Information Technology Study Guide

NW RM
– Computer Fundamentals

– Networking

– Implications of Misuse and Cybersecurity

– Word-processing

– Spreadsheets

– Database Management

– Problem-Solving and Programming

 Computer Fundamentals
Computer - An electronic device operating under the control of a set of given instructions

Information Technology - the use of computers to create, process, store, retrieve, and
exchange electronic data and information

The Scope of Information Technology:

- It merges the study of Computer Science, Information and Communications
Technology and Office Administration.

Major Types of Computer Systems:

- Supercomputer: an extremely high-performance computer traditionally used for
scientific and engineering applications like weather forecasting, aerodynamics and
molecular modelling
a. It is the fastest computer
b. It has the greatest storage capacity, having a memory of > 200 GB
c. It is the least portable computer, very large
d. It consumes lots of power and is stored inside cooling units
e. It is the costliest
- Mainframe: a large capacity computer with several CPUs capable of supporting
many users simultaneously primary used in large organisations for bulk data
processing
a. It is slower than a supercomputer but faster than a PC
b. It has a good storage capacity
c. It is not very portable, very large
d. It is very expensive
e. The first successful mainframe computer was invented by IBM.
- Desktop or personal computer: a computer that is able to sit on an office desk
a. It is slower than a mainframe
b. Its tasks are for a single user
c. It is not very portable, must be connected to outlet
d. It is easy to buy, upgrade and maintain
- Mobile: a handheld device that is not restricted by electrical outlets and can be easily
moved from one location to another, like tablets, phones, laptops and smartwatches
a. It is slower than a mainframe
b. Its tasks are for a single user
c. It is small, light and portable
d. It is easy to buy, upgrade and maintain
- Embedded device: a dedicated computer system that cannot be programmed by the
user because it is designed for one or two specific functions, like operating printers,
washing machines, cameras, GPS navigation systems and bank ATMs
a. It consumes little processing power
Hardware - the tangible parts of the computer system

Major Hardware Components of a Computer System:

1. Input: These are data or instructions entered into the memory of a computer.
Examples: keyboard, mouse, joysticks, trackball, wheel, light pen
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor: This interprets and carries out the
basic functions of the computer. The CPU has two main parts called the Arithmetic
and Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU). The Control Unit directs and
coordinates the major operations of the computer. It controls the flow and execution
of data and instructions. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit performs all the arithmetic
and logical operations of the computer.
3. Primary Memory/Storage: This is the first storage area of the computer. There are
two main types of primary storage Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read-Only
Memory (ROM).
4. Secondary Storage: This is the second storage area of the computer. It is a permanent
storage place and they serve as an addition to the computer’s primary storage
Examples: hard disks, magnetic tape, flash drive, memory card, optical disks (CDs
DVDs and Blu-Rays)
5. Output: This is conveyed information displayed to the user.
Examples: Visual Output {monitors, printers (laser printer, dot matrix, line printer)
projectors}, Audio {speakers, headphones, earphones}

Input Processing Output Storage (IPOS) Cycle:

Cloud Storage is a model in which Data is stored on remote servers and can be accessed only
via the Internet or cloud. Examples include Dropbox, Google Drive, iCloud and Microsoft
OneDrive.

Local Storage is any physical storage device directly connected internally or externally to the
computer system hardware. Examples include USB drives, memory cards, hard disk drives
and optical disks

Advantages and disadvantages of local storage:

- Advantages:
a. No wifi is required to access files
b. There are no hidden fees for access
- Disadvantages:
a. Requires you to be physically connected to your own computer
b. Hardware is more susceptible to external damage

Advantages and disadvantages of cloud storage:

- Advantages:
a. Can be accessed anywhere in the world via a computer network
b. Files can be backed up regularly without human intervention
- Disadvantages:
a. Difficult to access during internet downtime or disruption
b. Files are more susceptible to malicious attacks like hacks and viruses

Criteria for Choosing Storage Solutions:

- Accessibility
- Capacity
- Security of the hardware o Security of the data
- Cost

List of input devices:

- Optical Mark Reader (OMR): reading human marked information by scanning
optical marks, e.g. lottery ticket, multiple-choice bubble sheet
- Optical Character Recognition (OCR): converts handwritten or types documents to
machine-encodable texts, e.g. receipt scanner, Google translate
- Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): reads data written with special ink,
e.g. cheque batch processor
- Mouse: sends positional information to the computer by the clicking or scrolling of
buttons
- Joystick: controls the movement of a cursor by manoeuvring a lever
- Barcode Reader: converts bars of different widths on a product into numbers
representing useful information about the product
- Scanner: allows you to transfer pictures, graphics and text unto your computer
- Light pen: sends positional information to the computer using a light-sensitive wand
 - Touch screen: enters information according to the touch or movement of fingers
across a screen
a. Point of Sale (PoS): uses a touch screen tablet or monitor to log purchases
b. Automatic Teller Machine (ATM): uses buttons to complete banking tasks
- Keyboard: converts keystrokes into binary digits
- Microphone: inputs audio signals to be stored digitally
- Digital camera: captures still and video images to be stored digitally
a. Webcam: connected to a computer for live streaming or videoconferencing

List of visual output devices:

- Monitor: uses a matrix or array of bright dots to display colours on a screen
- Printer: outputs a hard copy of a document
a. Laser: prints by beaming dots onto a paper with a laser
b. Inkjet: prints by spraying ink onto a paper
c. Dot-matrix: prints a pattern of dots unto a paper using pins
d. Thermal: prints using heat on chemically treated paper to form characters
e. Plotter: prints by drawing images onto a paper using coloured pens and toners
f. 3D: creates a layer-by-layer model of an object using a particular material

List of audio output devices:

- Speaker: plays sound out loud to a group of people
- Headphone: allows a person to listen to audio without disturbing others
- Earphone: is a type of headphone that is fittable into the ears

Software - a set or list of instructions executed by computer hardware

Types of Software:
- Systems Software: programs that enable the computer system to run properly and
efficiently, installed before any application software can run.
a. Operating Systems: a set of programs that monitor and coordinate software
and hardware in a computer system, e.g. Windows, Unix, Linux, MS-Dos and
Mac OS.
b. Utilities: a specialized program that assists in maintaining and improving the
efficiency of a computer system, e.g. Backup, Disk Fragmented, Disk Error
Checker, Disk Clean-up and Antivirus.
c. Translators: these are systems software that convert other programming
language instruction to machine language, e.g. assemblers, interpreters and
compilers
- Application Software - programs that enable the user to carry out useful tasks for a
business or personal use. There are two main types of application software:
a. General Purpose: this is used to carry out common tasks and is readily
available at computer stores, e.g. word processing, spreadsheet, presentation
and database
 b. Special Purpose: this is used to carry out specialist tasks, such as designing
products, e.g. Payroll Package, Peach Tree Accounting and Adobe Photoshop.
c. Custom Written: written for a specific organization/company to perform
tasks specific to what they need in that institution
d. Customisation of General Purpose: modifies a general-purpose software to
be more specific to a company or task. Automates certain tasks

User Interface - the combination of hardware and software that allows users and computers to
communicate with each other effectively.

Types of User Interfaces:

- Hardware user interfaces: those physical hardware components that allow the user
to manipulate the computer. Some types are
a. Touch Screen, Speech and Sound Interface
b. Specialized Keyboards
- Software user interface: the programs that are used to communicate with the
computer via the hardware. There are three types of software user interfaces:
a. Command Line interface: when interaction with a computer is by means of
individual lines of text
b. Menu Driven Interface: when interaction with a computer is by the user
selecting one option from a list of presented options, e.g. pop-up, pull-down
Graphical User Interface: when interaction with a computer is by using a
pointing device, e.g. Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers (WIMP)

Advantages and disadvantages of software user interfaces:

- Command Line interface:
a. Advantages: performs faster, requires less memory
b. Disadvantages: requires remembering commands, not suitable for novice users
- Menu Driven Interface:
a. Advantages: easier for users, does not require remembering commands
b. Disadvantages: can be difficult to find commands
- Graphical User Interface:
a. Advantages: easiest for users, visually aesthetic
b. Disadvantages: slower than command-line, difficult to develop

Suitable threshold of computer systems for specific activities:

- Running a video game
- Web browsing
- Graphic designing
- Video editing
- Desktop publishing
Troubleshooting Basic Computer Hardware Problems:

Issue Possible Causes Possible Solution

1. System unit does not • Loose or a. First check the cable. Unplug it
boot disconnected power from the computer and the outlet.
cable Re-plug in both sides (computer
• Faulty power outlet then outlet) and try rebooting the
computer.
b. Check wall outlet. Plug something
else into the outlet and see if it
works. If you are using a surge
protector, try a different outlet.
2. No picture on • Monitor may be in a. Check if the monitor power button
display sleep/hibernate is in the ‘ON’ position.
mode b. Check the monitor controls,
• Improperly adjusted brightness and contrast to ensure
monitor controls they are not at the lowest levels.
3. Printer not printing • Loose power cable a. Make sure the USB receiver or
• Loose or cable is plugged in correctly.
disconnected Plug the USB receiver or cable into
interface cable another port.

4. Wireless • Loose USB receiver a. Plug the USB receiver into another
keyboard/mouse • Dirty battery port
not responding b. Check to ensure the USB receiver is
plugged in correctly
5. Wireless connection • Wireless network a. Try to get closer to the router/access
not working adapter not plugged point, and eliminate interference.
in. Restart or reset the wireless router
• No Wi-Fi device or access point and/or your device.
(such as a router) is
in range.
6. “Network cable • Malfunctioning a. Turn the computer off and then
unplugged” errors network adapter restart to ensure any temporary
• Missing, corrupted memory corruption issues are
or out of date cleared.
network device b. Check both ends of the network
cable connected to the adapter to
ensure they are firmly connected to
the network port and that no part of
the cable is frayed or broken.
 Networking
Network - the collection of two or more computers and devices connected via
communications devices and transmission media so they can share facilities

Types of Networks:
- Local Area Network (LAN): This is a connection of computers over short distances
through communications media. LAN is a relatively cheap and simple communication
system linking a number of computers, usually microcomputers, within a defined and
small locality. This locality may be an office, a building or a cluster of buildings.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Software and data files can be • The initial set-up is expensive
shared by many users • There is a greater risk from viruses
• Users can work together on a single because they are spread easier
document • There is an increase of data
• It is cheaper to buy one package of corruption since many users will be
a software application than to buy a using the system, data can be
one for each computer tampered with.

- Wide Area Network (WAN): This connects networks across a large geographical
area such as a city, a whole country or several countries. Information can be
transmitted using special high-speed telephone lines, microwave links, satellite links
or a combination of the three. WANs are used mainly by universities and research
centres so that information can be shared, and by large organizations, companies and
banks with branches in different countries.
- Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): This is a high-speed network that connects
local area networks in a metropolitan area such as a city or town and handles the bulk
of communications activity across that region. A MAN typically includes one or more
LANs but covers a smaller geographic area than a WAN.
- Internet: This is a Wide Area Network; it is a huge collection of networks connected
together by what are called gateways.
- Intranet: This is an in-house Web Site that serves the employees of the enterprise. An
intranet is set up entirely within a LAN. Web pages can be stored and accessed from
anywhere on the network and email can be sent internally within the LAN.
- Extranet: This is a private network that enterprises use to provide trusted third parties
such as suppliers, vendors, partners, customers and other businesses, with secure,
controlled access to business information or operations.
Parts of a Network:
- Server: device that receives a request for web information and serves the data to the
client
- Client: device that receives requests and responses from the server
- Hub: device that splits a network connection among multiple computers
- Switch: component that helps devices to connect to the networks
- Router: hardware device that connects computer networks
- Modem: component that converts digital signals to analogue signals through
modulation
- Transmission Media: media through which data is transferred from one computer to
another in a network

Types of wired transmission media:

- Twisted-Pair Cable
a. Consists of one or more twisted pair wires bundled together
b. Each twisted pair wire consists of two separate insulated copper wires that are
twisted together
c. Inexpensive
d. Susceptible to electrical interference
Note: Twisted-pair cables have been used for telephones and computer networks for over a
long period, although they are gradually being replaced by fibre-optic.
- Coaxial Cable
a. It has a higher bandwidth
b. It has a twisted pair with a shiels
c. It has heavier insulation than most cables
d. It is vulnerable to high-frequency interference.
Note: Coaxial cables carry electronic current at radio frequencies. It is used for cable
television and broadband internet connections.
- Fibre-Optic Cables
a. It transmits using light
b. It is less expensive
c. It is immune to electrical noise
d. It is more secure
e. Each strand is called an optical fibre which is as thin as human hair
Note: Fibre-Optic cable is a fast and reliable form of data transmission. Although light
travels in straight lines, a beam bounces off the sides of the fibre along its length.

Types of wireless transmission media:

- Microwaves: radio waves that provide a high-speed signal transmission.
- Satellite: a space station that receives microwave signals from an earth-based station,
where amplifiers strengthen the signals and broadcast them back to earth
- Cellular Radio: a form of broadcast radio that is used widely for mobile
communications, specifically wireless modem and cell phones.
Wireless Network Technologies:
- WI-FI (Wireless Fidelity): This is a wireless radio technology that can be used to
send data between devices and computers. Small LANs can be built using only WIFI,
and the signal is good enough to be sued with shared internet access. Some cell
phones can use WI-FI technology to access the internet.
- Bluetooth: This is a radio technology that is similar to WI-FI but only works over
short distances, and is slower. It is mainly used to send data between two devices such
as a cell phone and headset, or between a digital camera and a laptop.
- Hotspot: This is a public area or space where you can access WI-FI. These may be
provided by a commercial organisation like a hotel or coffee shop or they may be
provided by the government. Some charge a fee for WI-FI access, while others offer a
free service to anyone who wants to use it.

Importance of mobile communication technologies:

- Allows organisations to communicate quickly with employees, vendors, and
customers
- Eliminates complications with transporting, logistics and reduces related costs
- Allows for quicker, larger transfers of information
- Improves information management and organisation
- Makes education and schooling more flexible during emergency situations

Terms to remember:
- Point-to-point: when a device is connected directly to another device by a dedicated
communication channel, giving those devices sole use of that channel
- Uploading: when data from a storage device (e.g. disk) from your computer is sent to
another computer via a communication channel
- Downloading: when data is received from another computer and saved onto a storage
device on your computer via a communication channel
- Broadcast Transmission: arrangement with multiple systems, a broadcast
transmission is one sent out data to all the machines simultaneously
- World Wide Web (WWW): combination of resources and protocols using HTTP
- Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): formatting language for webpage design
- Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): a secure internet protocol to transfer data
over the web
- Hyperlinks: an icon, graphic or text that links to another file or object
- Web Server: a computer where web content is stores
- Web Page: a simple document on the world wide web
- File Transfer Protocol (FTP): a standard protocol for transmitting files from one
computer system to a next
- Web Browser: an application software used to access the world wide web
- Uniform Resource Locator (URL): the address of a unique resource on the web
- Email: a method of exchanging messages between electronic devices
 Implications of Misuse and Cybersecurity
Computer Security or Cybersecurity - the protection of internet-connected systems such as
hardware, software and data from cyberthreats

Computer Misuse - the inappropriate use of computer systems to fulfil illicit or unethical ends

Elements of cybersecurity:
- Threat: a potential negative action or event
- Vulnerability: a weakness in the computer system that can be exploited
- Risk: the potential of a significant impact as a result of exploiting the vulnerability,
i.e. the consequences of the vulnerability.
- Countermeasures: an action, device, procedure, or technique that reduces the
vulnerability or risk
- Attack: an attempt to expose, alter, disable, destroy, steal or gain information through
unauthorized access to a computer system.

Forms of computer misuse:

- Cyberbullying
- Copyright infringement
- Data theft
- Denial of service attacks
- Transmission of viruses and malware
- Identity theft
- Online publication of obscene materials
- Phishing attacks
- Software and music piracy
- Financial abuses
- Violation of privacy
- Propaganda
- Electronic eavesdropping
- Industrial espionage

Countermeasures to mitigate effects of identified threats:

- Physical measures:
a. Backup and recovery procedures
b. Hardware firewall
c. Intrusion detection systems
d. Biometrics
- Software measures:
a. Effective passwords and authentication systems
b. Encryption of data
 c. Software Firewall
d. Antivirus and malware detection
- Personal security practices:
a. Verifying the authenticity of emails from companies or individuals
b. Assessing website URLs for authenticity
c. Limiting access to open Wi-Fi networks
d. Securing mobile devices
 Word Processing
Formatting features to remember:
- font types and sizes
- colour
- underline
- bold
- italics
- superscript and subscript
- tab stops
- bullets and numbering
- line spacing
- justification (left, right, centre, full)
- highlight
- uppercase
- word-wrap
- page size
- margins
- page and section breaks
- page numbers
- headers
- footers
- footnotes and endnotes
- drag and drop
- search and replace
- columns (one, two, three, left and right columns, column breaks)
- review
- spell and grammar check
- thesaurus
- word count
- language setting
- comments
- auto table of contents
- automatic save
- edit restrictions
- mail merge
- fillable form
 Spreadsheets
Formula formats to remember:

o SUM
= SUM([cell 1] : [cell 2])
eg: =SUM(G16:G21)

o AVERAGE
= AVERAGE([cell 1] : [cell 2])
eg: =AVERAGE(G16:G21)

o MAX
= MAX([cell 1] : [cell 2]) eg.
=MAX(G16:G21)

o MIN
= MIN([cell 1] : [cell 2])
eg: =MIN(G16:G21)

o COUNT (for numbers)

= COUNT([cell 1] : [cell 2])
eg: =COUNT(G16:G21)

o COUNTA (for words and characters)

= COUNTA([cell 1] : [cell 2])
eg: =COUNTA(G16:G21)

o VLOOKUP:
=VLOOKUP([lookup value], [table array], [column number], [range])
eg: =VLOOKUP(E2,$A$36:$D$38,2,FALSE)

o PMT:
=PMT([annual interest rate]/12, [number of payments], [principal])
eg: =VLOOKUP(E2,$A$36:$D$38,2,FALSE)

o IF:
= IF([“logical test”], [“value if true”], [“value if false”])
eg: =IF(C5="Guyana","Local", "Overseas")
 Database Management
Database Management (DBM) - the organisation, manipulation, storage and retrieval of
information in a database

Uses of Databases:
- Telecommunications: call records, monthly bills, maintaining balances
- Finance: storing information about stock, sales, and purchases of financial instruments
like stocks and bonds
- Sales: storing customer, product & sales information

Database Terminologies:
- table
- record or tuple - row
- field - column
- primary key: unique identifier used to identify each record
- secondary or alternate key: candidate field not chosen as primary key
- candidate key: possible option for primary key
- foreign key: primary key of another table
- data type: number, date/time, currency, autonumber
- form:
- query:
- report:
 Problem-Solving and Programming
Steps in Solving a problem:
1. Define the problem
2. Propose and evaluate solutions
3. Determine the most effective solution
4. Develop an algorithm
5. Test and validate the solution

Characteristics of Algorithms:
1. The number of steps must be finite: This means that the computer has a definite
number of instructions to follow, and when it comes to the end of those steps, it has
completed the task.
2. The steps must be precise: The instructions or steps must be accurate. A computer
cannot think for itself, so if you make a mistake in the instructions, it will have an
incorrect outcome.
3. The steps must be unambiguous: The steps must be very clear so that they can be
carried out easily.
4. The steps must have a flow of control from one process to another: There may be
many processes involved in a problem, but each process must be related and should
have a clear flow from one process to the other.
5. The steps must terminate: There must be a clear end to the instructions. The final
step in the process of baking a chicken would be to take the chicken out of the oven.
6. The steps must lead to an output: An algorithm must have at least one output.

Types of Algorithms
- Simple Sequence
- Selection Control Structure
- Looping Control Structure

Flowchart - a pictorial representation of a pseudocode. It uses symbols to solve a problem.

Pseudocode - an English-like statement used to solve a problem

Identifier is the name used for identifying a variable or a constant

A variable is a data item whose value is continually changing throughout an algorithm or a

program, e.g. NAME or NUMBER.

A constant is a data item whose value remains the same throughout an algorithm or program,
e.g. JOHN or 100.

A data type indicates the type of data that is stored in a variable, e.g. numbers or characters.
The main data types:
- integer (4)
- string (Ronald)
- character (T)
- real (6.7)
- boolean (TRUE)

Statements in Problem Solving:

– Input Statement
Syntax: Read [variable]
– Output Statement
Syntax: Write “[variable name]”, [variable]
– Assignment/Processing Statement
Syntax: [calculated variable] 🡨 [calculation]

Selection Control Structure: used to choose between alternate courses of action in a

pseudocode

A condition is an expression that when evaluated returns a true statement or a false statement
based on a condition.

A condition has three main points:

- Variable used before
- Relational operator
- Variable used before or constant
Example: Marks > 60, where Marks is the variable used before, > is the relational operator
and 60 is the constant or variable.

Relational Operators Meaning

= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to

Types of control structures:

- If-then
IF (Condition) THEN
(Instruction to be carried out if the condition is true)
ENDIF
 - If-then-else
IF (condition) THEN
[statement 1]
[statement 2]
ELSE
[statement 1
[statement 2]
ENDIF

- If-then else-if
IF (condition) THEN
[statement 1]
[statement 2]
ELSE
IF (condition) THEN
[statement 1]
[statement 2]
ELSE
IF (condition) THEN
[statement 1]
[statement 2]
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF

Looping Control Structure: used to repeat a set of instructions for a predetermined number
of times or an undetermined number of times while solving a problem

Counting involves increasing the value by a fixed amount repeatedly. This amount may be
one, two, three or any value.

Syntax:
[Counter variable] ← 0
[Counter variable] ← [Counter variable] + 1

Totalling is a progressive total that is arrived at by adding a value to the current total to obtain
a new total.
Syntax:
[Total] ← 0
[Total] ← [Total] + [Variable]
There are two main types of loops:

- For Loop: we use this when we know how many times the loop will execute.
Syntax:
FOR <Counter variable> ← <beginning> TO <ending> DO
<Instructions to be repeated>
ENDFOR

• While Loop: we use this when we do not know how many times the loop will
execute. There are also some phrases that may indicate the type of loop: Dummy
value, terminated by, terminates, repeat until, continue until, continue as long as.
Syntax:
WHILE <Condition> DO
<Instructions to be repeated>
ENDWHILE

Trace table: used to do a ‘dry run’ or ‘manual trace’ of the algorithm to test to see if it is
working

Example 1:
FOR x = 1 to 3 DO
FOR y = 1 to 3 DO
Product = x*y
Print Product
ENDFOR
ENDFOR
Example 2:
AMOUNT = 2
G=4
WHILE AMOUNT < 50 Do
G = G*2
AMOUNT = AMOUNT + G
Print AMOUNT, G
ENDWHILE