Ch08 TCSu 2021 Handout
Ch08 TCSu 2021 Handout
Ch08 TCSu 2021 Handout
Course Outline
Chapter 8: Failure
Chapter 8 -- 1
Chapter 8: Failure
Why do we need to learn “failure”?
• To err is human; to correct a mistake is the greatest good (知過能改,
善莫大焉). Through investigating the failure appearance, interior
microstructure, and conducting mechanical analysis, we can determine
the failure mechanism. Probability of the failure can be greatly reduced
by correcting the design and materials.
Static Failure
8.2 – 10.4 Failure Appearance
8.5 Failure Mechanics
8.6 Fracture Toughness Testing
Dynamic Failure
8.7 – 8.11 Fatigue
8.12 Creep
Chapter 8 -- 2
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Chapter 8: Failure
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do cracks that lead to failure form?
• How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?
Fracture mechanisms of
Simple Fracture
Type of Stress: Tensile, Compressive, Shear, Torsional …
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• Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations
Chapter 8 -- 5
Chapter 8 -- 6
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Fractographic studies
on ductile fracture surface
void fracture 20mm
nucleation
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Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Chapter 8 - 10
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Fig. 10.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [From R. W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, 3rd edition. Copyright © 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. Photograph courtesy of Roger Slutter, Lehigh University.]
Chapter 8 - 11
Brittle Failure:
radial fan-shaped ridges
Fig. 10.5(b), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [(b) From D. J. Wulpi, Understanding How Components Fail, 1985.
Reproduced by permission of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.]
Chapter 8 - 12
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Fracture Mechanics
1. Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
Chapter 8 - 15
t
Chapter 8 - 16
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r/h
Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.)
1.0
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 18
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Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
• A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
“blunts” the crack.
deformed
region
brittle ductile
Chapter 8 - 19
https://arxiv.org/ftp/arx
iv/papers/0810/0810.2
218.pdf
Chapter 8 - 20
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Chapter 8 - 21
i.e., σm > σc
Chapter 8 - 22
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Chapter 8 - 23
Chapter 8 - 24
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Chapter 8 - 25
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Common Nondestructive
Testing Techniques
• Laboratory or in-field?
• Surface or subsurface?
• Defect size sensitivity?
Chapter 8 - 27
amax
σ
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture σ
Chapter 8 - 28
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• 0.3: How to determine the quality of a steel plate? Make sure you
can check the quality!
Chapter 8 - 29
• Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
constant
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm
Answer:
Chapter 8 - 30
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Chapter 8 - 31
Chapter 8 - 32
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Chapter 8 - 33
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Impact Testing
Fig. 10.12(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
• Why using impact testing?
(Adapted from H.W. Hayden, W.G.
Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and
If the results of laboratory tensile tests
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley and
(at low loading rates) could not be
Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.) extrapolated to predict fracture behavior.
If the fracture mechanics for this material
is not well-defined.
If we are interested in (1) low
temperature, (2) high strain rate, and (3)
triaxial stress state deformation.
Chapter 8 - 35
Impact Testing
• Ductile materials have high ∆𝐸:
Surface is fibrous and dull
E.g., 79˚C sample in the figure below.
• Brittle materials have low ∆𝐸:
Surface is shiny and flat.
E.g., -59˚C sample in the figure below.
Chapter 8 - 36
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Impact Testing
Comparison between 𝑲𝑰𝒄 and ∆𝑬
Questions 𝑲𝑰𝒄 ∆𝑬
Is the test result quantitative? Yes No (just in relative
sense, absolute
values are of little
significance
Is the information given useful for materials Yes (e.g., oil tank) No
designer?
The difficulty and complexity of the test High (especially Low
for maintaining
plane strain
condition)
Chapter 8 - 37
Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy
Chapter 8 - 38
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Introduction to DBTT
• One of the primary functions of the Charpy and the Izod tests.
• It is defined as the temperature dependence of the measured impact
energy absorption.
• Low strength steels (BCC) have DBTT, while high strength steels and
low-strength FCC metals don’t. A few HCP metals have DBTT.
Introduction to DBTT
• 0.01, 0.11, 0.22, … means the
carbon content in [%]
Chapter 8 - 40
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Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.) Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad.
Sci., Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)
Dynamic Failure
8.7 – 8.11 Fatigue 90% of failure is attributed to this!!
Appearance of failure-type facture surface:
– Brittle-like (shiny and relatively flat) even in normally ductile
metals
– Very little gross plastic deformation
– Fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of an
applied tensile stress
8.12 Creep
Chapter 8 - 42
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Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.
σ
σ max
• Stress varies with time. σm S
-- key parameters are S, σm, and
σ min time
cycling frequency
• Key points: Fatigue...
--can cause part failure, even though σmax < σy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Chapter 8 - 43
Fatigue
2. cyclic shear
3. torsional stress
Chapter 8 - 44
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S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
--BCC metal and some Sfat
HCP metal
--Generally 35-60% 𝜎 safe Adapted from Fig.
10.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
--non-ferrous alloy such safe Adapted from Fig.
as Al(FCC) 10.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
--Fatigue limit: 10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
Slimit = S(N=107) N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 45
Probability of Fatigue
Steel, Ti, Mg alloys, and
cast iron have fatigue
limit.
Chapter 8 - 46
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Fatigue Characteristics
• Low-cycle fatigue, LCF:
< 104~105 cycles, high loads that produce not only elastic strain but also some
plastic strain during each cycle.
Chapter 8 - 47
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• Both features indicate the position of the crack tip at some point in time
and appear as concentric ridges that expand away from the crack
initiation site(s), frequently in a circular or semicircular pattern.
Chapter 8 - 49
Chapter 8 - 50
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• This applied stress is amplified at crack tips to the degree that local
stress levels exceed the yield strength. The geometry of fatigue
striations is a manifestation of this plastic deformation.
Chapter 8 - 51
• http://bcs.wiley.com/he-
bcs/Books?action=index&bcsId=10955&itemId=1119405491
Chapter 8 - 52
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Catastrophic Rupture
Chapter 8 - 53
N = Cycles to failure
things)
Chapter 8 - 54
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𝜎 𝛼 𝐸∆𝑇
• Corrosion Fatigue:
Simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and chemical attack
Nucleation: small pits may form as a result of chemical reactions between
the environment and the material, which may serve as points of stress
concentration.
Propagation: enhanced as a result of the corrosive environment.
Prevention: surface coating, corrosion-resistant material, reduce the
corrosiveness.
Chapter 8 - 55
Dynamic Failure
8.7 – 8.11 Fatigue
Appearance of failure-type facture surface:
– Brittle-like (shiny and relatively flat) even in normally ductile
metals
– Very little gross plastic deformation
– Fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of an
applied tensile stress
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Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (σ) vs. time
σ
σe
0 t
Primary Creep
slope (creep rate) decreases with time.
1. Before primary creep, there
is an instantaneous elastic
deformation upon
application of the load.
2. Primary creep: typified by a
continuously decreasing
creep rate (the slope of the
curve decreases with time)
3. The material is
experiencing an increase in
creep resistance or strain
hardening.
Adapted from
Fig. 10.29, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 8 - 58
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tertiary
primary
secondary
elastic
Chapter 8 - 59
Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
Rethwisch 4e.
increases 100 [Reprinted with permission
with increasing 40
Properties and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
T, σ 20
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th
ed., D. Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
649°C ASM International, 1980, p.
10 131.]
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 60
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Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
𝜀 𝐾 𝜎 exp so log 𝜀 𝑛log 𝜎 𝐶
For obtaining 𝑛, fix 𝑇 and varying 𝜎
For obtaining 𝑄 , fix 𝜎 and varying 𝑇
Adapted from
200 Fig. 9.38, Callister &
427°C
Stress (MPa)
Rethwisch 4e.
100 [Reprinted with permission
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 61
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
Pergamon Press, Inc.)
https://www.slideshare.net/
MatejJanega/creep-failure Chapter 8 - 62
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Stress (MPa)
temperature function of
100 applied stress
time to failure (rupture)
data for
S-590 Iron
12 16 20 24 28
(1073 K )(20 log t r ) 24 x103
103 T(20 + log tr (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 10.33, Callister & Rethwisch
9e. (From F.R. Larson and J. Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765
(1952). Reprinted by permission of ASME)
Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 8 - 63
Chapter 8 - 64
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SUMMARY
• Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
• Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and σ :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic σ and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic σ:
- cycles to fail decreases as Δσ increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as σ or T increases.
Chapter 8 - 65
Q&A
σe
0 t
Chapter 8 - 66
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