt furnace for melting iron, steel, bronze and brass alloys, and aluminum.
(American Induction Heating Corp.) ............................................................................................... 15
Fig. 11. Double push-out type high frequency coreless induction furnace. ................................................ 16
Fig. 12. Drop coil furnace (American Induction Heating Corp.) .................................................................. 17
Fig. 13. Lift swing furnace. ........................................................................................................................... 18
Fig. 14. A two-furnace coreless induction melting system. (American Induction Heating Corp.) ............... 19

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Fig. 15. Coreless induction furnace, with open-style cage. See also Figure 10. (American Induction
Heating Corp.) ................................................................................................................................... 20
Fig. 16. Diagram of power system supplying a two-furnace coreless induction melting system.
(American Induction Heating Corp.) ............................................................................................... 21
Fig. 17. Operator’s control panel for two-furnace system. (American Induction Heating Corp.) ................ 22
Fig. 18. Operator’s control station. .............................................................................................................. 22
Fig. 19. Block diagram of current source power supply. (American Induction Heating Corp.) ................... 23
Fig. 20. Current source power supply and control cubicle. (American Induction Heating Corp.) ............... 24

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1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet pertains to industrial use of induction heating equipment, including electromagnetic induction
heaters and dielectric heaters.

1.1 Changes
July 2020. Interim revision. Updated contingency planning and sparing guidance.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 Equipment and Processes

2.1.1 Where the hydraulic lines, pumps, and control cables are exposed to molten metal spills, they should
be protected with insulated metal shields or any other means appropriate for the conditions. (See Data Sheet
7-33, High Temperature Molten Materials.)
The fluid used in the hydraulic system should be one of the approved less hazardous types.
2.1.2 Where water cooling is used for transformers, capacitors, electronic tubes, spark gaps, or high frequency
conductors, the cooling water should be interlocked with the power supply so that the loss of cooling water
will interrupt the power supply. Insofar as possible, the equipment should be arranged so that it will not be
damaged by leakage or condensation.
Where the loss of cooling water due to a power failure would result in a large loss, arrangements should
be made for an emergency water supply.
2.1.3 Where forced ventilation is provided by electric motor driven fans, the air supply should be interlocked
with the power supply so that the power is shut off if the cooling air is lost.

2.2 Electrical
2.2.1 The electrical equipment associated with induction and dielectric heating apparatus should be installed
and protected in accordance with the requirements of Article 665 of the National Electrical Code (NFPA
No. 70).
2.2.2 Where power is supplied to an induction furnace from a separate transformer, periodic tests of the
insulation of the transformer winding and the transformer insulating liquid (if liquid-filled) should be made as
recommended in Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers.
All associated electrical control and protective equipment should be inspected, tested, and cleaned annually
to insure its proper operation. (See Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing.)
2.2.3 The adequacy of the surge protection should be checked. Low sparkover lightning arresters should
be provided for dry-type transformers. Resistance of the ground connections should not exceed 5 ohms.
Preferably it should be as near 1 ohm as possible. See Data Sheet 5-11, Lighting and Surge Protection for
Electrical Systems.
2.2.4 A coordination and short circuit study should be made of the electrical protective devices in the power
supply and the furnace circuit, if this has not been done. This is necessary especially if there have been
changes made recently in these systems.

2.3 Operation and Maintenance

2.3.1 Develop a documented inspection, testing, and maintenance program for induction and dielectric heating
equipment, and utility/support system equipment. See Data Sheet 9-0, Asset Integrity.
2.3.2 The connections between the water-cooled cables and the coreless induction furnace should be
checked monthly for tightness. In some cases a weekly check may be needed if there is frequent movement
under normal operating conditions.
2.3.3 When charging a crucible, place small light pieces of the material on the bottom. This acts as a cushion
for larger pieces and ingots, which should be stacked on end on top of the smaller pieces. Avoid jamming
the ingots together. Expansion of the material while heating may crack the crucible.

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2.3.4 On tilt-type furnaces, the joint between the topping refractory and the crucible should be inspected
daily along with the furnace spout (which needs constant attention).
Add to the backup sand in the refractory frequently. Further compacting of the sand is caused by the
electromagnetic vibrations, despite it having been well tamped initially. Voids occur between the topping
material and the backup refractory. When the furnace is tilted, some of the backup material slides down to
fill the void under the spout, thus creating an even larger void in the upper rear of the crucible. Unless
additional backup material is provided, vertical cracks will develop in the rear of the crucible after ten to 20
heats.
2.3.5 To prevent cracking of the crucible, the topping refractory should be removed after the first ten heats
and the voids filled with additional backup material. After the next 15 heats, add more backup material as
needed, and by continuing this procedure the tilt-type crucibles will generally last for more than 100 heats.
2.3.6 Operators and guards should be trained in proper procedures in the event of malfunction of the furnace.
See Data Sheet 10-8, Operators, for operator guidance.

2.4 Protection
Portable carbon dioxide extinguishers of the ten to 15 lb rating should be provided for use in the event of
fire in the electrical supply and control equipment, with 11⁄2 in. hose lines equipped with spray nozzles provided
for backup protection.

2.5 Contingency Planning

2.5.1 Equipment Contingency Planning

When an induction and dielectric heating equipment breakdown would result in an unplanned outage to site
processes and systems considered key to the continuity of operations, develop and maintain a documented,
viable induction and dielectric heating equipment contingency plan per Data Sheet 9-0, Asset Integrity. See
Appendix C of that data sheet for guidance on the process of developing and maintaining a viable equipment
contingency plan. Also refer to sparing, rental, and redundant equipment mitigation strategy guidance in that
data sheet.

2.5.2 Sparing
Sparing can be a mitigation strategy to reduce the downtime caused by an induction and dielectric heating
equipment breakdown depending on the type, compatibility, availability, fitness for the intended service, and
viability of the sparing. For general sparing guidance, see Data Sheet 9-0, Asset Integrity.

2.5.2.1 Routine Spares

Routine induction and dielectric heating equipment spares are spares that are considered to be consumables.
These spares are expected to be put into service under normal operating conditions over the course of the
life of the induction and dielectric heating equipment, but not reduce equipment downtime in the event of
a breakdown. This can include sparing recommended by the original equipment manufacturer. See Section
3.2 for routine spare guidance.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Loss History

A recent study of the loss experience revealed that the frequency of loss in induction heating equipment
had increased significantly since the ten-year study (1963-1972) described in the November 1973 version
of Data Sheet 6-3. The reasons for this increase are indicated in this updated version, which also describes
the present state of the art, recent applications, associated hazards, and safeguards that are necessary for
effective loss control.
A study of the loss experience in a recent five-year period showed that 155 losses occurred during this period.
More than half of the losses involved the escape of molten metal from induction furnaces. Many of these
were due to steam explosions caused by water leaking from the water-cooled inductor coils. In other cases
it was due to moisture in the charge, failure of the refractory, or the loss of cooling air for the furnace bottom.

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The remaining losses were due to electrical defects and lightning damage. Inadequate maintenance was a
major contributing factor.

3.2 Routine Spares

The following are common routine spares for induction and dielectric heating equipment. Store and maintain
the routine spares per original equipment manufacturer recommendations to maintain viability. Refer to Data
Sheet 9-0 for additional guidance.
• Spare tubes and circulator
• Rectifier
• Controls
• Conveyor parts
• Fans, water pumps
• Electrode parts (microwave and radio frequency)

4.0 REFERENCES
For more information, please refer to the following data sheets as cited in the text:
Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers
Data Sheet 5-11, Lighting and Surge Protection for Electrical Systems
Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing
Data sheet 7-33, High Temperature Molten Materials
Data Sheet 9-0, Asset Integrity

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Coreless Induction Melting System: Consists of a furnace, an electric power supply, electric control
equipment, water-cooling equipment, and hydraulic equipment. Preassembled packaged systems are now
available from several manufacturers.
Dielectric Heating: The heating of nonconducting materials by their own dielectric losses (energy used in
the current overcoming the resistance) when they are placed in a varying electric field.
Impedance Tuning Stub: A device which controls coupling (impedance matching) of the microwave energy
source to the material being treated.
Induction heating Equipment: Used for melting, forging, hardening, tempering, annealing, brazing, shrink
fitting, and soldering materials that are good electrical conductors.
Induction-Type Melting Furnaces: Used where a means of holding molten metal is required so that it can
be poured into molds. They operate on the same principle as an air core transformer.
Ionic Conduction: A process which causes free ions at the interface to move about and cause heating
through the addition of carbon black.
Magnetron Tube: A vacuum tube surrounded by magnets.
Microwave Heating: Also a form of dielectric heating, but it employs frequencies ranging from 10 to 100
times higher than those used for the ordinary dielectric heating applications.
Reflected Power Meter: Measures reflected power and automatically adjusts tuner, causing the reflected
power to be returned to the oven.
Waveguide: A metallic tube used to transmit microwaves.

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

The purpose of this appendix is to capture the changes that were made to this document each time it was
published. Please note that section numbers refer specifically to those in the version published on the date
shown (i.e., the section numbers are not always the same from version to version).
July 2020. Interim revision. Updated contingency planning and sparing guidance.
January 2000. This document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.

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APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION

C.1 General
Induction heating equipment is used for melting, forging, hardening, tempering, annealing, brazing, shrink
fitting, and soldering materials that are good electrical conductors. Induction heating provides accurate
temperature control for various forging processes involving construction equipment; aerospace, nuclear and
petrochemical industries; trucks; mining machinery; rail cars; etc.
No contact is required between the work load and the heat source. Heat may be restricted to localized areas
or to the surface of the load.
The material to be heated is generally placed inside an inductor coil of one or more turns, which is energized
from a source of alternating current. The current frequency may vary from 60 Hz to 9600 kHz. The alternating
magnetic field induces voltage in the work piece, which in turn causes current to flow. As the current flows
through the resistance of the work piece, heat is generated due to the I2R loss. These currents tend to be more
intense at the surface of the work piece while those at the center are at a minimum. This characteristic, known
as the ‘‘skin effect,’’ results in a higher heating rate at the surface. The rate of heat generation for induction
heating is proportional to the ampere turns of the coil squared.
The induction coils are made in many different sizes and shapes depending upon the configuration and
application of the object, e.g., whether for heat treating, forging, or melting. The construction techniques vary
because of the different frequencies employed, the copper sizes and magnetic forces involved, and the end
application. In some heat-treating applications, the induction coil may be one single turn in air, while in a
melting furnace it may consist of a number of water-cooled coils embedded in a refractory material. For
heating large billets, it can be of rectangular shape, large enough to surround the billet as shown in Figures
4 and 5. (See Data Sheet 7-33, High Temperature Molten Materials.)
The power to the induction coil may be supplied by one of the following methods, depending upon the
frequency and the amount of power needed for the particular application.
1. The local utility system at 60 Hz.
2. A motor-generator set up to about 800 kW at frequencies up to 9600 Hz.
3. Mercury arc converters up to 300 kW with frequencies up to 1500 Hz.
4. Spark-gap converters up to 50 kW with frequencies from 50 Hz to 200 kHz. (A basic wiring diagram is
shown in Figure 1.)
5. Electronic oscillators up to 500 kW with frequencies from 100 Hz to 1000 kHz. (See Figure 2 for basic
wiring diagram.)
Induction furnaces operating at frequencies ranging between 60 and 1000 Hz can produce temperatures
up to 3,000°F (1648°C). In one type of furnace, the currents are induced directly in the charge. In another
type, they are induced in a magnetic case containing the charge. In some installations the coil conductors are
hollow and water cooled, and the coil current may be as high as 15,000 amperes.
For special refining or hardening applications, these furnaces are also designed to operate with a partial
vacuum or controlled atmosphere.
Induction heating systems are being applied to objects of practically any size or shape, ranging from fractions
of an inch (cm) to substantial lengths and diameters. These systems may also involve simple as well as
complicated and sophisticated processes that can be automated to meet specific production requirements.
The forging industry uses induction heating extensively for heating billets of many different sizes,
temperatures, and production rates. The systems may be packaged or they may be custom-designed to fit
more special applications. Figure 3 shows the largest induction heating system in the world. The system
consists of six lines of three vertically mounted induction heaters especially built for heating steel slabs up
to 2,400°F (1715°C) at the rate of 600 tons per hour, using 210,000 kW supplied at 120,000 volts. Figure 4
shows the arrangement of the power supplies to the heaters, which are of a special design (Figs. 5 and 6).
The heaters are stationary over the heating line (Fig. 7) and the slabs (which are supported on stainless
steel fingers of the transfer cars) are elevated by means of a box beam lifting mechanism into the heaters,
where they are held during the heating cycle.

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Fig. 1. Spark-gap converter for induction heating. Simplified basic diagram. (Westinghouse Electric Corp.)

Fig. 2. Vacuum-tube generator for induction heating. Simplified basic diagram. (Westinghouse Electric Corp.)

The main electrical equipment and controls consist of the 120 kV primary transformers, SCR switches, and
capacitors and are located on the floor above the heaters (Fig. 8).

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Fig. 3. World’s largest induction heating installation for heating steel slabs, showing discharge
side of heaters and heated slab on conveyor to mill. (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.)

C.2 Dielectric Heating Systems

Dielectric heating is the heating of nonconducting materials by their own dielectric losses (energy used in
the current overcoming the resistance) when they are placed in a varying electric field. The material to be
heated is usually placed between two metal plates (electrodes) which are supplied by a high frequency
generator. The material is actually the dielectric of a capacitor across which high frequency voltage is applied.
Heating a nonconducting material in this manner is extremely fast. Power to the electrodes is supplied from
vacuum tube oscillators which generate the very high frequencies that are required.
These units have power outputs of up to 599 kW and frequencies ranging from 1 to 200 MHZ (million Hertz
per sec). Figure 9 shows the basic wiring diagram.
Some of the more common applications for dielectric heating equipment are preheating of plastics, food
processing, drying and heat treatment of textiles, processing of rubber and synthetic materials, wood drying,
curing, and gluing.

C.3 Microwave and Radio Frequency Ovens

Microwave heating is also a form of dielectric heating, but it employs frequencies ranging from 10 to 100
times higher than those used for the ordinary dielectric heating applications. Microwave and radio frequency
(rf) ovens are becoming increasingly common in industrial settings. These ovens initially cost more than
fuel-fired ovens, but are more efficient and offer production and operational advantages. There are both batch
and continuous (conveyor) type microwave and rf ovens.

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Fig. 4. Arrangement of power supplies to induction heaters. Sketch shows power supplies to one heater line.
(Total of six heater lines.) (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.)

This method of heating is being used for large-scale food processing such as in cooking, sterilization, and
freeze drying, and for industrial processes involving heat treating, drying, foaming, bonding, curing,
polymerization, and sealing of products such as ceramics, chemicals, coatings, electronics, forest products,
graphic arts, paper, pharmaceuticals, plastic, rubber, and textiles.
Large Business Interruption exposures can exist at locations with industrial microwave or radio frequency
ovens. Although these ovens are not subject to a fuel explosion hazard, and operate at lower temperatures
(only the product experiences temperature rise) than conventional ovens, they are subject to fires mainly
as a result of improper or infrequent cleaning, and improper operation. Also, certain critical components can
fail suddenly in normal use or due to overheating. While a total loss of these ovens is uncommon, a
component failure could lead to a large business interruption if routine spares are not readily available. Proper
cleaning and maintenance, availability of routine spare parts, and possibly fire protection are important for
this type of equipment. Proper operation and adhering to the intended use will also help prevent losses.
There are about 500 continuous microwave lines worldwide. These ovens are manufactured to operate at
one of two frequencies, 915 MHZ or 2450 MHZ, and range in power from 6kW to 60kW for industrial use.
Ovens operating at 915 MHZ are typically used in the food processing industry for meat processing. This type
of oven appears to be prone to more problems than the 2450 MHZ oven, and is particularly subject to fires
if thorough cleaning is not done on a regular basis.
An overheating condition can lead to failure of components, causing a costly business interruption. Some
of the parts which can fail are the magnetron tube, circulator, rectifier, controls, and conveyor belts. Most of
these parts should be readily available from the manufacturer, and might be kept on hand at the plant.
Several manufacturers claim to stock magnetron tubes as routine spares. Magnetron tubes are warranted
for about 2,000 hours. These tubes can last from 6,000 to 8,000 hours if operated below the maximum rating
and kept properly cooled. Keeping the dummy load water (see below) clean and in the correct temperature

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Fig. 5. Rectangular induction coil (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.)

range is important to maximizing tube life. Tubes can cost from about $4,000 to as much as $8,000 depending
on the power rating. Some ovens operate with more than one tube, and can be operated at a reduced load
if one part fails.
One manufacturer indicates that it could take two or three months to replace a circulator for its ovens, but
that its routine spare parts inventory is improving. A circulator is needed to protect the tube from reflected
power (microwave energy which is reflected back to the energy source rather than absorbed by the product).
Reflected power will overheat the tube and greatly reduce its life. An oven may be operated at a reduced load
without the circulator.
Another company which manufactures both the high and low frequency ovens claims to have an adequate
supply of routine spare parts available. The company indicates that its ovens should not experience an
unplanned shutdown of more than four days because of a component failure.
Not all materials are suitable for microwave processing. Materials must be capable of absorbing microwave
electromagnetic energy. Microwave energy is converted to heat inside the material as the molecules realign
with the microwave field at the frequency of the microwave. (Some materials which are not receptive to
microwaves can be made so by the addition of carbon black. This causes free ions at the interface to move
about and cause heating, a process called ionic conduction.) Coupling of microwave power to the product
in the oven is important to keeping reflected power at a minimum, i.e., the amount of material being processed
should be properly matched to the power of the tube. Microwave ovens have a power supply which converts
ac to dc power. A magnetron tube ( a vacuum tube surrounded by magnets) converts the dc power to
microwave energy which is transmitted by means of a wire or waveguide to the application cavity, or oven.
Microwave energy can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted, depending on the material. The tube must
be protected from reflected microwaves passing back through the waveguide. The circulator is the most
effective device for this purpose. It acts like a check valve, only allowing waves to pass through the waveguide
in one direction. Reflected power is directed through a separate port to a water supply (dummy load) which
carries away wasted microwave energy. Other protective devices in the waveguide are a temperature switch

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Fig. 6. Induction heater. (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.)

and a reflected power switch. These devices have proven to be less reliable than a circulator, and will interrupt
the operation of the oven, whereas a circulator provides continuous protection without shutting down the
oven.
Another device which protects the magnetron tube is called an impedance tuning stub. This device controls
coupling (impedance matching) of the microwave energy source to the material being treated. Reflected
power is measured by a reflected power meter and the tuner is automatically adjusted, causing reflected
power to be returned to the oven. The ability to monitor reflected power is also important for indicating
equipment or product material problems.
Arc protection circuits are also important for quenching arcs. High intensity fields in a microwave oven can
cause arcing if foreign materials, such as dust at a waveguide port, enter the oven. Small metallic objects may
cause arcing. An arc will follow a path back to the tube, causing destruction of the magnetron tube.
Other important controls include instrumentation to read power output and material temperature (infrared
detection). This enables an operator to tell if a problem with temperature rise is related to the equipment or
the material. Various values of microwave receptivity (ability to absorb microwave energy) for different
batches of material will require adjustment of the power output.

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Fig. 7. Induction heaters over heating lines. (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.)

Safety interlocks can include the temperature of the magnetron tube, generator cabinet (which contains the
magnetron tube) temperature (which is cooled by water or air), and cooling water temperature and flow. There
are no national safety standards, with the exception of emissions health standards, for microwave ovens.
Some microwave ovens that process combustible materials have optical fire detectors which sense the
flickering of a flame. Smoke detectors may also be used. These devices could serve as an interlock and shut
down the oven, or could activate a fixed suppression system such as CO2. If a fire occurs in one of these
ovens, the oven may be shut down or the conveyor may continue to operate to remove the product.
Rf ovens are similar to microwave ovens, but operate at lower frequencies, typically from 10 to 25 MHZ.
The frequency at which an electromagnetic wave type of oven is designed to operate depends on what type
and shape of material is being processed. Rf ovens are used for high moisture removal applications.
Rf ovens use a power triode tube rather than a magnetron tube to generate the radio frequency waves. These
tubes can be rated as high as 1MW, and can cost as much as $50,000. Because of the high cost, these
tubes are not stocked by manufacturers. Replacement times can be as much as 14 weeks or longer. One
insured reportedly keeps a new tube on hand as well as two used tubes with 4,000 to 5,000 hours of use.
Normal tube life is expected to be about 5,000 hours. This can be as much as doubled if the power tube
is not operated continuously. Operating at a constant power level and keeping the voltage as low as possible
will also extend the tube life. Reflected power is not a problem with rf ovens and circulators are not used;
these ovens are able to idle with no load (power levels at a minimum — distance between electrodes
increases).
Safety controls interlocked with rf generators include: high pressure coolant (for triode cabinet) temperature,
low coolant pressure, cabinet doors open, no coolant flow, conveyor stopped, and high kilowatt output.
Monitoring moisture levels at the inlet and outlet of the oven is also important. Small plexiglass observation
ports protected by aluminum screens can be provided to enable operators to discover problems (smoldering)
inside the oven.

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Fig. 8. Main electrical equipment and controls for induction heaters. (Ajax Magnethermic Corp.)

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Fig. 9. Vacuum-tube generator for dielectric heating, simplified basis diagram (Westinghouse Electric Corp.)

Industry experience with this equipment has been satisfactory. There were two recent losses involving fires
inside radio frequency ovens due to arcing. Both were caused by arcing between the product and the
electrodes. One incident was a result of improper positioning of the product on the conveyor (spools of yarn
were placed with the metal spools facing electrodes); the other was a result of failure of the electrode
insulators. In the latter case, laboratory testing showed that the plastic electrode insulators in the two-year-old
oven were cracked due to embrittlement.
If a recommendation is made to provide internal water protection in a microwave or rf oven, the oven
manufacturer should be consulted. Automatic sprinkler heads cannot be used as fires will typically start out
as smoldering product. A deluge type system activated by means of ionization type smoke detectors located
in special ducts connected to the exhaust ducts can be used. This system would have to interlock with the
power to the oven so that all power is shut off upon activation of the fire protection system. The piping inside
the oven should be located so as to minimize the chance of arcing. Water damage to the product might also
be a concern. Halon suppression systems have been commonly used with rf ovens; CO2 could cause
condensation or freezing of moisture.
It should also be noted that plants with this type of equipment may experience problems with electrical
harmonics. The static conversion of ac to dc power inside the microwave or rf power supply will cause
harmonics in the plant’s electrical system which may overheat and slowly disintegrate neutral leads inside
circuit breaker panels and motor control centers.

C.4 Induction Melting Furnaces

Induction-type melting furnaces are used where a means of holding molten metal is required so that it can
be poured into molds. They operate on the same principle as an air core transformer (Fig. 10). The primary
of the transformer is represented by the coil that is built into the furnace. The metal charge in the crucible,
or the crucible itself, is the secondary. The primary coil is made of copper tubing through which cooling water
flows and the refractory that constitutes the crucible provides mechanical protection for the tubing.
Line frequency current (60 Hz) from the local utility or high frequency current (180 Hz-10 KHz) from a motor
generator set or a solid state current source may be supplied to the terminals of the primary coil. The current
is then induced in a charge of conducting material within a nonconducting crucible, or in a conducting crucible

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Fig. 10. Coreless induction tilt furnace for melting iron, steel, bronze and brass alloys, and aluminum.
(American Induction Heating Corp.)

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containing a nonconducting material. The induced current causes rapid heating and melting of the charge;
the higher the resistance, the more efficient the heating. The strong electromagnetic field also causes a natural
agitation within the molten metal which produces a good homogeneous mix.
Induction furnaces operating at frequencies ranging between 60 and 1000 Hz can produce temperatures
up to 3,000°F (1,648°C). In one type of furnace, the currents are induced directly in the charge. In another
type, they are induced in a magnetic case containing the charge. In some installations the coil conductors
are hollow and water cooled and the coil current may be as high as 15,000 amperes.
For special refining or hardening applications, these furnaces are also designed to operate with a partial
vacuum or controlled atmosphere.
There are several types of high frequency coreless induction furnaces in use: the tilt, push-out, lift coil, drop
coil, and lift swing furnaces.
Figure 10 shows the tilt-type of furnace. The molten metal is poured into a ladle by tilting the furnace, usually
by means of a hydraulic mechanism.
Figure 11 shows a double push-out furnace in which the bilge crucibles are placed on refractory pedestals
and are raised or lowered into place within the induction coils by means of hydraulic cylinders. The lift coil
differs from the push-out in that the induction coil is raised and lowered into position around the crucible.
In general, these are used for melts up to 400 lb (180 kg); the tilt type is used for larger melts.

Fig. 11. Double push-out type high frequency coreless induction furnace.

The drop coil furnace shown in Figure 12 mounts on a flat floor and needs no foundation footings or pits.
This design reduces the danger of spilling the molten metal, which can be caused by lifting the coil over the
crucible or pushing the crucible out of the coil. This type is available with either a hoist drop or a cylinder-
actuated drop.

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Fig. 12. Drop coil furnace (American Induction Heating Corp.)

The lift swing furnace shown in Figure 13 is designed for rapid melting of nonferrous metals including various
alloys. The crucibles used with this furnace vary in size from #70 to #225. These numbers are based on
an industry standard that indicates the capacity of the crucible in pounds of aluminum. For example, a #80
crucible will contain 80 lb (36 kg) of aluminum, but its capacity will vary if other metals are used.
The crucibles are of clay-graphite composition. Silicon carbide cannot be used because the high frequency
magnetic field creates heat in the silicon carbide itself, which causes it to burn up eventually.
In the tilt furnace the walls of the crucible are straight, but in the push-out, lift coil, or drop coil furnaces, the
walls curve slightly outward and are called ‘‘bilge crucibles’’ as indicated in Figure 11.

C.5 Coreless Induction Melting Systems

A coreless induction melting system includes a furnace, an electric power supply, electric control equipment,
water-cooling equipment, and hydraulic equipment. A two-furnace system is shown in Figure 14. The various
components that make up such a system are shown in Figures 15, 16, 17 and 18.
Previously, these systems were available only in separate components. They had to be assembled and
installed on the foundry premises by contractors not always adequately informed of the equipment and its
proper functioning. However, preassembled systems are now available from several manufacturers, as
illustrated in Figures 15, 16, 17 and 18. These packages may be broken down for shipment, which minimizes
the installation problems.
The furnace shown in Figure 15 is of heavy steel construction designed for melting and pouring furnace loads
from 2,000 to 24,000 lb (900 to 10,800 kgs) of iron. It can be tilted up to 95 degrees by means of the hydraulic

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Fig. 13. Lift swing furnace.

tilt mechanism. These furnaces are also available with aluminum structural sections providing a unitized frame
in different sizes for handling loads of 100 to 3,000 lb (45 to 1,350 kgs).
The construction of the furnace body is shown in detail in Figure 10. The furnace is enclosed in a rolled steel
shell or in the open style cage shown in Figure 15. The latter type is much easier to maintain as it permits
removal of the parts in order to gain access to the coil when repairs are required.
The yokes, the coil turns, and the coil clamp-down means must be kept tight in the line frequency coreless
induction furnaces. Otherwise the vibratory forces produced by the electromagnetic field are so severe that
they can shake the furnace apart.
Radial support to the coil is provided by the furnace yoke. Axial downward holding of the coil is intended to
be provided by the refractory ring that rests on top of the coil and is held down by the top flange. The coil
must be held down in order to prevent it from being forced upward in the furnace due to thermal expansion
of the lining. Unfortunately, however, this design is inadequate from this standpoint and considerable work
is involved in removing and replacing the refractory ring when the furnace must be disassembled.
Water cooling the top section of the furnace has helped to reduce the upper furnace maintenance
requirements. It provides a means for holding the coil down and eliminates the heat at the top of the furnace.

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Fig. 14. A two-furnace coreless induction melting system. (American Induction Heating Corp.)

The coil of the coreless induction furnace is the heart of the system and can be troublesome and expensive
if not properly designed and maintained. An open style insulated studded coil of square copper conductors
is considered the best. This design permits moisture to emerge between turns during the sintering of a new
lining, thus avoiding turn-to-turn or turn-to-ground short circuits that can damage the coil and shut down the
furnace. Grouting of the coil is not recommended because moisture may collect between turns. Wrapping
each turn of the coil with a suitable electrical insulation helps to prevent short circuits and will prolong the coil
life.
Figure 16 is a one-line diagram showing the various components used to supply line frequency three-phase
power for a coreless induction melting system consisting of two furnaces. A resistor is incorporated with the
starting contactor which limits the inrush current to two to three times normal full load current. As the
refractory lining wears, the power factor also changes and sufficient capacitors are provided to automatically
maintain unity power factor. A furnace selector switch permits alternate use of the two furnaces from the
same power system.
The operator’s control panel (Fig. 17) contains all of the instrumentation for monitoring and controlling the
furnace operations. The panel provides automatic power factor and phase balance control, and shuts down
the power automatically when sufficient energy has been delivered to the furnace. In the event of a fault
on the system, the panel also shuts down automatically and annunciators identify the cause. A special
annunciator is provided if melt involves the coil.
The operator’s control station (Fig. 18) is a console that contains the hydraulic tilt valve, signal lights, and
push buttons to control the melting and pouring operations. The station is usually located near the furnace
so that these operations are under close supervision.

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Fig. 15. Coreless induction furnace, with open-style cage. See also Figure 10. (American Induction Heating Corp.)

C.6 Current Source Power Supply for Induction Heating

Another method of providing reliable power control for high frequency power supplies for induction melting
is referred to by the manufacturer (American Induction Heating Corp.) as the current source power supply. The
current source power supply permits power to flow from line to load and from the system to line. Thus, any
stored energy in the systems during operation or shutdown is controlled by this ability to regenerate. The
current control permits the power supply to operate at a constant output power factor throughout its operating
range.
This current source solid state power supply is illustrated in Figure 19 and is available in frequencies of 180
Hz through 3 kHz and sizes of 50 through 3,000 kW. Maintaining constant current control and continuously
monitoring the voltage eliminates nuisance shutdowns due to blown fuses and damaged SCRs, diodes, and
similar components.
The various components that make up this power supply are contained in a separate steel enclosure along
with the operator’s control panel as shown in Figure 20.

C.7 Iron and Aluminum Melting

For iron melting, the coreless furnace is generally lined with silica refractory grain, but for aluminum melting
an alumina refractory grain is used. The power supply for each application is also different. In iron melting,
the silica lining wears and the power increases as it wears. In aluminum melting the reverse is true, because
buildup occurs and the power decreases with time.

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Fig. 16. Diagram of power system supplying a two-furnace coreless induction melting system.
(American Induction Heating Corp.)

The conventional tapped transformer supply is preferred in either application. For iron melting, the power
supply must be limited by lowering the coil voltage, while in aluminum melting it must supply the required
power by increasing the coil voltage. The sophisticated stepless control systems are difficult to maintain and
are responsible for more downtime.
The furnace power leads and associated electrical equipment are usually water cooled, with preferably a
closed recirculating system which helps to reduce the buildup of scale and algae in the cooling paths. Reduced
flow in the cooling system results in overheated components, increased maintenance, and downtime.

C.8 Brass and Bronze Melting

Brass and bronze foundries usually use high frequency coreless induction melting furnaces of the tilt, push
out, and lift coil types, as previously described. The crucibles employed with these furnaces are clay-graphite
type. The following operating procedures should be observed as a matter of good practice.

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Fig. 17. Operator’s control panel for two-furnace system. (American Induction Heating Corp.)

Fig. 18. Operator’s control station.

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Fig. 19. Block diagram of current source power supply. (American Induction Heating Corp.)

• New crucibles should be heated slowly to permit moisture to escape without the formation of steam, which
may cause the crucible to spall or crack.
• During the first melt, the furnace should be operated at reduced voltage until the lining has dried out. Some
of the moisture in the crucible and the backup lining exists between the coil turns, and until this is dried
out power interruptions due to ground faults may occur.
• When charging a crucible, place small light pieces of the material on the bottom in order to provide a cushion
for larger pieces and ingots. These should be stacked on end on top of the smaller pieces. Avoid jamming
the ingots together. Expansion of the material while heating may crack the crucible.
• Once melting has started, the charge should be fed into the melt in a continuous process to prevent
overheating of the molten metal.
• When a heat is in process that is less than the capacity of the furnace, the power level should be reduced
during the final superheating period to reduce the height of the meniscus (the curved upper surface of
the melt) and thereby reduce the agitation.
• Crucibles should be thoroughly scraped after each heat. This helps to prevent metal contamination,
maintain crucible capacity, and prolong crucible life.

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Fig. 20. Current source power supply and control cubicle. (American Induction Heating Corp.)

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