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ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
As the material, technological, social, and cultural foundations of our society underwent change over the years, the
boundaries of marketing were continuously being redefined. In answer to the question "What is marketing?" a host
of definitions have been put forward.
FULL TEXT
MarketingThe Social Psychology of Conflict, Power, and Influence
WESLEY J JOHNSTON
University of Pittsburgh
THE CONCEPT OF MARKETING
As the material, technological, social, and cultural foundations of our society underwent change over the years, the
boundaries of marketing were continuously being redefined. In answer to the question "What is marketing?" a host
of definitions have been put forward.
It has been described by one person or another as a business activity; as a group of related business activities; as
a trade phenomenon; as a frame of mind; as a coordinative, integrative function in policy making; as a sense of
business purpose; as an economic process; as a structure of institutions; as the process of exchanging or
transferring ownership of products; as a process of concentration, equalization, and dispersion; as the creation of
time, place, and possession utilities; as a process of demand-and-supply adjustment, and as many other things
[Marketing Staff, 1965].
APPROACHES TO MARKETING
Basically, there has been a series of fundamental approaches to the study of marketing: the commodity approach,
the institutional approach, the functional approach, the managerial or systems approach, and a social (i.e., a
societal) approach (Kotler, 1972b; Heidings-field and Blankenship, 1974). In actuality, for a complete
understanding of marketing, none of these approaches can be used exclusively of the others.AMERICAN
BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST, Vol 21 No 4, March/Aprd 1978 1978 Sage Publications, Inc.
The commodity approach to the study of marketing has been concerned with examining how specific products
and services are produced and distributed. The gathering of information about each commodity includes
knowledge of the channels of distribution used, processes, particular brands, advertising practices, and any other
factors involved in the marketing process. It would be an endless task, however, to attempt to develop a theory of
marketing from a specific commodity approach because it would require examining the marketing process for
every product sold in every market in the world. The commodity approach does provide a powerful scheme for
products and services which proves to be a somewhat useful device for the description of marketing. Goods can
be classified as consumer or industrial, as raw materials, fabricated parts, supplies, or equipment, and as
convenience, shopping or specialty goods. A different set of marketing practices exists for each.The institutional
approach views marketing as a complex set of agencies involved in moving goods and services from producer to
consumer. Each distribution link in the marketing process is analyzed as a part of the overall marketing
DETAILS
Volume: 21
Issue: 4
Pages: 515
ISSN: 00027642
CODEN: ABHSAU
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ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
The county chairman explained that the milk base is determined from the producer's 1982 commercial milk
marketings, or the average of such marketings for 1981 and 1982, whichever the milk producer selects. Under the
The ASCS official said there is no dollar limit on the amount of incentive payment a producer may earn for
complying with the milk diversion contract. However, he added, no producer may receive payment for reductions in
the amount of milk marketed commercially in excess of 30 percent of the milk base. Dairy farmers are required to
accurately report their marketings to ASCS for the contract period.
FULL TEXT
The new federal milk diversion program was explained yesterday by William Bolish, chairman of the Carbon County
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service Committee.
The program, which became effective Jan. 1, establishes an incentive payment for eligible dairy farmers of $10 per
hundredweight to reduce their commercial milk sales.
In order to be eligible for the program, Bolish explained, farmers must establish a milk base and submit a milk
reduction plan to the county ASCS office, R.6, Box 335, Lehighton 18235, (215) 377-6300, no later than Jan. 27, and
sign a United States Department of Agriculture milk diversion contract by Jan. 31.
Bolish added, "We encourage dairymen to visit the office as soon as possible or call for an appointment. Eligibility
standards require the farmer to be a milk producer in one of the 48 contiguous states; be actively engaged in milk
production as of Nov. 29, 1983, and not have transferred to any person dairy cows which would or could have been
used for milk production in the United States after Nov. 8, except as allowed in the transfer provisions of the
program."
The county chairman explained that the milk base is determined from the producer's 1982 commercial milk
marketings, or the average of such marketings for 1981 and 1982, whichever the milk producer selects. Under the
contract, Bolish continued, the milk producer must reduce marketings from 5 to 30 percent between January 1 and
March 31, 1985.
The milk reduction plans show how the producer plans to achieve the required marketing reductions and includes
an estimate of the portion of the reduction to be achieved through increased slaughter of dairy cows, including the
number of diary cows to be sold for slaughter during each month of the contract, he said.
The milk diversion contract percentage reduction agreed to by the producer will be binding, except that the
secretary of agriculture may reduce the percentage if producer participation would cause excessive reduction in
milk supplies. The minimum reduction of 5 percent will not be reduced. Final contract decisions by the secretary of
agriculture are expected by the end of February.
The ASCS official said there is no dollar limit on the amount of incentive payment a producer may earn for
complying with the milk diversion contract. However, he added, no producer may receive payment for reductions in
the amount of milk marketed commercially in excess of 30 percent of the milk base. Dairy farmers are required to
accurately report their marketings to ASCS for the contract period.
Additional details on the milk diversion program can be obtained from the county ASCS office.
Pages: B.05
Number of pages: 0
ISSN: 08845557
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ABSTRACT
Recent studies have tested whether futures prices respond to U.S. Department of Agriculture inventory reports in
accordance with the efficient market hypothesis. These studies use survey forecasts to identify the anticipated
and unanticipated information contained in a report. However, this approach implicitly assumes the survey
forecast to be an unbiased and efficient predictor of the data in the USDA report. Furthermore, previous studies
have not tested the bias and efficiency properties of USDA preliminary estimates as predictors of final revised
USDA figures. This study introduces a framework for conducting tests of the efficient markets hypothesis in the
presence of biased and inefficient survey forecasts, and preliminary USDA estimates that are biased and
inefficient predictors of final revised figures. The approach is applied to the US beef cattle industry and results are
quite different from those obtained using the conventional analysis.
FULL TEXT
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DETAILS
Number of pages: 96
Section: 0128
Copyright: Database copyright ProQuest LLC; ProQuest does not claim copyright in the
individual underlying works.
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ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
FULL TEXT
Bill Gianotti
Today's marketing practitioners may find it hard to comprehend a world without data-based marketing. For that, in
New Zealand at least, they have largely to thank pioneering developer Bill Gianotti.
Now best known to many as the man behind Auckland-based direct marketing agency Aim Proximity, Gianotti
cottoned on early to the benefits of using data to segment target markets.
In his case he not only had to generate the results to back up his argument but threw his considerable personal
passion for the subject into the arena in his efforts to convince clients that data based marketing, as opposed to
the shotgun approach, was even worthwhile considering.
Gianotti's data marketing career began with 25 years at the United Building Society where he worked in an unusual
combination of roles, including data processing, finance and, ultimately, marketing management.
A three-year stint at Results Marketing was followed in 1988 by the launch of his own agency, Aim Direct, which
kicked off at the tail end of the '80s with three staff and three clients (National Australia Bank, Southern Cross
Healthcare and Diners Club).
It was a bold but timely move, says Direct Marketing Association chief executive Keith Norris. "Bill was probably
the first to realise that good direct marketing had to be supported by excellent data.
"Typically, anyone wanting to send out a direct marketing piece in the early '90s would simply buy a list. There was
no customer data embedded within that. Bill pioneered the growth of useful marketing data - offering marketers
segmented data. Nobody had done it before, certainly not in New Zealand."
A former contemporary of Gianotti's, Fiona Caird - now a group account director with George Patterson Bates in
Brisbane - says a large part of launching a data segmentation agency at the time was evangelising for the
discipline.
"When marketing got on business people's radar," she says, "direct certainly wasn't on the agenda. Bill's
contribution to the industry as a founder of that discipline has been in educating clients to something that was
ground-breaking at the time.
Under Gianotti's guiding hand, Aim flourished in the '90s - being voted The National Business Review's 'Small
Agency Of the Year' several times and winning numerous advertising awards including the prestigious Echo Award
in the US for outstanding direct mail.
The Clemenger Group bought into Aim Direct in 1996 and five years later the agency changed its name to Aim
Proximity.
The development of the people within the direct marketing industry has always been a priority of Gianotti's, and he
established the $10,000 Aim Proximity creative scholarship in 1998, to further incentivise the development of great
creative.
Today, Aim Proximity employs 110 staff and has offices in Auckland and Wellington. It's also significant that
almost all the heads of New Zealand's current direct marketing agencies have spent time working at Aim.
"There are two or three generations of marketers now that can say that Bill has influenced their life," says Norris.
"Richard Bleasdale of WRC, Tim Mooney at Zeppelin and Ant Salmon at Big Communications. When Simon Morgan
first came to this country from the UK he worked at Aim. Now he's gm at Publicis Rainger."
Aside from its people, another key ingredient for Aim's success has been Gianotti's desire to create tools to ease
the job of marketers, and increase the accuracy and usability of marketing data.
Gianotti served for three years as the president of the Direct Marketing Association and was the chairman of the
RSVP Awards from 1992 until he stepped down from the role in 2002.
Laurie Enting
DETAILS
Publication title: Marketing Magazine: For Advertising, Marketing and Media Executives; Auckland
Pages: 37
Number of pages: 0
ISSN: 01119044
Copyright: ((c) 2003 Profile Publishing Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, and can not be used without
prior permission of the publisher.)
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ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
A decade ago, the authors laid the foundation of a neo-marketing theory utilizing the post-modern framework.
Today, they update this contribution by encapsulating the reenchantment of consumption and its impact on the
conduct of marketing. Thus, section 1 sketches a theory of reenchanted consumption. Section 2 reviews the
coming marketing innovations and section 3 suggests a situational analysis of the prospective roles of marketing.
1 AO :S AN AFFIES :
FRIEENCNALUTESE
Olivier BADOT,
Professeur ESCP-EAP
Bernard COVA,
Professeur ESCP-EAP
Resume
Une decennie apres avoir jete les bases d'un neo-marketing grace a la mise en jeu du cadre d'analyse postmoderne
de la consomma- tion, les auteurs s'attachent a faire le point sur le reenchantement de la consommation et ses
consequences marketing. Pour cela, ils deve- loppent tout d'abord une theorie de la consommation reenchantee
puis un panorama actualise des innovations marketing pour atteindre a une lecture situationnelle du marketing.
Abstract
A decade ago, the authors laid thefoundation of a neo-marke- ting theory through the put into play of the post-
modern framework. Today, they update this contribution by encapsulating the reenchant- ment of consumption
and its impact on the conduct of marketing. Thus, section 1 sketches a theory of reenchanted consumption.
Section 2 reviews the coming marketing innovations and section 3 suggests a situational analysis of the
prospective roles of marketing.
Il y a 10 ans, nous avions propose, en recou- rant au cadre d'analyse postmoderne, une lecture de la nouvelle donne
socio-economique afin de donner un sens a des mouvements epars qui agitaient le champ du marketing (Badot et
Cova, 1992a et b). Cette recherche conjecturale s'est vu confirmee dans ses grandes lignes par un ensemble
d'ecrits, tant francophones (Filser, 1996; Hetzel, 2002; Pras, 1999) qu'anglophones (Brown, 1995; Firat et
Venkatesh, 1995; Kozinets, 2001) parsemant la decennie, comme par un grand nombre de pratiques d'entreprises
manufacturieres et de distribution (on pense notamment au succes de Nature et Decouvertes, de Surcouf, au
Aujourd'hui, notre ambition est de rendre compte de facon synthetique, selon un protocole comparable a celui de
1992, de l'ensemble des
acquis de la decennie ecoulee en suggerant une theorie de la consommation reenchantee, suivie d'un panorama
actualise des marketing en mouvement, pour atteindre a une lecture situationnelle du marketing. Cette ambition
est construite sur une critique de nos travaux ori- ginels qui, d'une part, passaient sous silence les rapports de
pouvoir entre les acteurs du marche et qui, d'autre part, participaient d'un credo par trop simpliste de substitution
en pro- posant une nouvelle panacee marketing (Brown, 1995).
CONSOMMATION REENCHANTEE
Sans revenir sur un cadre de lecture exhaustif de la societe postmoderne, il apparait opportun de donner une
definition simple de la postmodernite, definition qui va eclairer de nombreux traits de la consommation actuelle
dite reenchantee (Firat et Venkatesh, 1995). La postmodernite, c'est la synergie entre l'archaisme et le
developpement technolo- gique (Maffesoli, 2000), entre le progres et le primi- tivisme (Brown et al., a paraitre). Une
societe post- moderne serait en train de se constituer sur les ruines de la croyance dans la liberte et le progres,
c'est en ce sens qu'elle se definirait comme post- moderne. A un imaginaire moderne fait de deraci- nement de
l'individu, nos contemporains, par un mouvement de decapitalisation sur le futur, oppose- raient un imaginaire
postmoderne fait de tentatives de re-enracinement. C'est ce que traduisent la quete ecologique ou les
mouvements anti-mondialisation et plus generalement toutes les utopies du coin de la rue (Percq, 1998) par
opposition aux grandes exaltations universalistes. Tentatives, car il est hors de question de revenir a un monde
pre-moderne (sauf pour quelques mouvements dits sectaires) dans lequel la plupart des individus seraient
incapables de vivre. Si l'on accepte le cadre d'analyse postmoder- ne, l'imaginaire des societes occidentales, et
donc les valeurs qui les structurent, seraient en train d'operer un basculement du progres au regres (cf. figure 1)
ou, tout du moins, un reequilibrage des valeurs de progres par celles de regres qui placerait tout indivi- du en
tension entre ces deux imaginaires (sous reserve d'une validation prealable des besoins secu- ritaires: le socle
securitaire tacite).
Traduite au niveau de la consommation cette tension entre imaginaires a amene les chercheurs en comportement
du consommateur a reequilibrer une vue fonctionnelle et progressiste de la consomma- tion par une vue
experientielle qui fait la part belle aux valeurs de regres et a la subjectivite de l'indivi- du (Addis et Holbrook, 2001).
De tradition micro- economique et psychologique (tant behavioriste que cognitiviste), la vue fonctionnelle met
l'accent sur la recherche d'information et le traitement multi-attri- buts des mecanismes d'influence pour optimiser
une transaction operee par un individu isole. Dans la perspective experientielle, au contraire, l'acheteur cherche
moins a maximiser un profit qu'a revendi-
quer une gratification hedoniste dans un contexte social; le marche purgeant ainsi, par une offre dite reenchantee,
des emotions produites par des projec- tions imaginaires et holistes qui, loin de repondre seulement a des besoins,
Ce reenchantement de la consommation se lit dans le vecu quotidien de nos contemporains. On peut se demander,
par exemple, quel est le premier site touristique au Canada. Non pas les chutes du Niagara, mais le plus grand et
extravagant centre commercial du monde, le West Edmonton Mall a Edmonton en Alberta, qui melange, sur environ
500 000 m2, pres de 1000 boutiques, 6 grands maga- sins, la plus grande plage artificielle et le plus grand luna-
park couvert au monde, une patinoire profes- sionnelle, une Chinatown, un marinaland, des sous- marins explorant
un lac souterrain, etc. De meme, le 5elnc site touristique francais n'est ni le chateau de Versailles, ni le Musee
d'Orsay ... mais une grande surface d'informatique dans le XIIeme arrondisse- ment de Paris, a l'allure d'une foire
au vin et reali- sant plus de 150 millions d'Euros de chiffre d'affaires: Surcouf. Ces exemples, comme le succes de
concepts tels Apache, Aveda, Paul, Resonances, signalent l'importance croissante du reenchantement de la
consommation. Le reenchantement se traduit commercialement par des pratiques et des gestes dits de fun
shopping, de retailtainment ou de shoptain- ment (Ginsburg et Morris, 1999). Non seulement, les consommateurs
ne chercheraient plus a minimiser la desutilite de la frequentation des magasins, mais le magasinage deviendrait
une source de gratification hedoniste (Holbrook et Hirschman, 1982). Dans cette perspective, les consommateurs
peuvent, par exemple, developper du lien social avec les ven- deurs ou avec d'autres clients, connaitre de grandes
emotions, voire une sur-stimulation des sens (Hetzel, 2002). La distribution et la consommation quitte- raient alors
leur statut de fonctions economiques et iraient jusqu'a se substituer aux religions, aux ideo- logies ou a l'Etat
comme producteur mythique et comme regulateur social (Ritzer, 1999). De nom- breux travaux ont permis de
circonscrire les traits majeurs de la consommation reenchantee, que ce soit au niveau global de l'ensemble de la
consom- mation occidentale (Firat et Venkatesh, 1995; Rieunier et Volle, 2002) ou au niveau specifique d'une
experience de consommation (cf. par exemple, l'experience vecue au Nike Town Chicago; Sherry, 1998). L'objectif
est ici de preciser et d'actualiser ces travaux en proposant, dans une perspective ethnosociologique, trois cles de
lecture structurantes de la consommation reenchantee: la defiance institutionnelle, le redimensionnement micro-
social et la revanche du sacre.
Defiance institutionnelle
Si, pour beaucoup de dirigeants d'entreprises de la grande consommation et, surtout, de la distri- bution populaire
(on pense aux Centres Leclerc notamment), les offreurs du marche (dont ils font partie) sont plus proches des
consommateurs que les institutions (Etat, armee, services publics, etc.), voire meme les aident a en supporter
l'oppression ou les abus de position dominante (cf. la campagne de communication de lancement des stations
ser- vices Carrefour), du point de vue des consomma- teurs, il en va autrement (cf. figure 2). En effet, nombre
d'observations empiriques (Badot et Cova, 1995; Kozinets, 2001) revelent, souvent contre toute attente, des
consommateurs faisant bonne figure mais renfermant des frustrations a l'egard des offreurs qui peuvent, pour un
rien, se transformer en incivilites, en detournements et autres gestes vindi- catifs particuliers ou collectifs (cf. pour
une etude des cas Star Wars et Citroen ; Cova et Carrere, 2002). De telles manifestations semblent signaler un ren-
versement du rapport de force (powersbift) entre offreurs et consommateurs (Desmond et al., 2000), sorte de
manifestation, au niveau de la consomma- tion, de la defiance institutionnelle exercee par les singularites
quelconques et vindicatives que seraient devenus les consommateurs et, plus generalement, les citoyens
tendue il y a entre offreurs et consommateurs, la ligne de fracture semble moins passer par le person- nel de front
office (Manolis et al., 2001) avec qui le client noue une sorte de connivence tacite anti-insti- tutionnelle (cf .
l'exemple de ces GSS ou le person- nel commercial, pourtant interesse au resultat, discu- te, voire refuse, la mise en
rayon de produits qu'il considere comme de mauvais rapport qualite/prix pour leurs pairs acheteurs) qu'entre le
client et le management des entreprises (back office) comme l'a montre la crise vecue par Danone en 2002.
Cette analyse rejoint l'idee d'effacement de la barriere entre offreur et consommateur (Firat et Venkatesh, 1995).
Dans la vision marketing domi- nante des relations offreur/consommateur, l'entrepri- se sait produire et/ou
distribuer ce qui est bon pour le consommateur car elle en a l'expertise et le consommateur est considere comme
un naif. Aujourd'hui, dans de nombreux domaines (bricola- ge, informatique, sante, jeux, etc.) cette cesure n'existe
plus, l'expertise se situant autant - sinon plus !- du cote du consommateur que du cote de l'offreur (Keat et al.,
1994). Le consommateur se considere plus legitime que l'offreur pour savoir ce qui est bon ou ne l'est pas dans le
cadre d'une situa- tion particuliere, la situation qu'il vit personnelle- ment. Aux competences developpees par le
cumul d'experiences quotidiennes avec un produit, ou un service, s'ajoutent un ensemble de connaissances
quasi-theoriques accessibles grace a la multiplication des technologies de l'information, avec au premier chef,
Internet. A titre d'illustration radicale, evo- quons le cas de ce bricoleur qui, face a un enque- teur specialiste en
electricite effraye par l'installation dangereuse qu'il lui presentait s'exclama " C'est pas grave, c'est moi qui l'ai faite
! . Tel Marx qui, a la meilleure abeille preferait le moins bon architecte, ce bricoleur preferait l'installation
dangereuse issue de sa propre (in)competence a une installation de qualite mais proposee par l'offreur.
Competences et connaissances forment ainsi le socle du contre-pou- voir des consommateurs face au pouvoir des
offreurs. Les consommateurs semblent etre, en effet, les premiers producteurs de leur experience de
consommation (Filser, 2002).
Si les glissements de pouvoir reperes a travers les differentes situations evoquees semblent s'expli- quer par une
defiance institutionnelle croissante et une montee des competences chez les consomma- teurs, ils sont, sans
doute, aussi le fruit d'une modi- fication des systemes de legitimation dans la societe occidentale. Un des indices
les plus signifiants de cette modification est, comme l'analyse Eco (1978), la mutation structurelle des heros de la
culture popu- laire. En effet, aujourd'hui, les heros -on pense a Super Mario, Forrest Gump, Mr. Bean, Truman, Loana
et autres lofteurs -apparaissent plus comme des <heros du sol ou du sous-sol que comme des super-heros dotes
de pouvoirs surnaturels et incroyables. A ce sujet, Eco (1978) enonce que c'est la television qui a impose
l'everyman contre le Superman, en offrant comme modele, l'homme de tous les jours, avec ses faiblesses et ses
imperfec- tions, celui auquel n'importe qui peut s'identifier. La tendance semblant meme aller jusqu'a l'idiot du vil-
lage qui, non seulement, permet l'identification, mais un sentiment de superiorite. Un des heros les plus en phase
avec cet air du temps c'est Columbo (Badot, 2002) qui, non seulement est d'extraction petite-bourgeoise, mais qui,
ne deployant aucune technique d'investigation necessitant un esprit et un corps surhumain (les scenaristes
devoilent d'ailleurs tout de suite le nom de l'assassin avant meme que le lieutenant n'apparaisse), marche au flair,
bricolant quelques trucs psychologiques pour amener le cou- pable (toujours au capital social, economique et cul-
turel eleve) a se devoiler, sans oublier de se servir au passage en profitant des largesses des suspects (cigares,
places de concert, invitations au restaurant,
etc.). On assisterait ainsi en Occident a un pheno- mene de deboulonnage des heros (y compris a ceux
indiscutables jusqu'a lors, comme les heros de la Resistance) et de production de heros par la sphere de
Redimensionnement micro-social
Si le XCeme siecle a consacre les niveaux macro-social (classes d'individus) et individuel (psy- chologie de
l'individu) dans la construction identitai- re de l'individu, l'ere actuelle semble fortement reha- biliter le niveau micro-
social (groupes et communau- tes). L'implication dans le niveau micro-social (Desjeux, 1996) est faite d'une
multiplicite cl'expe- riences, de representations, d'emotions quotidiennes, d'actions infra-ordinaires tres souvent
mal comprises et peu perceptibles. Alors qu'une telle dynamique est, la plupart clu temps, expliquee par le
retrecisse- ment sur l'individualisme, il s'agit ici d'une sorte de retour a la communaute aux pratiques volatiles et
ephemeres ou chaque particule elementaire garde son autonomie et le libre-choix de s'en extraire quand bon lui
semble. L'implication dans ces formes de regroupements micro-sociaux est moins rationnel- le et contractuelle
qu'emotionnelle et passionnelle. Le social apparait alors plus comme un maillage de micro-groupes societaux
clans lesquels des individus entretiennent entre eux de forts liens emotionnels, des experiences similaires, une
sous-culture commu- ne, une meme vision du monde, etc., que comme un ensemble de groupes sociaux stabilises
et structures (CSP, classes, strates, etc.). Chasseurs de palombes, skinheads, entomologistes, riverains d'un site
pol- luant, mordus des appareils photos russes Lomo, Cloclomaniaques, Gothiques, etc. (cf. l'emission Tribus
presentee par Thieny Ardisson sur France 2 depuis janvier 2003) forment des communautes plus ou moins
stabilisees et visibles qui se recoupent et s'imbriquent tout en gardant chacune sa specificite. Chaque individu
appartient a plusieurs tribus dans lesquelles il joue des roles parfois tres differents et porte des masques
specifiques (Cova et Cova, 2002). Et l'appartenance a ces regroupements micro-sociaux est devenue, pour lui, plus
importante que l'apparte- nance aux agregations macro-sociales. Ce decrassage
social s'etend meme jusqu'a une dilution de criteres apparemment aussi objectifs et structurants que le sexe ...
devenu , genre , (Tissier-Desbordes et Kimmel, 2002).
Comme le montrent les travaux recents sur les passions ordinaires (Bromberger, 1998), ces engoue- ments neo-
tribaux de tous ages tels la genealogie, la passion pour la meteo, les sports extremes, la cour- se a pied, les
collections (ie toutes sortes ou le bri- colage, sont partages massivement, assumes indivi- dcuellement, acceptes
moralement, vecus intense- ment (mais sans abus dangereux); ils sont percus comme des aspirations legitimes a
la realisation de soi et au reenchantement dlu monde. Ces passions exigent le cadre collectif relativement souple,
mais emotionnellement fort, d'une tribu pour s'epanouir et s'exprimer pleinement dans l'echange, le partage, la
connivence et la confrontation d'expertises, quand bien meme l'exercice de la passion n'a technique- ment nul
besoin de ces formes cde sociabilite. C'est ce .que l'on nomme la mise en sens de l'experience individuelle; elle-
meme inseparable d'un pouvoir dire qui requiert la confrontation a l'autre et aux autres le plus souvent clans le
cadre neo-tribal, hors duquel aucun langage commun n'est possible. On pense a cette Cloclomaniaque qui divorca
car elle ne pouvait pas echanger avec son mari sur sa passion pour Claude Francois, au contraire de ce qu'elle a
trouve dans sa tribu. Nos societes ou s'entrelacent le micro-social et le marchand permettent ainsi l'expe- rience de
ce que l'on definit comme la valeur de lien d'un produit, d'un service, d'une marque, d'un lieu, etc. Non seulement,
l'individu semble chercher clans la consommation un moyen direct cle donner un sens a sa vie, mais aussi un
moyen cie se lier aux autres, de developper des relations interperson- nelles, de facon tres ephemere ou imaginaire.
Les produits ou les lieux commerciaux deviennent alors les supports cie la recherche cie lien et d'agregation neo-
tribale. Le systeme cle consommation n'est alors plus percu comme premier et se servant du lien interpersonnel,
mais comme second et au service ciu lien entre personnes , le lien importe plus que le bien (Badot et Cova, 1995).
La recherche dlu lien social se marie avec le besoin de re-enracinement, de plus en plus fort clans la societe
se: objets, lieux, histoire, etc. On arrive ainsi a la definition suivante de la valeur de lien d'une offre: la valeur de lien
d'un produit ou d'un service, c'est ce que vaut ce bien ou ce service dans la construc- tion ou le renforcement,
meme ephemere, des liens entre personnes presentes ou passees, reelles ou imaginaires. La valeur de lien
s'experimente dans l'interaction, dans le groupe ou la communaute. Elle n'est pas construite a priori ou a posteriori
sur la base de benefices quels qu'ils soient, mais co- construite par les acteurs impliques dans l'echange. C'est
bien pour cela qu'elle est collective. La valeur de lien echappe ainsi aux objets pour se rapprocher du collectif
d'acteurs: ce n'est plus (seulement) le vin de la marque X, c'est (aussi) le vin bu ensemble avec Y et Z. Ce sont les
consommateurs qui donnent de la valeur en fonction de leur relation, de ce qui les rapproche aux autres. En ce
sens, la valeur de lien differe du pur sentiment d'appartenance ressen- ti par un individu qui reste toujours au
niveau indi- viduel d'analyse. On ne transfere pas de la valeur de lien, tout au plus peut-on definir un potentiel de
valeur de lien d'un produit ou d'un service, mais cette valeur n'existera qu'en fonction de ce que les gens produiront
symboliquement au cours d'expe- riences collectives. La valeur de lien d'un bien ou d'un service n'est pas
instantanee; elle demande du temps. La valeur de lien, c'est la valeur du temps, que le marche remplace par une
immediatete indefi- niment extensible dans l'espace, en extrayant la chose du reseau temporel (Godbout et Caille,
1992, p. 246). Dalli et Romani (2000), dans leur analyse de la valeur des pates pour un groupe de jeunes
consommateurs italiens, mettent en evidence le fait que la variable temps est primordiale dans la (re)construction
de la valeur de lien du produit: le temps passe a preparer ensemble des pates n'est pas du temps perdu, bien au
contraire, c'est du temps necessaire a la re-appropriation collective du pro- duit. Il en est de meme pour tous les
produits qui passionnent des consommateurs; la passion deman- de de sacrifier du temps et, souvent, du temps
col- lectif pour s'assouvir et, ainsi, generer de la valeur de lien autour du produit (Bromberger, 1998). Dans les tribus
qui se donnent sans compter a leur pas- sion, les consommateurs font ainsi des . sacrifices excedant peu ou prou
ce que la seule raison pratique imposerait. Ces sacrifices agreables, comme le disait un supporter d'un club de
football, ne se comptent pas seulement en argent, mais aussi - et surtout - en temps: la passion s'eprouve, et
consomme de
longues heures, avant, pendant et apres le temps de son exercice Bromberger (1998, p. 27).
Revanche du sacre
La rehabilitation du sacrifice comme element positif (Brown, 2001a) va de pair avec la re-intro- duction de rituels
dans les processus d'obtention, de possession et de vie avec les objets et les lieux: le rituel est un puissant moyen
d'authentification (Cova et Cova, 2001). Un des constats fait aujourd'hui est qu'il n'existe plus que quelques rares
moments pri- vilegies pour la mise en jeu d'objets dans nos socie- tes, et que beaucoup de rituels ont disparu,
privant ainsi le produit de cette aureole de mystere et de sacralite qui le distinguait parfois, en lui donnant un sens.
Pour Mircea Eliade, l'homme moderne aurait prive le monde de tout sens, de reperes, empechant une production
collective de mythes comme source de sens, comme moyen d'acceptation de la mort. Selon lui, seule une
resacralisation du monde sauve- ra l'homme actuel de cet etat de dereliction. Si cette analyse evacue, sans doute
rapidement, la mytholo- gie moderniste, elle confirme le besoin de sacralisa- tion de la societe occidentale, besoin
egalement repere dans le champ de la consommation. En effet, avec le rejet du materialisme et la quete d'authenti-
cite, la recherche de rituels et leur integration dans le produit peuvent jouer le role de memoire active d'une societe
en quete de sacre. On peut considerer que, reconnu comme forme generale d'expression de la societe et de la
culture, le rituel s'emancipe du contexte religieux dans lequel il etait percu jus- qu'alors et s'oriente vers une sorte
de bricolage mys- tique ou chacun choisit dans le stock des ressources symboliques que lui fournissent les divers
religions, sectes et mouvements (de type New Age) " (Duboys Fresney, 2002, p. 116).
loger dans tout type d'objets (ex. soldats de plomb, voitures des annees 1960, figurines egyptiennes, tasses,
soupieres, stylos a plumes, maisons regio- nales, etc.). De meme, un collectionneur peut ache- ter la gamme
entiere des chaussures Weston comme il peut multiplier a l'infini les visions de son film pre- fere (cf. par exemple
ceux qui ont vu plus de 100 fois le Rocky Horror Picture Show, sorti en 1975 et toujours a l'affiche au Studio
Galande a Paris) et une vente mondiale d'objets de passions ordinaires comme e-bay capte plus de 8 millions de
visiteurs par jour. A y regarder de plus pres, cette collection- nite s'apparente a une forme derivee de religiosite (au
sens etymologique du lien) tant cosmogonique que sociale. Religiosite cosmogonique en ce sens qu'accumulant,
selon un calendrier uchronique, un maximum d'objets de partout et de toujours, dans un minimum d'espace, au
demeurant souvent sacralise (gueridon, cheminee, vitrines d'exposition, etageres, tiroirs dedies, etc.), le
collectionneur se place dans une posture de pretrise profane et ordinaire arran- geant a sa guise les objets du
culte. Religiosite socia- le en ce sens que beaucoup de ces objets de collec- tion contribuent a des regroupements
neo-tribaux physiques ou virtuels (passionnes de Citroen, par exemple), et a des interactions sociales (echanges,
dons a des kermesses, tombolas, cadeaux a la famil- le, etc.; Badot et Mace, 2001). Les pratiques de col- lection a
saveur souvent regressive ne sont d'ailleurs pas sans rappeler les cours de recreation. Comme chez l'enfant, pour
qui la collection est un pheno- mene naturel qui participe a son processus de deve- loppement (Ezan, 2003),
l'interet du phenomene chez les adultes signalerait, une fois encore, un besoin de reinitialisation de leur
construction identi- taire, si ce n'est l'exploration tatonnante et sans cesse renouvelee d'identites de rechange.
Ce qui est frappant avec les notion de tribu et de sacrifice re exhumees par le cadre d'analyse post- moderne, c'est
qu'au-dela du sacre, elles vehiculent l'idee d'un retour a une organisation sociale archaique caracteristique d'un
stade barbare de l'evolution de l'humanite. La barbarie au quotidien semble aujourd'hui se traduire par des
comporte- ments contradictoires et peu raisonnables (au sens moderne du terme): marquage du corps comme ter-
ritoire d'expression individuel et collectif; jouissan- ce immediate; regression psychologique (infantilisa- tion) et
sociale (nostalgie generalisee). Le marquage
du corps et la violence qui l'accompagne (douleur reelle ou symbolique), notamment a travers le tatouage, le
piercing et les implants, sont emblema- tiques de ce retour a la barbarie. Ce type de pratique qui, jusqu'il y a peu,
semblait reserve aux tribus pri- mitives se re-propage a un point tel qu'il touche une grande partie des jeunes
generations. Ce regres signale une reprise en main du corps, qui n'est plus laisse aux seuls hygienistes ou
medecins, par l'indi- vidu lui-meme qui en fait un veritable terrain de jeu/terrain de je ! D'ou l'idee, plus generale, que
les experiences de consommation sont avant tout des experiences incorporees (Brown et al., a paraitre). Comme
l'enonce Maffesoli (2003), <le retour du naturel sous des formes adoucies ou plus exacerbees temoigne du
resurgissement de l'animal dans l'hu- main (sorte de celebration animaliere). Le tatouage, lepiercing et autres
travaux sur le corps enfontfoi,". Parallelement au travail du corps, semble se deve- lopper une recherche de
jouissance immediate dans le quotidien (a l'image de cette femme de la publi- cite TV de la marque Clairol qui,
dans un rayon d'un supermarche et poussant son chariot, a un orgasme en ouvrant un flacon de shampoings
Herbal Essence et en reniflant le contenu). Si cette jouissance passe par une excitation des 5 sens -renforcee par
le marketing sensoriel (Rieunier, 2002) - elle passe aussi par des micro-stimulations de toute sorte ouvrant, a partir
de l'infra-ordinaire, sur des mondes enchanteurs et imaginaires (on pense, ici, tant a l'en- gouement pour la
tendance new age et ses multiples declinaisons qu'au fait de trouver, meme dans des magasins Wal-Mart, en
La barbarie, en tant que retour a un stade pre- moderne de l'humanite, se retrouve dans tous les mouvements de
reinvestissement de l'histoire tant collective que personnelle. De la mode retro aux quetes de l'authentique, du
retour du religieux a la remontee des cultures nationales ou regionales - variables suivant les pays et les cultures -,
de tous cotes le retournement de perspective est saisissant. L'attrait du passe et de la proximite semble de plus en
plus l'emporter sur celui d'un futur fastueux sur une planete interconnectee. C'est le vertige du passe
a defaut de futur. Cela se traduit au jour le jour par une recherche de referents, une hierarchie des gouts et des
valeurs qui glissent du futur et de l'ailleurs vers le passe et le local. Alors que les referents modernes relevaient de
l'exotique (lailleurs) et du futurisme (le nouveau), la societe actuelle basculerait vers l'endo- tique (lici) et le
nostalgique (le perdu ... ou en passe de l'etre). De facon correlee, il n'y a plus aucune honte a se vautrer , dans son
propre passe, a regres- ser jusqu'a ses premieres annees de vie, telle cette surdiplomee parisienne qui, apres une
journee de tra- vail intense dans un cabinet de conseil international, revendique le plaisir regressif de consommer
des pro- duits Hello Kitty (jusqu'au vibromasseur) et d'aller s'exalter dans la boutique Walt Disney.
1993-2003
Bien qu'il soit de plus en plus difficile, par la confusion des roles signalee precedemment, de dis- tinguer
production et/ou distribution de la consom- mation, la mise en lumiere des innovations marke- ting qui ont
accompagne le reenchantement de la consommation fournit un repertoire supplementaire de cles de lecture du
marche actuel qui viennent se marier avec celles issues de la perspective ethnoso- ciologique mise en jeu
precedemment.
de reenchantement
Le souvenir des annees 1990 (Badot et Cova, 1992a) evoque, pour le marketing, la forte poussee du marketing
relationnel suivie du developpement du CRM. Mais, comme toute la demande emotion- nelle du consommateur ne
pouvait reposer sur le seul CRM, bien au contraire (Brown, 2001a), les innovations marketing ont pris, a partir de la
deuxie- me moitie des annees 1990, un virage tendant a reenchanter la consommation en lui fournissant des
reperes emotionnels a meme de satisfaire sa quete existentielle au-dela du seul relationnel client (Hetzel, 2002).
Reprenant l'heritage du marketing situationnel (Dubois, 1996) lance au tout debut des annees 1980, le marketing
experientiel ou marketing de l'experience (Pine et Gilmore, 1999; Schmitt, 1999) represente une innovation au
moins aussi importante aujourd'hui pour certaines entreprises,
comme celles de la distribution, que le CRM et autres approches relationnelles. La gestion de l'ex- perience du
consommateur devient le moyen mar- keting pour promouvoir une marque en considerant que le consommateur
est essentiellement un etre emotionnel (et non un etre rationnel). Il s'agit de depasser la fonctionnalite de l'offre
pour stimuler les cinq sens du consommateur et provoquer sa bonne humeur et des emotions positives;
l'experience est ainsi polysensorielle. En consequence, des innova- tions derivees directement ou indirectement du
mar- keting experientiel, sont apparues, comme le mar- keting sensoriel (Rieunier, 2002) qui favorise les
Cet interet pour tout ce qui touche au vecu quotidien du consommateur a sans doute ete un des changements les
plus importants survenus en mar- keting: tout s'est passe comme si, soudain, a la fin des annees 1990, on realisait
l'importance de com- prendre la dimension emotionnelle et/ou experien- tielle de la consommation (Vezina, 1999).
L'analyse du vecu quotidien du consommateur a mis en evi- dence que le consommateur, loin de poursuivre une
course effrenee vers la seule personnalisation, recherchait paradoxalement a reenchanter sa consommation au
travers du partage des emotions. Pour certains, les individus de plus en plus isoles cherchaient a retrouver du lien
social et de la com- munaute au sein de regroupements a saveur tribale. Toutes les passions ordinaires partagees
avec d'autres individus passionnes etaient ainsi le signe d'individus en recherche, plus ou moins reelle ou virtuelle,
de communaute emotionnelle. Le marke- ting tribal (Badot et Cova, 1995 Cova et Cova, 2002) ou marketing de
communaute (McAlexander et al., 2002) est alors apparu, moins pour faire un lien per- sonnalise avec un client que
pour soutenir le lien entre clients en les aidant a partager leurs passions. Ce n'est pas un hasard si la plupart des
concepts de distribution lances dans les annees 1990 (Nature &Decouvertes, Apache, Pacific Peche, etc.) etaient
construits autour de l'idee de passion partagee pour un theme precis. De meme, les grands distributeurs
ont cherche a animer leurs magasins pour favoriser le contact entre clients ; c'etait le cas de Castorama avec ses
Castostages du samedi matin. Et en passant sur Internet, ce marketing tribal a pris les formes d'un virus qui se
propageait dans les reseaux de pas- sionnes, ce qui a amene a parler de marketing viral (Godin, 2001).
Le retour de la communaute signait le debut d'une vague nostalgique et regressive de la consom- mation qui allait
culminer avec la quete d'authentici- te (cf. partie 1). La nostalgie du ( pays du temps immobile traduisait ainsi le
desir du consommateur de l'an 2000 pour ce qui n'avait jamais vraiment exis- te en tant que tel, quelque chose
present dans l'ima- ginaire social avec une pregnance insoupconnee, quelque chose de l'ordre d'un local et d'un
passe reves. Le marketing de l'authentique ou retromarke- ting (Brown, 2001b; Brown et al., a paraitre) s'est
positionne alors comme la demarche a meme de repondre a la quete nostalgique des consommateurs. Plutot que
de mettre en avant des innovations, l'of- freur mettait l'accent sur l'authenticite (reelle ou construite) de son
produit, de son service, de sa marque, dle son magasin, etc. et meme de sa demarche marketing ! Il s'agissait de
construire l'au- thenticite d'une experience de consommation par la reutilisation de details significatifs d'une autre
epoque, par l'ancrage dans un terroir, etc. (Camus, 2002). Le succes fulgurant de la gamme des produits Reflets de
France de Carrefour en a ete une parfaite illustration. La facon dont Francis Holder, PDG et fondateur de la chaine
des boulangeries Paul a deve- loppe son offre est aussi exemplaire de ce retromar- keting. Aujourd'hui, le retour de
la communaute et la quete d'authenticite semblent se combiner chez le consommateur pour passer a un stade
superieur d'exigence de reenchantement: retrouver un monde comme avant ou l'interet marchand n'a pas envahi
toute la societe et ou les liens sociaux ressemblent a ceux chaleureux d'un petit village. Ainsi, la quete
d'authenticite ne se satisfait plus d'un produit authentique, il faut aussi que l'offreur soit authen- tique dans ses
intentions et clans son geste: il doit agir plus par vocation que par opportunisme mar- chand. Meme chose pour
tout ce qui est lie au sen- timent tribal: il faut que l'enseigne fasse partie de la tribu et non qu'elle se serve de la
tribu. C'est ce que l'on appelle le reenchantement du marchand par le non-marchand. On evolue ainsi vers un
marketing ethique s'appuyant sur un developpement soute-
Enfin, la mise en jeu des competences clu client (Prahalad et Ramaswany, 2000), tant dans la defini- tion de l'offre
en mouvement(l)
Au-dela de l'histoire et de l'apparition des dif- ferents courants marketing lies au reenchantement de la
consommation, le marketer d'aujourd'hui se retrouve devant un ensemble assez indistinct de cou- rants et
d'innovations marketing que nous allons essayer d'ordonner et de definir a partir de leur angle d'attaque du marche
et, donc, de la consom- mation, du plus macro au plus micro: environne- ment du marche, niche de marche, fidelite
du client, vecu du client, competences du client. Dans le pano- rama presente, seules les innovations marketing
transectorielles et transegmentaires ont ete retenues. Tous les developpements marketing dedies;
rance, industrie, high-tech, luxe, mode, ONG, politique, retail, sports, villes et territoires...); - a un type d'offre
specifique (produits, ser-
Ce panorama est adapte des travaux du programme de recherche EDF R&D/Savoir Sud sur les innovations
marketing.
Dix innovations marketing, et leur plus proche derive ou antecedent, ont ete retenues pour etre detaillees 1)
Marketing de reseaux ; 2) Marketing ethique 3); Geomarketing 4); Marketing relationnel, 5) Marketing experientiel ;
6) Chronomarketing; 7) Marketing tribal ; 8) Retromarketing; 9) Marketing Sensoriel ; 10) Knowledge marketing. A
noter que ces innovations peuvent autant emaner des USA (et ainsi avoir atteint un certain niveau de reconnais-
sance internationale), qu'emaner d'initiatives plutot
europeennes ou hexagonales et donc avoir une dif- fusion plus limitee. Pour chacune de ces 10 approches, les
Le marketing de reseaux
Le marketing de reseaux (Ford et al., 1998) cherche a batir, developper et maintenir une posi- tion relationnelle
dans le reseau d'acteurs marchands et non marchands qui enchasse le marche et les clients. En ce sens, il s'inscrit
dans la lignee du macromarketing et du megamarketing qui ont cher- che a elargir et re-enchasser le marche dans
un ensemble socio-economique plus large (Gummesson,
2002). Il postule qu'il n'y a pas de transactions fai- sables ou rentables avant que cette position rela- tionnelle ne
soit developpee et consolidee. Un de ses derives est le trade marketing (Zeyl et Zeyl, 1996) qui combine les
approches de marketing rela- tionnel et de marketing de reseaux telles que deve- loppees en BtoB (Business to
Business) pour les appliquer au BtoR (Business to Retail). D'autres approches voisines du marketing de reseaux
sont le co-marketing, le marketing symbiotique et le marke- ting integre.
Le marketing ethique
Le marketing ethique (Laville, 2002) est le pro- cessus de formulation et de developpement d'activi- tes marketing
caracterisees par leur contribution spe- cifique a un effort non marchand particulier qui, en retour, a un effet positif
sur les echanges entre les consommateurs et la marque ou le produit concer- nes et, donc, sur le profit de
l'entreprise. La deno- mination anglaise est un peu plus explicite et res- treinte (Adkins, 1999): cause related
marketing (soit CRM !). Un antecedent du marketing ethique est le marketing societal (Rodhain, 2002) qui se donne
pour premier objectif la recherche du bien-etre a long terme de la collectivite (le developpement sou- tenable) au
detriment et/ou en complement de la satisfaction immediate des consommateurs et de la recherche de profit des
entreprises. D'autres approches voisines du marketing ethique sont le marketing social, le societing, le marketing
de parta- ge, le sustainable marketing, l'eco-marketing et le marketing environnemental
Le geomarketing
Le marketing relationnel
Le marketing experientiel
Pour le marketing experientiel, ou marketing de l'experience (Pine et Gilmore, 1999; Schmitt, 1999), le
consommateur achete des produits ou des services moins pour leurs attributs fonctionnels que pour les
experiences emotionnelles qu'ils permettent quand ils sont mis en jeu. Chaque experience, vecue indivi-
duellement ou collectivement, etant le moyen pour l'individu de construire et de consolider son identite. Plutot que
de laisser le consommateur se bricoler lui- meme ses experiences a partir des produits et des ser- vices issus du
marche (ou non), le marketing expe- rientiel propose a l'entreprise de prendre en main la
production de ces experiences qui reenchantent la consommation. Les racines du marketing experientiel sont a
rechercher dans le design management (Borja de Mozota, 2002). Pour le design management, le centre du
processus de design est l'experience des usagers et non la forme physique des objets. Cette experience est
comprise non seulement comme esthetique, mais de maniere holistique et globale. Les approches derivees du
marketing experientiel sont de plus en plus nombreuses: voir les developpements suivants (chrono tribal,
authentique, sensoriel) ainsi que le marketing postmoderne, l'emotion marketing et le marketing evenementiel.
Le chrono marketing
Le chrono marketing (www.groupechronos.org) prend pour hypothese que la gestion du temps est en train de
devenir la variable majeure d'explication du comportement des consommateurs mobiles dans nos societes
postmodernes. Il cherche ainsi a suivre le consommateur nomade tout au long de ses deplace- ments. Il se
retrouve aussi sous le vocable de real time marketing ou marketing contextuel (Kenny et Marshall, 2000) pour
signaler la demarche d'accompa- gnement du consommateur tout au long de la plate- forme numerique.
Antecedent du chronomarketing, le yield management est une demarche de fixation de prix qui s'inscrit dans une
perspective temporelle (Guilloux, 2000). Elle prend pour critere principal de segmentation des consommateurs, la
sensibilite au temps. D'autres approches voisines du chronomarke- ting (mais centrees sur le temps de mise en
mar- che) sont le turbo marketing et lefast track marketing.
Le marketing tribal
Le marketing tribal (Cova et Cova, 2002) prend pour unite d'analyse et de ciblage des tribus qui consomment, c'est-
a-dire des regroupements d'indi- vidus heterogenes mais inter-relies par une meme passion ou emotion et
capables d'actions collectives bien qu'ephemeres. Le marketing tribal cherche a supporter" des tribus ciblees.
Dans certains cas, la tribu est comprise comme regroupement emotionnel autour d'une marque; on parle alors de
commu- naute de marque a construire ou a developper. Le marketing viral (Godin, 2001) est un marketing par-
teurs d'un site pour faire circuler un message a d'autres utilisateurs et d'autres sites, ce qui permet une croissance
exponentielle de la visibilite du mes- sage. Les autres approches voisines du marketing tri- bal et du marketing viral
sont nombreuses: marke- ting communautaire, marketing ethnique, ethnomar- keting, marketing organique, buzz
marketing, mar- keting exponentiel, multilevel marketing.
Le retromarketing
Le retromarketing (Brown, 2001 a et b ; Brown et al., a paraitre) s'appuie sur la quete nostalgique d'authenticite du
consommateur pour retraduire dans le monde actuel les produits et les services d'autrefois. Il s'agit d'innover en
maintenant le lien avec le passe, reel ou imagine, du consommateur avec son contex- te, avec la marque, etc.
Derive tres postmoderne du marketing de l'authentique (Cova et Cova, 2001), le retromarketing est aussi fonde sur
l'idee que les consommateurs ne recherchent pas seulement des produits et des services du passe mais aussi, et
sur- tout, une demarche marketing pre-moderne. Moins que d'etre servis parfaitement et de maniere person-
nalisee, ils aiment les marques qui les font attendre, qui livrent en quantites limitees, qui ne donnent pas
l'impression de faire de la gestion marketing (Brown, 2001b). On retrouve les idees du retromarketing dans le
marketing de la rarete, le marketing memoriel et le marketing de la sincerite.
Le marketing sensoriel
Le marketing sensoriel (Rieunier, 2002) se defi- nit comme le fait d'utiliser les facteurs sensoriels (musique,
senteurs, couleurs, sensations tactiles et gustatives) dans le produit et/ou le lieu de vente/ser- vice pour susciter
des reactions favorables du consommateur et/ou lui faire vivre des experiences sensorielles fortes. On trouve des
antecedents du marketing sensoriel dans le marketing situationnel (Dubois, 1996) qui prend pour unite de
segmenta- tion l'occasion d'usage d'un produit ou d'un service et non les caracteristiques individuelles du consom-
mateur. En consequence, il concentre son action sur le moment et le lieu d'achat et/ou d'usage du pro- duit ou du
service et sur les possibilites de stimula- tion du consommateur durant cette situation. D'autres approches
voisines du marketing sensoriel
sont le marketing polysensoriel, le marketing olfac- tif, le marketing esthetique et le marketing de l'oc- casion (de
vie).
Knowledge Marketing
Le knowledge marketing (Curbatov, 2001) est une appellation non encore stabilisee dans la littera- ture marketing.
Dans une approche de knowledge marketing, les clients de l'entreprise deviennent les co-createurs de la
connaissance organisationnelle en construisant leurs projets de consommation et les experiences qui en
decoulent au sein de l'entreprise. Un antecedent au knowledge marketing est l'empo- werment marketing (Firat et
Schultz, 1997). Il s'agit pour l'empowerment marketing d'aider le client a agir de maniere proactive et a mettre en
jeu ses com- petences individuelles ou collectives dans son activi- te quotidienne et, notamment, dans celles liees
a la consommation d'un produit ou d'un service. On retrouve ces idees dans les approches suivantes: permission
marketing, marketing de procuration, anti-marketing, demarketing et contre-marketing.
Globalement, il apparait que les innovations de marketing du reenchantement relevent essentielle- ment d'une
prise en compte du vecu emotionnel et des competences du client, au detriment de marke- ting en mouvement,
plus centres sur la connaissan- ce rationnelle du client, du marche et son environ- nement.
DU REENCHANTEMENT
Le panorama des marketing precedemment esquisse met en evidence la sophistication et la mul- tiplicite des
strategies et des gestes marketing ten- dant a prendre en charge la demande de reenchan- tement dans la
consommation. A l'encontre d'une lit- terature par trop proselyte touchant au naif, il est cependant important de
noter qu'aucun de ces axes strategiques (tribal, authentique, sensoriel, etc.) ne peut pretendre a etre une panacee
en soi. Ils ne sont d'abord que des elements d'un repertoire dans lequel le marketer peut puiser en fonction des exi-
gences du marche. En d'autres termes, le marketing du reenchantement presente un caractere forcement
composite a l'exemple du marketing des boulange-
ries Paul qui conjugue sensoriel, authentique et ethique. Ils ne sont ensuite que des leviers a relati- viser par un
ensemble de facteurs contingents rele- vant de fondamentaux souvent negliges:
dances continues a la concentration et plus generalement a l'oligopolisation des marches occidentaux n'est-elle
pas aussi une facon d'eviter le recours a ces marketings sophisti- ques ?
re securitaire (chaine du froid, gardiennage, alimentation infantile, sante, etc.) semblent insensibles a la recherche
d'experience et donc peu sujettes a des actions de reenchan- tement;
positionnement populaire et discount et au ciblage large peut-elle s'accommoder d'une strategie marketing basee
sur le reenchante- ment sans courir le risque d'effrayer ses ache- teurs et, par la meme, de se depositionner ?
a parier qu'une culture d'entreprise tres voca- tionnelle sera un frein a la mise en oeuvre d'un habillage de l'offre
tendant a la reen- chanter qui sera percu comme superficiel et non ethique;
de consommateurs et certaines situations d'achat sont peu propices au reenchantement de l'offre. Dans une
disposition strictement utilitaire (ex. achat de derniere minute), le reenchantement risque d'etre plus une valeur
retranchee qu'une valeur ajoutee.
Derriere cette analyse relativiste se cache une problematique d'ordre tant semantique que pra- tique: la confusion
frequente entre le marketing experientiel et le reenchantement de l'offre. En effet, alors que la plupart des
commentateurs du champ assimilent expressement ou tacitement le reenchan- tement a une immersion dans une
experience extra- ordinaire du type Disneyland, l'analyse critique conduit a une lecture plus nuancee. Ainsi, Aldi,
chai- ne allemande de bard discount qui, a premiere vue,
tion de plus en plus fine et habilement organisee du quotidien des consommateurs ? Si certains interpre- tent le
marketing experientiel et ses derives detailles ici comme une sur-manipulation du consommateur, d'autres y voient
cependant un dispositif plus com- plexe encore: une compromission tacite du consommateur plus qu'une
manipulation (Remy, 2002). Dans cette perspective, le regard du consom- mateur sur ces stratagemes
experientiels n'est pas si naif: en se sachant manipule, il peut choisir son niveau de duperie et jouer de cette
manipulation pour agrementer son quotidien. Manipulation et compromission s'entremelent alors pour produire
l'experience de consommation.
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DETAILS
Location: France
Volume: 195
Issue: 5/5
Pages: 79-77
Number of pages: 16
Publisher: ADETEM
ISSN: 00353051
LINKS
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
One wouldn't expect someone who acted the role of Styros (with Dame Kate Harcourt as wife) in an episode of the
"Hercules" tv series to be a logical nominee for the Marketing Hall of Fame. You would expect even less that such
an accomplished thespian would have published a number of well-regarded academic articles, written a couple of
marketing books, or mentored many now-senior marketers.
FULL TEXT
One wouldn't expect someone who acted the role of Styros (with Dame Kate Harcourt as wife) in an episode of the
"Hercules" tv series to be a logical nominee for the Marketing Hall of Fame. You would expect even less that such
an accomplished thespian would have published a number of well-regarded academic articles, written a couple of
marketing books, or mentored many now-senior marketers. More expected perhaps, would be the eight marketing
videos, and voice-overs for radio and tv commercials, animated tv programmes and promotional videos.But when
you realise that the 'actor' concerned is Tom Agee, the logic is apparent - and induction into the Hall of Fame well-
deserved. Agee is a giant in marketing, who has not confined his activities or influence to just one part of the
industry. He has scaled most industry peaks (consultancy, management, advertising, PR, teaching) and
contributed in innumerable ways, from presentations at conferences, to judging industry awards and active
involvement in professional bodies, not to mention over 170 "One Consumer's Opinion" articles in this magazine.
Agee's longevity and breadth of experience in the industry must be close to unparalleled - and he continues to
contribute as much today as he ever has. Agee has always found time to share his expertise and his knowledge.
He has 'done it all' himself, and therefore teaches and consults from the perspective of one who knows the
implementational pitfalls but who also appreciates the need for academic rigour and the value of academic
thought in shaping marketing as a discipline. Tom Agee arrived in New Zealand in 1974 after a successful career in
public relations and advertising in the US. His first move was to Whangarei, where he started as a sales rep on the
"Northern Advocate" before purchasing and managing a small advertising and marketing consultancy.Fortunately
for marketing and marketing education in this country, life out of the fast lane palled. In 1979 he was appointed
marketing manager with UBD Directories. In short order he was promoted to group marketing director of what was
then the country's largest media conglomerate, New Zealand News, and set about changing the face of media
marketing. He oversaw the firm's early entry into home video, introduced the first successful national newspaper
advertising inserts, developed a promotional strategy to ad agencies using readership data, and pioneered the use
of television for promoting newspapers and magazines. After five years he returned to his advertising roots, joining
Carlton Carruthers du Chateau, later to become FCB. In 1987, Agee moved to a role for which many believe he was
made: lecturing in marketing at ATI (later AIT, and eventually AUT - Auckland University of Technology). Within five
years he was appointed head of the School of Marketing, Advertising and Tourism and established New Zealand's
DETAILS
Publication title: Marketing Magazine: For Advertising, Marketing and Media Executives; Auckland
Pages: 33
Number of pages: 0
ISSN: 01119044
Copyright: ((c) 2004 Profile Publishing Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, and can not be used without
prior permission of the publisher.)
LINKS
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
[Barbara Chapman]'s leadership has produced remarkable communications campaigns including Robbie the Robot
and Ira Goldstein. The latter campaign is still running today and has become the benchmark against which other
financial services advertising is measured. Moreover, she led a team that has ensured delivery at branch and call-
centre level.
FULL TEXT
Barbara Chapman
Barbara Chapman has a reputation for being, quite possibly, New Zealand's most effective and intuitive marketer.
She has an outstanding track record, particularly in the financial services area.
Her marketing career started way back in 1992 at ANZ Bank. But it was when she moved to ASB Bank in 1994 that
her true marketing skills came to the fore, when she took ASB's customer service to record levels, producing the
best results of any New Zealand financial institution.
Barbara was elevated to a dual role responsible for marketing and retail banking for the ASB's branch network - an
enormously demanding position - accountable for communications, service delivery and profit.
DETAILS
Publication title: Marketing Magazine: For Advertising, Marketing and Media Executives; Auckland
Pages: 42
Number of pages: 0
ISSN: 01119044
Copyright: ((c) 2006 Profile Publishing Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, and can not be used without
prior permission of the publisher.)
LINKS
ABSTRACT
Tradeshow Salesforce.com Dreamforce Conference (Dreamforce Booth #140), -- http://www.Marketo.com --
Marketo, which provides affordable, easy-to-use marketing automation software that helps B2B marketing
professionals drive revenue and improve accountability, today announced the development of its new on-demand
marketing automation platform leveraging salesforce.com's Force.com on-demand platform.
(Logo: http://www.newscom.com/cgi-bin/prnh/20070917/AQM011LOGO)
Marketers are under constant pressure to drive qualified sales leads and demonstrate revenue impact.
Additionally, new online channels are changing B2B research and buying processes, requiring marketers to adjust.
Unlike the sales department -- which has access to powerful automation tools such as Salesforce -- B2B marketing
professionals have not had easy yet powerful marketing automation software available to them.
The Marketo marketing automation platform will eliminate this gap by helping B2B marketing professionals drive
revenue and measure results. Central to the platform is the Marketo Marketing Database, which provides
marketing with all the information needed to acquire and nurture leads, forecast marketing results, and
demonstrate marketing's impact on the bottom line.
The Marketo Marketing Database acts as an extension to the information in Salesforce Marketing and CRM
applications, ensuring that the marketing-specific information is part of a unified single view of the customer.
Marketo leverages the Force.com platform to synchronize data between marketing and sales systems in real-time.
"We're leveraging the Force.com platform to provide B2B marketing professionals with the information they need,
while ensuring that marketing and sales data remain in sync as part of a single information store," said Phil
Fernandez, president and CEO of Marketo. "Real-time synchronization is critical to bridging the gap between sales
and marketing teams while ensuring that marketers have the tools and information they need to earn their seat at
the revenue table."
Through the bi-directional synchronization made available using the Salesforce API, the Marketo marketing
automation system is updated whenever a record changes in Salesforce. For example, if a lead score changes
from "warm" to "hot" or a new customer support ticket is created, Marketo is notified in real time and kicks off an
automated marketing workflow. If a sales rep marks a lead as "not yet sales ready", the lead is automatically
recycled back into the automated lead nurturing program.
Bi-directional synchronization also allows Marketo to load new objects and campaigns to the Force.com platform.
Using Apex Code, new leads captured via a Marketo Landing Page are de-duplicated and loaded to Salesforce in
real time. Also, automated nurturing campaigns can trigger new activities in Salesforce -- such as a follow-up
phone call after an email distribution.
"The thousands of installs of hundreds of different on-demand applications clearly demonstrate the incredible
momentum of the AppExchange as the world's on-demand application marketplace," said George Hu, Chief
Marketing Officer, salesforce.com. "Partners like Marketo have harnessed the power of the Force.com platform to
develop innovative new on-demand applications. Customers of all sizes can leverage Marketo's expertise to extend
their Salesforce Marketing application and improve their marketing results."
Marketo is currently accepting requests from salesforce.com customers to participate in a beta test of its new
marketing automation platform, available this Fall. Contact Marketo at [email protected] for more information.
Force.com Platform and the AppExchange
Force.com is the on-demand platform for the next generation of business applications. Force.com reinvents
traditional customization and integration and enables the creation of a whole new generation of on-demand
applications that go beyond client/server computing. Force.com allows applications to be easily shared,
exchanged and installed with a few simple clicks via salesforce.com's AppExchange marketplace, enabling all the
Marketo (http://www.marketo.com) provides affordable, easy-to use-marketing automation software that helps
B2B marketing professionals drive revenue and improve accountability. Marketo's solutions automate the lead
generation and lead nurturing processes, allowing marketing to generate more sales-ready opportunities, while
integrated analytics bring accountability and respect to the CMO and help turn marketing from a cost center into a
revenue-generating part of the company. Download Marketo's new eBook, Building Effective Landing Pages, from
the Marketo website. Marketo's products are easy to use and easy to buy from existing budgets because they
don't require annual contracts or up-front fees. Delivered as an on-demand service, customers can be running
Marketo in less than five minutes, with no IT support. The company's blog, Modern B2B Marketing
(http://blog.marketo.com), explores best practices in business marketing, ranging from pay-per-click management
to lead nurturing to marketing accountability. Marketo is headquartered at 1710 S. Amphlett Blvd., San Mateo,
Calif., 94402.
SOURCE Marketo
Credit: Marketo
DETAILS
Subject: Marketing; Software; Sales management; Data bases; Cost centers; Accountability
Number of pages: 0
LINKS
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
The winner of the Fairfax Supreme Award, McDonald's Restaurants (NZ), also won despite the enormous burden
placed on it by the prevailing campaign that blames purveyors of fast-food for the obesity epidemic. But as the
judges remarked, McDonald's has "demonstrated enormous honesty in taking the myth-buster approach to market,
in a brave move to tackle the flack head on".
FULL TEXT
Mythbusters, a 70-year-old that looks like an All Black, a beautiful plumber, a hip hotel, a donkey, a goat and some
chickens, are among an eclectic group that contributed to another marvellous year of marketing, celebrated at the
2008 TVNZ/NZ Marketing Magazine Marketing Awards.
The celebrations come at a time when the economy is in decline and marketing as a profession is going through
some cynical evaluations. Columnist Jim Hopkins may or may not have had his tongue firmly wedged in one cheek
or another when he wrote in the NZ Herald earlier this year that "marketing is, of itself, an appalling thing", calling it
"pernicious, pervasive, and dangerously attractive to the innocent young".
Marketers further north than Christchurch would no doubt be dismissive of the views of a silly, old hack, but when
an august publication such as the Journal of Marketing, publishes research that investigates the actual impact
that senior marketing managers have on company performance, with less than flattering results, it is time to take
note.
What it means, is not that marketing is ineffective per se, but that perhaps great marketing is becoming rare.
Fortunately, New Zealand, despite the brain drain and multinational global marketing policies, keeps throwing up
top-class marketing talent. In awarding TVNZ's head of marketing and head of emerging business, Jason Paris, the
ultimate accolade of Marketer of the Year, the judges referred to him as "a world-class marketer delivering
DETAILS
Publication title: Marketing Magazine: For Advertising, Marketing and Media Executives; Auckland
First page: 18
Copyright: ((c) Profile Publishing Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, and can not be used without prior
permission of the publisher.)
LINKS
ABSTRACT
This study aims to describe and analyze as social and environmental responsibility is integrated in the marketing
strategy of a Coca-Cola Company franchisee. By the perceptions of Kama, Hansen and Juslin (2001), environment
marketing is described based on three hierarchical levels: strategic, structural and functional marketing. There has
been developed a qualitative approach through case study, in which the data were collected through semi-
structured interviews with people involved in the process of environmental and social management of the
franchisee company. Data treatment was used in the analysis of content. In the interviewer's perception, the
company is in advanced process of integration across the organization of a green marketing culture, primarily by
the relationship of the franchisee maintained with the Coca-Cola Company. It is observed that the franchisee
FULL TEXT
Headnote
RESUMO
O presente estudo tern como objetivo principal analisar e descrever como a responsabilidade social e ambiental
esta integrada na envolvente de marketing de uma unidade franqueada da Companhia Coca-Cola. Ao encontro das
percep-coes de Kama, Hansen e Juslin (2001), a envol¬vente de marketing e descrita, baseada em tres niveis
hierarquicos: marketing estrategico, estru-tural e funcional. Neste sentido, realizou-se uma abordagem qualitativa
com estudo de caso, no qual os dados foram coletados, por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas com pessoas
envol- vidas no processo de gestao ambiental e social da empresa franqueada. No tratamento dos dados foi
utilizada analise de conteiido. Na percepcao dos entrevistados, a empresa encontra-se em um avancado processo
de integracao em toda a orga-nizacao de uma cultura de marketing verde, prin-cipalmente, pela relacao de
franqueado, mantida com a Companhia Coca-Cola. Observou-se que a empresa franqueada, bem como a
companhia, de modo geral, encontram-se numa situacao pro-ativa em termos de marketing verde, mesmo que o
ambiente institucional nao cumpra com o seu papel na plenitude.
Palavras-chave: Marketing verde. Gestao ambien¬tal. Responsabilidade social. Responsabilidade ambiental.
ABSTRACT
This study aims to describe and analyze as social and environmental responsibility is integrated in the marketing
strategy of a Coca-Cola Company franchisee. By the perceptions of Kama, Hansen and Juslin (2001), environment
marketing is described based on three hierarchical levels: strategic, structural and functional marketing. There has
been developed a qualitative approach through case study, in which the data were collected through semi-
structured interviews with people involved in the process of environmental and social management of the
franchisee company. Data treatment was used in the analysis of content. In the interviewer's perception, the
company is in advanced process of integration across the organization of a green marketing culture, primarily by
the relationship of the franchisee maintained with the Coca-Cola Company. It is observed that the franchisee
enterprise as the company, in general, are in a pro-active situation in green marketing terms, even if the
institutional environment does not comply with its fullest role.
Key words: Green marketing. Environmental management. Social responsibility. Environmental responsibility.
RESUMEN
El presente estudio tiene por flnalidad principal analizar y describir como la responsabilidad social y la
responsabilidad ambiental se integran en la envolvente de marketing de una unidad franquiciada de la Compania
Coca-Cola. De acuerdo con las opiniones de Kama, Juslin y Hansen (2001), la envolvente de marketing se describe
con fundamento en tres categorias jerarquicas: marketing estrategico, estructural y funcional. En este sentido se
realizo un enfoque cualitativo mediante estudio de caso, los datos se reunieron por medio de entrevistas
semiestructuradas con las personas que participan en el proceso de gestion ambiental y social de la empresa
franquiciada. En el tratamiento de los datos se utilizo el analisis de contenido. Segiin la opinion de los
encuestados, la empresa se encuentra en avanzado proceso de integracion en toda la organizacion de una cultura
de marketing verde, principalmente por la relacion de franquiciado establecida con la Compania Coca-Cola. Se
observo que la empresa franquiciada, como tambien la compania, en general, se encuentran en una situacion
proactiva en terminos de marketing verde, aunque el ambiente institucional no cumpla plenamente su papel.
Palabras clave: Marketing verde. Gestion ambiental. Responsabilidad social. Responsabilidad ambiental.
i CONTEXTUALIZACAO
A partir da Conferencia de Estocolmo, em 1972, o pensamento predominante na maioria das organizacoes, ate
entao, meramente economico voltou-se, tambem, para a questao social e ambien¬tal. Ratificando esse
pensamento, a criacao da Comissao Mundial sobre Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento (CMMAD), em 1983, pela
* fabricado com a quantidade minima de materias-primas e com materias-primas renovaveis, reciclaveis e que
conservem recursos naturais no processo de extracao;
* fabricado com a maxima eficiencia ener-getica e de utilizacao de agua e com o mini-mo despejo de efluentes e
* modelo estrategico de gerenciamento ambiental: empresas tentam maximizar o retorno para os acionistas pela
utiliza¬cao de uma estrategia ambiental pro-ativa visando a criar uma vantagem competitiva sustentavel.
Ja Kama, Hansen e Juslin (2003) apresen-tam tres grupos de empresas:
* pro-ativos green marketers: enfatizando o redicionamento por meio da sustentabi¬lidade e sistema de mercados
livres;
* reativos green marketers: enfatizando a sustentabilidade sob controle governa-mental;
* marketers consumidor: baixo indice de fatores de sustentabilidade.
Tres mecanismos basicos, segundo Schmidheiny (1992), podem ser usados para induzir as organizacoes a
internalizarem os custos ambientais ou a limitarem os danos que causam ao meio ambiente. O primeiro se refere
aos instrumentos de "comando e controle" gover-namental, por meio das regulamentacoes restriti-vas; o segundo
se refere a "autorregulamentacao", com a qual as organizacoes podem reduzir os cus-tos de adequacao,
antecipando-se as regulamen¬tacoes governamentais; o terceiro se refere aos "ins¬trumentos economicos", como
impostos e taxas, que interferem nos precos a ponto de estimular ou desestimular comportamento de producao e
consumo.
Segundo Ottman (1994), agestao ambiental se da com a criacao de uma etica ambiental que envolva todos os
niveis da organizacao. Neste sen-tido, Donaire (1995) afirma que as regulamenta¬coes formais do mercado
evoluiram do paradigma que visava somente a sustentacao economica, para o paradigma que considera a
responsabilidade social das empresas como um elemento funda¬mental. Essa mudanca de paradigma resulta
num modelo de gestao mais sustentavel. O modelo teo-rico de referenda, apresentado a seguir, visa a captar a
dimensao da responsabilidade social e ambiental no ambito dos diversos niveis da organizacao que sofrem
influencias das acoes de marketing.
2.3 Modelo teorico de referenda
O Modelo teorico de referenda (Figura 2) aborda as unidades de marketing (variavel inde-pendente) em relacao aos
DETAILS
Subject: Studies; Green marketing; Social responsibility; Franchisees; Soft drink industry
Volume: 11
Issue: 30
Pages: 38-52
Number of pages: 15
Publisher: Centro Universitário FECAP, mantido pela Fundação Escola de Comericio Álvares
Penteado (FECAP)
ISSN: 18064892
Copyright: Copyright Centro Universitário FECAP, mantido pela Fundação Escola de Comericio
Álvares Penteado (FECAP) Jan-Mar 2009
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ALEXANDRIA, Va., Dec. 22 -- B Line Marketing Llc Ltd., Oakland, Calif., has been issued the trademark B LINE
MARKETING (Reg. No. 3724953) by the USPTO.
The trademark application (serial number 77720140) was filed on April 22 and was registered on Dec. 15.
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Publication title: US Fed News Service, Including US State News; Washington, D.C.
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ABSTRACT
The Digital Solutions Team is introducing new digital data, online display advertising campaigns, email marketing,
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FORT MYERS, Fla., Aug. 20, 2012 /PRNewswire/ -- AccuData Integrated Marketing, a leading direct marketing data
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"While working with continuing education programs, it's been clear what kind of pressures are working against the
programs," says Kim Albee, President of Genoo. "Because of the current economic climate, continuing education
programs face a lack of support and funding from administrations and the government. It is more important than
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"If I had to describe what marketing success for continuing education programs looks like in the future, I would say
FULL TEXT
M2 PRESSWIRE-May 14, 2013-Continuing Education Marketing Must Change To Survive, Reports Marketing
Services Provider; "The Future of Continuing Education Marketing" white paper by integrated marketing services
provider Genoo aims to help continuing education programs find sustainable marketing success.
(C)2013 M2 COMMUNICATIONS http://www.m2.com
May 14, 2013
Minneapolis, United States - Genoo, LLC, a leading online marketing service provider for small- and mid-size
businesses, has published "The Future of Continuing Education Marketing" white paper with the goal of helping
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"While working with continuing education programs, it's been clear what kind of pressures are working against the
programs," says Kim Albee, President of Genoo. "Because of the current economic climate, continuing education
programs face a lack of support and funding from administrations and the government. It is more important than
ever that these programs find ways to be self-sufficient with marketing."
According to the LERN Institute, the international association of lifelong learning programming, businesses are
undervaluing the need for workforce development. Businesses are less committed to educating their workers by
investing in professional development and contract training services. Additionally, central administrators don't
understand the financial realities facing continuing education programs.
To deal with these threats, continuing education programs need improved methods to market courses and
programs in order to improve recruitment, and retention, of students. The varying professional development,
personal enrichment, and contract training courses need to be marketed to consumers and businesses in different
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That's why Genoo has offered marketing expertise and experience in helping continuing education organizations
complete their marketing goals together in its latest white paper "The Future of Continuing Education Marketing."
The white paper describes the four components of successful continuing education marketing programs. These
components are:
- Agility
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Albee summarizes the combination of the four components in this way.
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it's marketing that can change on a dime in reaction to real-time metrics," says Albee. "Making decisions based on
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"I love working with continuing education programs," says Albee. "They provide an extremely worthwhile service,
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Marketing" here to learn more about the four components of effective continuing education marketing.
About Genoo, LLC
Genoo, LLC, is an integrated, all-in-one online marketing platform that gives small to mid-sized businesses the
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Mobile Network Marketing Corporation has released an industry first, stunning state-of-the-art Wi-Fi marketing
powerhouse system that promises to turn the conventional marketing concepts on its head. In a WiFi marketing
technological breakthrough Mobile Network Marketing Corporation has successfully added new layers to their
wireless proximity marketing device technologies that allows affiliate, campaign offer, and consumer location
details to be tracked on a hardware device by hardware device basis.
FULL TEXT
NEW YORK, Dec. 11, 2013 /PRNewswire/ -- Mobile Network Marketing Corporation has released an industry first,
stunning state-of-the-art Wi-Fi marketing powerhouse system that promises to turn the conventional marketing
concepts on its head. The MobiPromo System makes proximity marketing processes more effective and
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helps create a level playing field for traditional and online merchants without inflating overheads."
Unlike mobile marketing or direct response marketing systems, MobiPromo offers definite and clear-cut resolution
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MobiPromo offers consumers a free Wi-Fi service along with several other incentives. They can receive
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marketing arena of consumers by including mobile as well as web portals, which can be accessed from any
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wallet, and use their mobile phone to redeem offers in-store at their convenience.
The MobiPromo system works to the advantage of merchants as well. It is designed for marketers who don't shy
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[...]exchange rates, one of the economic factors, are expected to have a moderate rating of impact on this market.
[...]dollar fluctuations are not expected to seriously affect the forecasts in the emerging LA regions.
FULL TEXT
NEW YORK, Dec. 29, 2014 /PRNewswire/ -- The marketing analytics market is setting a positive market trend. It
provides various benefits such as increased customer traffic, less time to create awareness of new products and
services, and better manageability of online marketing program. The marketing analytics software offers an
increased capability of solution to handle more number of customer transactions.
One of the major forces that are driving the marketing analytics software market is the increasing trend of traffic
analysis on the online marketing activities. The marketing analytics software is becoming an integrated
component in most business organizations. It is currently an essential feature for customer's experience on online
marketing activities and also changes the way in which enterprises deals with partners and suppliers as well as
empowers their workforce with access to information and services.
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[...]the companies are deploying the marketing analytics software to decide their marketing strategy and elevate
their customer interaction method.
FULL TEXT
DUBLIN, Jan. 22, 2015 /PRNewswire/ --Research and Markets
(http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/367p6q/marketing) has announced the addition of the "Marketing
Analytics Software Market by Application, by Deployment - Global Forecast to 2019" report to their offering.
Marketing analytics software automates the process of analyzing marketing activities across multiple channels.
The software helps the marketers to get a complete view of their marketing activities. This holistic view helps them
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Dateline: DUBLIN
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ABSTRACT
In this paper we explain using a real example of a fast consumer good the construction of a Marketing Mix model
for calculating the return on marketing investment (ROMI) as a metric of profitability and the calculation of
economic value added of marketing (EVAM) as a metric of shareholders value creation. We propose a novel
approach for estimating the coefficient of the Adstock model using impulse response functions. We measure the
return of short-term advertising and its combination with long-term using as a variable brand awareness measured
with a tracking throughout the entire period analyzed. The result of the analysis indicates that short-term
advertising has a negative return which happens to be very positive when we consider the combined effect with
brand awareness. / En el presente artículo explicamos mediante un ejemplo real de un product de gran consumo la
construcción de un model de Marketing Mix para el cálculo del return on marketing investment (ROMI) como
metric de rentabilidad y el cálculo del valor económico añadido del marketing (EVAM) como metric de creación de
valor para los shareholders. Proponemos un método novedoso para la estimación del coefficient del model de
Adstock mediante impulse response functions. Medimos la rentabilidad de la advertising a corto plazo y el effect
conjunto de la advertising a corto y a largo plazo utilizando para ello la variable brand awareness medida a través
de un tracking de marca a lo largo de todo el periodo analizado. El resultado del análisis indica que la advertising a
corto plazo tiene un retorno negativo que pasa a ser muy positivo cuando tenemos en cuenta su effect combinado
con la brand awareness.
FULL TEXT
(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)
Macarena Estevez
* macarena.estevez@conento. com
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In this paper we explain using a real example of a fast consumer good the construction of a Marketing Mix model
for calculating the return on marketing investment (ROMI) as a metric of profitability and the calculation of
economic value added of marketing (EVAM) as a metric of shareholders value creation. We propose a novel
approach for estimating the coefficient of the Adstock model using impulse response functions. We measure the
return of short-term advertising and its combination with long-term using as a variable brand awareness measured
with a tracking throughout the entire period analyzed. The result of the analysis indicates that short-term
advertising has a negative return which happens to be very positive when we consider the combined effect with
brand awareness.
En el presente artículo explicamos mediante un ejemplo real de un product de gran consumo la construcción de un
model de Marketing Mix para el cálculo del return on marketing investment (ROMI) como metric de rentabilidad y
el cálculo del valor económico añadido del marketing (EVAM) como metric de creación de valor para los
shareholders. Proponemos un método novedoso para la estimación del coefficient del model de Adstock
mediante impulse response functions. Medimos la rentabilidad de la advertising a corto plazo y el effect conjunto
de la advertising a corto y a largo plazo utilizando para ello la variable brand awareness medida a través de un
tracking de marca a lo largo de todo el periodo analizado. El resultado del análisis indica que la advertising a corto
plazo tiene un retorno negativo que pasa a ser muy positivo cuando tenemos en cuenta su effect combinado con
la brand awareness.
KEY WORDS
Marketing Mix modeling, return on marketing investment (ROMI), economic value added of Marketing EVAM,
Modeling Advertising Effectiveness.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Modelos de Marketing Mix, retorno de la inversion en Marketing ROMI, valor económico añadido del Marketing
EVA, modelización de la eficacia publicitaria. 21
Cálculo del ROI de marketing en modelos de marketing mix, del ROMI, al valor creado del marketing para los
accionistas EVAM
1.INTRODUCTION
There is growing pressure from the senior management, investors and financial analyst for the marketing
departments of large companies to inform them of the return on investment from the campaigns they carry out,
owing to the substantial amount of financial resources they manage. According to the 2014 annual report of
telecommunications company Jazztel, their investment in marketing and customer service amounted to 214.7m
Investments in fixed assets are always evaluated from a strictly financial perspective, using clear and widely
accepted metrics such as, for example, return on investment (ROI) and economic value added (EVA), been this
information provided in detail to shareholders, analysts and investors to enable them to make decisions on
resources allocation. However, this is not always the case with marketing investments. These tend not to be
sufficiently explained and, and owing to the lack of transparency, it is difficult for investors to know whether these
create value or not and, consequently, whether the investment will bring value to the shareholders (Kimbrough et
al. 2009). Despite the importance of transmitting information to the market about the result of marketing
strategies, there is still little agreement on how to measure profitability of these, even within the organisations
themselves.
In 1999 Bucklin and Gupta advocated the standardisation of methods for evaluating marketing profitability, owing
to the heterogeneity and opacity of the methods being used, especially by consultancy companies. In 2005,
Steward et al., of the Marketing Accountability Foundation, stated that apart from using traditional metrics (e.g.:
awareness, purchase intent and brand recommendation), the results of marketing actions needed to be financially
measureable using metrics such as Return on Marketing Investment (ROMI). The Foundation promotes the
adoption of standard procedures, to allow interested parties to monitor and cross-compare the returns obtained
and to compare them in time. More recently, Farris et al. (2015) insisted on the standardisation of the ROMI
definition, owing to its growing acceptance, but in many cases used and interpreted in very different ways.
The aim of this paper is to explain and clarify the calculation of economic metrics for measuring return on
marketing investment and estimating the value created for shareholders, especially regarding the short and long-
term effects of advertising. In the following section we will analyse the actual use of these economic metrics by
the marketing departments. We will then define and give an example of the calculation of the return on marketing
investment (ROMI) and the economic value added of marketing (EVAM). Then, using data from a project
undertaken for a consumer goods company, we will create the econometric model to obtain the contribution of the
main variables that affect sales, which will enable us to calculate the ROMI and EVAM. We will end by discussing
conclusions, limitations and future research lines.
Since Kotler's (1977) definition of the concept of marketing effectiveness there has been a growing interest in the
development of quantitative methods for measuring the financial return of marketing actions, especially
advertising, in order to prove that these are investments from which a return can be expected and are not an
expense with an unquantifiable return. It is increasingly common, especially for large companies with a high level
of investment in advertising, to request the calculation of ROMI as a measure of the financial return on the
activities carried out to demonstrate that these create value for shareholders.
To learn about the implementation of the metric, in 2009 and 2011 the Lenskold Group conducted separate studies
entitled Marketing ROI &Measurement Study, requesting information about the use of economic metrics in
evaluating marketing performance. Both studies showed a growing tendency in the use of ROMI. In the 2011 study,
28% of those surveyed said they used ROMI as an indicator of profitability and 36% said they used another
financial metric. We should point out that in the 2009 study, the response regarding the use of ROMI was broken
down into two groups, one formed of companies considered to be "highly efficient and effective" and the other
Rogers and Sexton (2012) conducted a study that is more explicit about the use of more traditional metrics such
as brand awareness, purchase intent and brand recommendation. Of those surveyed, 22% made most of their
decisions based on brand awareness alone and, of these, 60% used only this metric to measure the profitability of
their actions. 82% of those surveyed were confused about the concept of ROMI, given that they didn't mention the
link between marketing investment and financial return.
Moreover, in the survey conducted by Mintz and Currim (2013) they break down the results of the use of marketing
metrics according to the main broadcast advertising channels and create a ranking in which these are ordered
according to their use. For companies that use traditional advertising, that is, with a high component of TV
advertising, the most frequently used metric is brand awareness, accounting for 60% of cases, with ROMI in 7th
position with 32% and EVAM in 27th position with 4%.
The data analysed regarding the use of financial metrics in marketing indicate that these still need to be adapted
to the language of senior management, shareholders and investors through tools such as ROMI and EVAM.
Farris et al. (2015) define ROMI as the result of dividing the increase in financial value created by the marketing
actions net the investment made in these actions by the investment in marketing. To estimate the increase of
financial value we calculate the difference between the sales made after the marketing actions (or incremental
sales) and the expected sales, if these haven't been done (or baseline sales). Econometric models are then used to
obtain the incremental sales. We will look at the creation of these models later on.
Once the incremental sales have been isolated, the calculation process is as follows: 1) we multiply these sales by
the price, obtaining J the incremental revenue; 2) we multiply these sales by their variable 22 cost, obtaining the
variable incremental cost; 3) we find the difference to give us the incremental gross margin; 4) from this value we
subtract the investment made in marketing; 5) we then divide the value obtained by the marketing Investment,
thus obtaining the ROMI:
...
The result of the operation can be interpreted either as euros earned/ lost per euro invested or as a percentage of
the return on investment made in advertising. For example, ROMI = 0.3 would mean that we have earned 30 euros
for each 100 euros invested, or that the campaign has had a return of 30%. If the ROMI value is negative, = -0.3, it
means we have lost 30 euros for each 100 euros invested, or have a return of -30%.
This calculation does not include fixed costs or depreciation, as we assume that these would not vary as a result
of the incremental sales generated by the campaign. We could ask why we haven't included income tax in the
formula, or tax saving as advertising is considered a tax deductible cost, but because we have made a quotient
between both and despite the fact that the absolute values will diminish, the ratio will remain constant:
...
Once we have obtained the ROMI, we then need to subtract the cost of the company's financial resources. This
The next step is to calculate the EVAM. Seggie, Cavusgil, and Phelan (2007) refer to this as a metric that allows us
to communicate the results outside the marketing departments, especially to shareholders, since there will be no
controversy owing to subjective opinions. Smyth and Lecoeuvre (2015) state its importance for measuring the
value created for shareholders by the marketing strategies.
In financial terms, EVA measures the contribution in value for the company from the investments made after
subtracting its financial cost; this is calculated by subtracting from earnings before interest and after taxes the
investment made multiplied by the cost of capital (for further information about EVA see Griffith 2004). By
adapting the formula to the incremental revenue obtained from the marketing activities we can calculate the EVAM
as:
Using an example to illustrate the calculation of the ROMI and the EVAM we can establish the following
hypotheses: incremental sales of 100,000 price units of 9 euros and variable cost of 6 euros. A marketing
investment of 200,000 euros, a WACC of 10% and tax rate of 30%. The ROMI would be:
...
We obtain a ROMI of 50%, from which we need to subtract the WACC of 10%, thus obtaining a return on investment
of 40%. The EVAM in this case would be 50,000 euros:
Now, basing ourselves on work carried out for a consumer goods company, we show the creation of the
econometric model to first find the incremental sales and then the calculation of the ROMI and EVAM obtained.
4.DATA
To explain the process of obtaining incremental sales, we will use the data of a Spanish leading product in the
dairy products category with beneficial health properties and a high level of advertising investment, especially in
television. The series consists of 298 observations with a weekly frequency and aggregated on Sundays between
2009 and 2014. This period is particularly difficult to model, since it includes both the peak of the economic crisis
that occurred in Spain and the start of the recovery in 2013 and 2014. Sales in the category have a high seasonal
component, with a positive impact in the first and last week of the month and with very pronounced falls in sales in
the summer months, November, bank holiday weekends, summer holiday periods and around Christmas. The initial
database includes over a thousand variables with data about the company itself and about sector competitors as
well as other economic variables. In addition to calculating the ROMI, this database allows the analysis of other
aspects of brand marketing performance, such as the calculation of price or crossed elasticity, advertising
elasticity, etc., and the measurement of the impact of campaigns featuring various celebrities or special actions. It
After an initial specification we move on to the econometric modelling process. This consists of deciding which
variables are important for analysis and which, therefore, are considered better for explaining, significantly, the
variation in sales during the period studied. We describe these variables below:
The sales correspond exclusively to a single product of the brand and are measured in litres. By including the
variable sales in litres as a dependent variable of the model, one would think that it would make more sense to use
a measure of sales in euros instead of by volume, and even more so considering that we want to measure the
return on marketing investment. But the problem is that sales in euros is a linear combination of the variables
sales by volume and price, so if we use this variable we would lose the information about the impact of price on
sales as we would not know whether the sales variations were due to changes in price or volume. In addition,
technically speaking and considering the methodology used for the linear regression, introducing the sales in
economic value causes some problems and distortions when establishing the variable that causes the variation in
sales. For example, if we base ourselves on a given week in which sales are 100 units and the price is 1 euro, in this
case the sales variable in euros would have a value of 100 euros. A week later if we reduce the price to 0.8 euros
and accompany it with a TV campaign to announce the reduction, we assume that the combined effect of these
two variables would mean an increase in sales to 120 units and our sales variable in euros would be 120x0.8 = 96
euros. The information received by the econometric model would be a 4% fall in sales in euros, dropping from 100
to 96 euros (when the sales by volume would actually have increased by 20%), and an increase in advertising
investment, which the model would interpret as a negative correlation between advertising and sales, being unable
to detect the price effect. However, if we use sales by volume we would provide the model with very different
information that would not cause distortions of economic logic: the increase in sales from 100 to 120 units is due
to the combined effect of two variables: the fall in price and the increase in advertising.
Weighted distribution
Weighted distribution is the measurement of the quality of distribution of a product, it tells us the percentage of
supermarkets or department stores in which the product is sold, but weighting this percentage against the
category's total sales volume in each centre; that is, the greater the sales volume in the centres where we are
present, the greater the weighted distribution. The product has an average weighted distribution of 99.9% and the
brand showed great interest in knowing what impact this variable has on sales given the high level of investment
required to maintain it.
These indexes are obtained by dividing the sales from promotions by total sales. In our case, we have three
different kinds of promotions; Promotional Intensity Index with Special Display (PII SD); Promotional Intensity
Index with Leaflets (PII L), and the Promotional Intensity Index with Temporary Price Reduction (PII TPR).
Television Gross Rating Points (GRPs) at 20" and GRPs at 20" Special Actions (SA)
The GRPs measurement only takes into account people who have seen the ad broadcasted and who form part of
the target audience, excluding those who have seen it but are not part of this audience. It is the result of the
Given that TV campaigns consist of ads of varying duration in each campaign, in our case 11 different durations
from 5 seconds to 120 seconds, these formats need to be homogenised into a single format of 20 seconds; for
example, two seen ads of 30 seconds each are equivalent to three of 20 seconds. The data are provided by the
audience measurement company Kantar Media.
In this case, and given that there is no measure equivalent to the GRPs for television for these variables,
advertising investment in euros is used, even at the risk of experiencing deviations caused by price fluctuations
over time.
Brand awareness
The brand awareness variable is expressed as a percentage and to calculate it we use brand tracking by the IPSOS
Social Research Institute. This quantifies the responses to the question: Had you already heard of the brand.before
today?. For the tracking, 700 telephone interviews a week were conducted throughout the entire analysis period, by
means of subsamples of 100 interviews a day, giving a total de 36,500 interviews per year. As we can see in Table
1, the values range between a minimum of 84%, an average of 96% and a maximum of 100% and they represent the
percentage of people who know of the brand.
This variable measures the impact of price on sales. To calculate it, the total weekly sales by value (deflated by the
IPC) of all the distributor brands are added up and then divided by the total weekly sales of all these brands in
volume, giving us the weekly average price. Once this data has been obtained we subtract the price of the brand to
find out the difference.
This variable measures the frequency of the search for keywords related to the beneficial health properties of the
brand, covering the entire period analysed in the regression, from 2009 to 2014. The data, provided by Google3
trends, are the result of dividing the number of searches for the keywords by the total number of searches in
Google at the same time and in the same place. To index these values from 0 to 100, the values obtained from this
quotient are divided by the highest figure in the entire range and then multiplied by 100.
Some dummy variables will be introduced into the model, which will be given a value of 0 or 1 and will represent
5.MODEL CREATION
By short-term advertising effect we mean the impact on sales produced by the advertising in the week itself and in
the weeks following the broadcast (this is not to be confused with the long-term effect, months or years, which will
be represented by the awareness variable). The duration of the short-term advertising impact is measured using
the Adstock model (Broadbent, 1979). The model quantifies the direct effect on the increase in sales that a
campaign may have over the weeks following its broadcast and its decrease after that using a geometric decay
model:
Where Advertisingt can be GRPs or any other measurement of advertising investment, such as investment in
euros, at time t. Parameter quantifies the effect in this week of the advertising from the previous week. For
example, = 40% means that this week we maintain 40% of the advertising impact from the week before. This
impact decays at a rate of *, so in the following two weeks it will have dropped to 0.42 = 16%, and so on. Using
parameter it is possible to know the time in weeks in which the effect of the campaign will decay by up to 50% or
90%. For level = 40%, the time the effect of the campaign takes to decay to 90% would be calculated as ln(0.1)/A =
ln(0.1)/0.4 = 2.5 weeks.
The challenge of the Adstock model arises when we try to find out whether this delayed impact actually exists and,
if so, how to quantify it. Fry, Broadbent and Dixon (1999) propose three alternative methods for finding the value of
, but it is not clear from their analysis the extent to which the estimated delayed effect in sales is statistically
significant. Alternatively, we could use the estimates of Assmus, Farley and Lehmann (1984) in their meta-analysis
of 114 papers, and use an average parameter value of = 0.46, with a standard deviation of = 0.30. However, we do
not consider any these approaches appropriate so we propose a different approach, using impulse response
functions (Dekimpe and Hanssens, 1995, 1999), a method which, applied to the estimation of , to our knowledge
has not previously been reported in the literature.
Impulse response functions are based on the results obtained from a vector auto regressive (VAR) model. The
mathematical specification of the VAR model requires stationarity in the series used, meaning that the properties
of mean and variance in the series are maintained over time (albeit on a trend). If the series are not stationary, we
should calculate the first difference to achieve the objective of stationarity. The Augmented Dickie-Fuller test,
Table 2, shows that the sales series and the advertising variables are stationary, thus allowing the VAR analysis to
be performed at level.
In economic terms, stationarity in the sales series indicates to us that the impact of impulses on sales is
temporary and that once the sales have been diverted by innovations (for example, advertising), sales will recover
their average value after a certain time, which would imply that the series reverts back to its average market share
(Dekimpe and Hanssens 1999). That is, when we broadcast a campaign it would have two effects; one, a boost in
The following equation shows the VAR model used for K = 2 delays determined by the Hannan-Quinn (1979)
criteria and which for stationary series is as follows:
...
Yi,t is the vector (6x1) of endogenous variables: Sales, GRPS 20", GRPS 20" SA, Press, Internet and GRPS 20" of
Main Competitor. A is the constants vector (6x1), B(k)i the coefficient matrix (6x6) for lag k, Cit the vector of
exogenous variables including seasonal variables that affect the sales series and ?,~(0,) the covariance matrix of
the residuals. Once the VAR model has been estimated, its calculated its equivalent vector of infinite-order moving
averages, which will allow us to know the response of sales to an impulse in advertising variables of 1 standard
deviation. In Figure 1 we can see graphs showing the sales response to the increase of advertising variables, with
a confidence interval of 95% obtained through bootstrapping using the Gretl program.
Once we have obtained the response of sales to the increase in advertising variables we can then estimate their
duration with a confidence interval of 95% and assume that there is no effect when the confidence interval line
includes 0. Based on this we can establish as a hypothesis that the response decays to 90% in the middle of the
week where it disappears definitively, thereby obtaining the value that will allow us to estimate , Table 3.
We can see that we get the longest-lasting effect from Internet advertising. We consider this result to be logical
given that the product has an effect on health and that the advertising received while browsing the Internet may be
given more attention, thus generating a longer-lasting impact over time. The next variable with J the greatest
impact is GRPS 20", followed by GRPS 20" SA and 34 then Press. All these significant variables would be included
in the model after performing the Adstock transformation, each one with its estimated coefficient. As we can see
in Figure 1, the potential negative impact of GRPS 20" Main Competitor is not statistically significant at a
confidence interval of 95%, which may be logical given that the potential negative impact is distributed among all
competitors, and will therefore not be included in the model.
6.SALES MODELLING
We will separate the variables that we will use to explain sales into three groups. The first includes the marketing
mix variables: distribution, brand awareness, television advertising in different campaigns and formats and
advertising in other media; the second includes information about competitors, such as price differentials with
DBs; and the third group includes the economic and social factors that affect sales, such as the seasonality of the
same, variations in the economic cycle, and interest in searching for the category on the Internet. The model
responds to the following equation:
...
Yt is the value of the dependent variable Sales at time t, : is the coefficient of independent variable xtt at time t and
To know in more detail the relationship between the variables of the adjusted model we calculated the correlation
matrix, which we can see in Table 4.
Once the structure of the correlation matrix has been verified we will then create the model, Graph 1; since it has a
R2 of 86.08% we interpret that we have captured 86% of the variability of the sales.
The variables included in the model, their coefficients and percentage of contribution to the total sales of the entire
period can be seen in Table 5.
The regression coefficient indicates the variation in sales due to the increase in one unit in the explanatory
variable, maintaining the rest constant. If the coefficient is positive it means that this variable has a positive
contribution to sales and vice versa.
In Graph 2 we can see the individual contribution of the different marketing mix variables to the total sales. The
weighted distribution is notable, accounting for 63.8% of sales, followed by brand awareness which contributes
32.4% of the sales. In third place is the negative effect of the price differential with the distributor brand which
subtracts 15.2% from sales. The advertising variable, which is the sum of the advertising effect of all the media in
the short term, contributes 6.8% to total sales.
Weighted Distribution
The contribution of the weighted distribution variable to total sales is 63.8% and we can assume that a distribution
as wide as that of the brand forms the basis of the sales baseline. This variable, although it could be likened to the
constant of the regression, includes information that the constant would not clarify, for example, how sales would
be affected by the loss of a specific market or the loss of a specific distribution channel.
The sales obtained through promotions are the sum of the effects of the Promotional Intensity Indexes with
Special Display (PII SD), the Promotional Intensity Index with Leaflets (IIP F) and the Promotional Intensity Index
with Temporary Price Reduction (PII TPR), giving a joint sales contribution of 6.2%.
Short-term advertising
This includes the variables television GRPs and investment in euros, in press and Internet, all of them transformed
in Adstock. A large part of the advertising broadcasted consisted of providing information about the qualities of
the product and its beneficial effect on health; the aim was not only to make sales in the short term but also to
The contribution of television advertising in both campaigns and special actions (SA) accounts for 6.3% of sales.
Advertising in Press and Internet has a joint sales contribution of 0.5%, giving us a total of 6.8%.
Brand Awareness
Clary and Dyson (2004) state that the current effect of short-term advertising (represented by the variables with
Adstock) on sales is insufficient for campaigns to be profitable. We need to also measure the accumulated effect
of advertising in the long term in order to know the real return from advertising. In our case, a contribution of 6.8%
from short-term advertising (and going by our experience over the years, the effect is usually less) to total sales
does not justify the high economic volume invested since, as we will see later, we will obtain a negative ROMI.
However, when reviewing the literature on the subject we see some interesting conclusions about the effects of
short-term advertising. Driver and Foxal (1986) conclude that short-term advertising, apart from the function of
generating sales, has other functions that relate to the long-term effect: i) Advertising must be accumulated over
time in order to reach a level whereby it is effective. ii) The actual recipients of the advertising are not necessarily
existing consumers, the impact of advertising can have later effects. iii) Advertising instils habits that will be
maintained by future advertising. iv) Advertising is subject to attrition and obsolescence and needs to be renewed.
In addition, Aaker and Day (1974) studied the hierarchy of advertising effects and conclude that advertising
influences awareness and that this in turn influences purchase behaviour. The accumulative effect of short-term
advertising (Clark, Doraszelski, and Draganska 2009) is one of the most important factors for generating
awareness.
Huang and Sarigöllü (2012) conclude that with regard to consumer goods there is a positive relationship between
awareness and sales results by means of the process: awareness -> test -> reinforce. We are aware that in order
for this process to be effective it must be complemented with the contribution of distribution and price promotions
(variables analysed separately in our model). Macdonald and Sharp (2000) find improvements in the brand's
results in the market in relation to awareness. They state that when consumers are choosing between products
with a different level of awareness they show a greater predilection for the better-known products, according to the
cycle: choose the product with greater awareness, try other products and then return to the product that has
greater awareness. In our case there is a special circumstance, in that the product analysed has positive effects on
health and in this case knowledge of the brand reduces the risk perceived by the consumer when making a
purchase decision (Moisesku 2009), thereby increasing the likelihood to buy.
Srinivasan, Vanhuele and Pauwels (2008) state the importance of including so-called mindset metrics in the
marketing mix models, and especially the awareness variable. The results from their study reveal that metrics such
as awareness have an effect on sales beyond the direct effects of advertising, price, distribution and promotions.
They therefore insist on the need to include in these types of models perceptual metrics that allow the capture of
the long-term positive effects of brand creation.
Because of these reasons, we consider it appropriate to include this variable in the model, and to use it as an
approximation to the longterm effect of advertising, although we are aware that awareness is a very rich variable
and is generated by a greater number of variables than maybe: other communication channels, distribution or the
product itself. In our model, the brand awareness variable contributes 32.37% to total sales, the second largest
amount after distribution. And it may help to explain the long-term effect of advertising investment strategies in
the creation of value for shareholders.
Including these two dates in the model is due to two special actions which were carried out by the brand in these
periods and together they had an impact of 0.2% on total sales.
Price
As can be expected, the price differential with distributor brand has a negative impact on total sales, this being -
15.2%.
These include variables that reflect changes in the environment, such as the interest in searching for the category
on the Internet, which contributes 5.9% to sales and the incipient recovery of the Spanish economy in 2013 and
2014, with an impact of 1.8%. Moreover, variables that include the increases in sales in the first and last weeks of
the month because of the payment of salaries and the opening of shopping centres in some Autonomous
Communities in Spain on the first Sunday of every month, have a joint effect of 1.0%. Lastly, it includes variables
that encompass the fall in sales due to seasonal factors, with a joint effect of -2.9%.
To summarise, in Graph 3 we can see the individual weekly contribution to sales of the main variables analysed.
Once we have created the model and isolated the contribution of each variable we will have the information we
need to be able to quantify in economic terms the return on investment in advertising. In Graph 4 we show the
sales generated by television, press and Internet advertising, which we consider to be short-term advertising, and
the sales generated through brand awareness, which we consider to represent the long-term impact of advertising.
To illustrate the analysis of the calculation of the ROMI and EVAM we will take the entire year 2013, during which
5.9% of total sales were due to short-term advertising, and 29.9% to the effect of brand awareness or long-term
advertising; the joint effect of both variables contribute 35.8% to total sales for the period. To calculate the ROMI
and EVAM we will assume a gross margin of 50% (PWC, 2015, pg. 18) of large companies in the sector, for the
investment cost we will use a WACC of 10% according to companies in the sector and we will assume a tax rate of
30%, in accordance with the current rates in Spain.
In light of this information and following the previously explained step by step process to calculate the incremental
revenue, we obtain the results detailed in Table 6, which shows the financial results of shortterm advertising
broken down into television, press and Internet and the sum of the effects of short-term advertising and brand
awareness representing the long term.
If we only take into account the short-term advertising, the ROMI is -33%, and once we subtract the WACC of 10%
we get an advertising return of -43%, the EVAM for the period would have been -1.9 M Euros; that is, we would have
destroyed value for shareholders of this amount. To calculate the economic impact of brand awareness we do not
include the investment made, which would be represented J by the accumulated advertising, the investment made
in distribution 42 and promotional campaigns of the previous years, given that in financial terms these can be
considered sunk costs, costs that are never included when evaluating an investment. By adding the effect of brand
awareness the result is totally different, in this second case the ROMI is 308%, and if we subtract the 10% of WACC
For years there have been calls for the standardisation and clarification of the methods used for measuring ROMI
(for example, I PA 2008 and Farris et al. 2015). However, the authors have not found real examples of their
calculation, describing in detail the marketing mix econometric models needed to obtain them. These same
models also allow a calculation to be made of one of the most common measurements for creating value for
shareholders, EVA, which has been adapted by the authors to measure marketingcreated value, EVAM.
The estimation of the value of for Adstock using impulse response functions is a transparent way of measuring
the impact of advertising over time and it also allows us to know the significance of the estimations and to
establish the decay rate of the advertising effect with greater accuracy.
The study highlights the importance of measuring brand awareness and explains how to quantify it as a variable in
the marketing mix models. In our case, this variable contributes 32.4% to the total sales of the brand during the
period of study and is the second largest after distribution. If we only use short-term advertising to calculate the
ROMI for 2013, we get a value of -33%, and the EVAM shows a value decrease for shareholders of -1.9 M euros.
However, by adding the effect of brand awareness, the ROMI increases to 298% and the creation of value for
shareholders is 9.4 M Euros.
The proposed methodology meets three objectives: 1) In the day to day of marketing departments it allows them to
measure the results or effectiveness of the activities carried out, and it can be used to reshape the marketing mix
and to incentivise or disincentivise certain actions. 2) We can obtain information that shows us the economic
efficiency and profitability of investments which, apart from being a key aspect for marketing departments, is also
important for financial control departments. 3) As regards senior management and for communicating with
shareholders, investors and analysts, the information about value creation through EVAM will result in a greater
understanding of the investments made and will improve the information available to help them make more
informed decisions about investment allocation.
Regarding limitations, we would like to point out that this study has been conducted specifically for a product that
affects health, and for which knowledge of the brand is a very important aspect when making a purchase decision,
(Moisesku 2009), and we therefore believe that the results cannot be extrapolated to other product categories. But
we do believe, however, that the methodology can be extrapolated, which is why we propose a future line of
research, a broader study in which we can compare the results of ROMI and EVAM for other categories, especially
those that do not have this potential health-risk component, and can compare the effects of short-term advertising
and brand awareness in products with low perceived risk.
The aim of this paper is to explain and clarify the calculation of economic metrics for measuring return on
marketing investment and estimating the value created for shareholders
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NOTES
1. Acknowledgements: We would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of the editor and an anonymous
reviewer. This paper is part of the research project 06/16 funded by ESIC Business &Marketing School in
collaboration with CONENTO
2. Contact author: ESIC Business &Marketing School; Av. Valdenigrales s/n; 28223 Pozuelo de Alarcón (Madrid);
SPAIN
3. www.google.com/trends
Macarena Estevez
Conento
* macarena.estevez@conento. com
En el presente artículo explicamos mediante un ejemplo real de un producto de gran consumo la construcción de
un modelo de Marketing Mix para el cálculo del retorno de la inversión en marketing (ROMI) como métrica de
rentabilidad y el cálculo del valor económico añadido del marketing (EVAM) como métrica de creación de valor
para los accionistas. Proponemos un método novedoso para la estimación del coeficiente del modelo de Adstock
mediante funciones de impulso respuesta. Medimos la rentabilidad de la publicidad a corto plazo y el efecto
conjunto de la publicidad a corto y a largo plazo utilizando para ello la variable notoriedad de marca medida a
través de un tracking de marca a lo largo de todo el periodo analizado. El resultado del análisis indica que la
publicidad a corto plazo tiene un retorno negativo que pasa a ser muy positivo cuando tenemos en cuenta su
efecto combinado con la notoriedad de marca.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In this paper we explain using a real example of a fast consumer good the construction of a Marketing Mix model
for calculating the return on marketing investment (ROMI) as a metric of profitability and the calculation of
economic value added of marketing (EVAM) as a metric of shareholders value creation. We propose a novel
approach for estimating the coefficient of the Adstock model using impulse response functions. We measure the
return of short-term advertising and its combination with long-term using as a variable brand awareness measured
with a tracking throughout the entire period analyzed. The result of the analysis indicates that short-term
advertising has a negative return which happens to be very positive when we consider the combined effect with
brand awareness.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Modelos de Marketing Mix, retorno de la inversión en Marketing ROMI, valor económico añadido del Marketing
EVA, modelización de la eficacia publicitaria.
KEY WORDS
Marketing Mix modeling, return on Marketing investment ROMI, economic value added of Marketing EVAM,
Modeling Advertising Effectiveness.
Cálculo del ROI de marketing en modelos de marketing mix, del ROMI, al valor creado del marketing para los
accionistas EVAM1
Calculation of marketing ROI in marketing mix models, from ROMI, to marketing-created value for shareholders,
EVAM
Existe una presión creciente por parte de la alta dirección de los inversores y analistas financieros para que los
departamentos de marketing de las grandes compañías informen sobre la rentabilidad de las inversiones en las
campañas realizadas, debido a la gran cantidad de recursos económicos que gestionan. Según las cuentas
anuales del año 2014 de la compañía de telecomunicaciones Jazztel, su inversión en marketing y atención al
cliente fue de un total de 214,7M de Euros, frente a una inversión en despliegue de fibra óptica (cuya explotación
es su actividad principal) de 359,7M de Euros, es decir, la compañía invirtió en actividades de marketing un
equivalente a casi un 60% de la inversión en activo fijo.
Mientras que las inversiones en activo fijo son siempre evaluadas desde un punto de vista estrictamente
financiero, con métricas claras y ampliamente aceptadas, como por ejemplo, el retorno sobre la inversión (Return
on Investment, ROI) o el valor económico añadido (Economic Value Added, EVA) y la información siempre se
traslada de forma detallada a los accionistas, analistas e inversores para que puedan tomar sus decisiones de
asignación de recursos. Las inversiones en marketing no siempre están suficientemente explicadas y debido a la
falta de transparencia es complicado para los inversores saber si éstas crean valor o no y en consecuencia si la
inversión que se destina a las mismas aporta o no valor a los accionistas (Kimbrough et al. 2009). A pesar de la
importancia en la transmisión de la información al mercado del resultado de las estrategias de marketing, todavía
hay poco acuerdo en cómo medir la rentabilidad de éstas, incluso dentro de las propias organizaciones. En 1999
Bucklin y Gupta ya abogaban por la estandarización de los métodos de evaluación de la rentabilidad del marketing,
debido a la heterogeneidad y opacidad de los utilizados, especialmente por parte de las compañías consultoras.
En 2005, Steward et al. desde la Fundación "The Marketing Accountability Foundation" indican la necesidad de
que, aparte de las métricas tradicionales (por ejemplo: notoriedad, intención de compra o recomendación de
marca), los resultados de las acciones de marketing sean medibles financieramente con métricas como el Retorno
de la Inversión en Marketing (ROMI, Return on Marketing Investment). Desde la Fundación se promueve que se
adopten procedimientos estándar, de forma que las rentabilidades obtenidas puedan ser objeto de seguimiento y
comparación temporal y transversal por las partes interesadas. Más recientemente Farris et al. (2015) insisten en
la estandarización de la definición del ROMI debido a que cada vez tiene mayor aceptación, pero en muchos casos
se utiliza e interpreta de formas muy distintas.
El objetivo de este artículo, es explicar y clarificar el cálculo de las métricas financieras del retorno de la inversión
en marketing y de estimación del valor creado para los accionistas, especialmente por los efectos a corto y a largo
plazo de la publicidad. En la siguiente sección analizamos la implantación de estas métricas financieras. Después
definiremos y pondremos un ejemplo de cálculo del retorno de la inversión en marketing (ROMI) y del valor
económico añadido en marketing (EVAM, Economic Value Added of Marketing). A continuación, utilizando datos
de un proyecto realizado para una compañía de gran consumo, crearemos el modelo econométrico para obtener la
aportación de las principales variables que afectan a las ventas y de esta forma poder calcular el ROMI y el EVAM.
Finalizamos con las conclusiones, limitaciones y futuras líneas de investigación.
Desde la definición del concepto de efectividad de marketing de Kotier (1977), ha habido un progresivo interés en
el desarrollo de métodos cuantitativos para poder medir el retorno financiero de las acciones de marketing,
especialmente la publicidad, con el objetivo de demostrar que éstas son una inversión de la que se espera obtener
un beneficio y no un gasto del cual el retorno no es cuantificable. Especialmente en las grandes empresas con alta
inversión en publicidad, cada vez es más común que se solicite el cálculo del ROMI como medida de la
rentabilidad financiera de las acciones realizadas para demostrar que éstas contribuyen a la creación de valor
Para poder conocer la implantación de la métrica, Lenskold Group realizó en 2009 y 2011 sendos estudios
titulados: Marketing ROI &Measurement Study solicitando información sobre el uso de métricas financieras para
evaluar el desempeño de marketing, en ambos estudios se observa una tendencia creciente en el uso del ROMI. En
el estudio de 2011 un 28% de los encuestados declaraba usar el ROMI como indicador de rentabilidad frente a un
36% que declaraban usar alguna otra métrica financiera. Cabe destacar que en el estudio de 2009 la respuesta
sobre el uso del ROMI se desagrega en dos grupos, por un lado las empresas consideradas como "altamente
eficaces y efectivas" y por otro lado el resto de empresas consultadas. Resulta muy esclarecedor que de las
primeras un 54% declarara usar el ROMI como métrica financiera principal frente a un 29% de las segundas.
Rogers y Sexton (2012) realizan un estudio que es más explícito sobre el uso de métricas más tradicionales como
notoriedad de marca, intención de compra, o recomendación de marca. De los encuestados un 22% tomaba la
mayoría de sus decisiones usando sólo la notoriedad de marca y de éstos un 60% usaban sólo esta métrica para
medir la rentabilidad de sus acciones. En un 82% de los encuestados había confusión sobre el concepto de ROMI,
dado que no mencionaron que relaciona la inversión en marketing con el retorno financiero.
Por otro lado, en la encuesta de Mintz y Currim (2013) se desagregan los resultados del uso de métricas de
marketing en función de los canales mayoritarios para la emisión de publicidad y crean un ranking en el que éstas
son ordenadas en función de su uso. Para las empresas que realizan publicidad tradicional, entiéndase ésta como
la que tiene un alto componente de publicidad en televisión, la métrica más utilizada es la notoriedad de marca
con un 60% de los casos, el ROMI ocupa un puesto 7 con un 32% y el EVAM un puesto 27 con un 4%. Los datos
analizados sobre el uso de métricas financieras en marketing nos indican que sigue existiendo la necesidad de
adaptarlas al lenguaje de la alta dirección, accionistas e inversores a través de herramientas como el ROMI o el
EVAM.
Farris et al. (2015) definen el ROMI como el resultado de dividir el incremento de valor financiero creado por las
acciones de marketing neto de la inversión en estas acciones entre la inversión en marketing. Para calcular el
incremento de valor financiero calculamos la diferencia entre las ventas realizadas después de las acciones de
marketing (o ventas incrementales) y las ventas esperados, caso de no haberlas realizado (o ventas de nivel base).
Para la obtención de las ventas incrementales se utilizan modelos econométricos cuya creación ilustraremos más
adelante.
Una vez aisladas las ventas incrementales, el proceso de cálculo es el siguiente: 1) multiplicamos estas ventas por
el precio obteniendo el ingreso incremental; 2) multiplicamos estas ventas por su coste variable obteniendo el
coste variable incremental; 3) hallamos la diferencia de forma que obtenemos el margen bruto incremental; 4) a
este valor le restamos la inversión realizada en marketing; 5) dividimos el valor obtenido por la inversión en
marketing, obteniendo de esta forma el ROMI:
...
El resultado de la operación se puede interpretar bien como euros ganados/perdidos por euro invertido, o bien,
como porcentaje de rentabilidad sobre la inversión realizada en publicidad. Por ejemplo, un ROMI = 0,3 indicaría
que hemos ganado 30 euros por cada 100 euros invertidos o bien que la campaña ha tenido una rentabilidad del
30%. En el caso de que el valor hubiera sido negativo de ROMI = -0,3, hemos perdido 30 euros por cada 100 euros
En este cálculo no se incluyen los costes fijos ni las amortizaciones, dado que asumimos que éstos no varían por
las ventas incrementales generadas por la campaña. Cabría preguntarse por la no inclusión del impuesto sobre el
beneficio en la formula, ni del ahorro fiscal al ser considerada la publicidad un gasto fiscalmente deducible, pero
debido a que hacemos un cociente entre ambos y a pesar de que los valores absolutos disminuirán, la proporción
se mantendrá constante:
...
Una vez obtenido el ROMI, hemos de restar el coste de los recursos financieros de la empresa. Este coste es el
coste medio ponderado del capital, o por sus siglas en inglés wacc (weighted average cost of capital) que es un
promedio del coste de las deudas a largo plazo y de la rentabilidad requerida por los accionistas, o coste del
capital. En algunos casos, determinadas compañías usan un valor superior al wacc conocido como rentabilidad
mínima exigida (hurdle rate). La diferencia entre el ROMI y el wacc nos indica la rentabilidad obtenida de la
campaña:
El siguiente paso es calcular el EVAM. Seggie, Cavusgil, y Phelan (2007) se refieren a éste como una métrica que
permite comunicar los resultados fuera de los departamentos de marketing, especialmente a los accionistas, dado
que no deja lugar a controversias causadas por las opiniones subjetivas. Smyth y Lecoeuvre (2015) indican su
pertinencia para aplicarlo a la medición del valor creado para los accionistas de las estrategias de marketing.
Financieramente, el EVA mide la aportación de valor para la empresa de las inversiones realizadas después de
detraer su coste de financiación; se calcula restando al beneficio antes de intereses y después de impuestos la
inversión realizada multiplicada por el coste del capital (para ampliar la información sobre el EVA se puede
consultar Griffith 2004). Adaptando la fórmula a los beneficios incrementales obtenidos en las acciones de
marketing podemos calcular el EVAM como:
Para ilustrar con un ejemplo el cálculo del ROMI y del EVAM establecemos las siguientes hipótesis: ventas
incrementales de 100.000 unidades precio de 9 Euros y coste variable de 6 Euros. Inversión en marketing de
200.000 Euros, wacc del 10% y tasa impositiva del 30%. El ROMI sería:
...
Obtenemos un ROMI del 50% al que hemos de restar el wacc del 10% obteniendo una rentabilidad de la inversión
del 40%. El EVAM sería en este caso de 50.000 Euros:
A continuación, basándonos en uno de los trabajos realizados para una compañía de gran consumo, ilustraremos
la creación del modelo econométrico para hallar las ventas incrementales y posteriormente el cálculo del ROMI y
del EVAM obtenidos.
Para explicar el proceso de obtención de las ventas incrementales, utilizaremos los datos de un producto líder en
España en la categoría de productos lácteos con propiedades beneficiosas salud y con un alto nivel de inversión
publicitaria, especialmente en televisión. La serie consta de 298 observaciones con periodicidad semanal y
acumulada a los domingos entre los años 2009 y 2014. Este periodo es especialmente complicado para la
modelización, dado que incluye tanto el punto álgido de la crisis económica acaecida en España, como el inicio de
la recuperación de los años 2013 y 2014. Las ventas de la categoría tienen un alto componente estacional, con
influencias positivas de las primera y última semanas del mes y con caídas de ventas muy acusadas en los meses
de verano, noviembre, puentes, periodos vacacionales y en el periodo navideño. La base de datos inicial consta de
más de mil variables con datos tanto de la propia compañía, como de la competencia y del sector así como otras
variables económicas. Esta base de datos aparte del cálculo del ROMI, permite analizar otros aspectos del
desempeño de marketing de la marca, como puede ser el cálculo de las elasticidades precio o cruzadas,
elasticidades de la publicidad, etc. o bien medir el impacto de las campañas protagonizadas por diferentes
"celebrities" o en acciones especiales. Y también medir eficacia del posicionamiento en el primer y último anuncio
después de los cortes publicitarios.
Tras una especificación inicial se procede al proceso de modelización econométrica. Este proceso consiste en
plantear cuáles son las variables relevantes a analizar y que a priori se considera que explicarán en mejor medida y
de forma significativa las variaciones de las ventas a lo largo del periodo analizado. A continuación describimos
estas variables:
Las ventas corresponden exclusivamente a un único producto de la marca y vienen medidas en litros. Al incluir la
variable ventas en litros como variable dependiente del modelo, cabría pensar que tendría más sentido utilizar una
medida de las ventas en Euros, en vez de una medida en volumen y más teniendo en cuenta que se busca medir el
retorno de la inversión en marketing, el problema es que las ventas en Euros es una combinación lineal de las
variables ventas en volumen y precio, de forma que si usamos esta variable perdemos la información del impacto
del precio en las ventas ya que las variaciones de estas no sabremos si se deben al precio o al volumen. Por otro
lado, técnicamente y teniendo en cuenta la metodología usada por la regresión lineal, el hecho de introducir las
ventas en valor económico genera algunos problemas y distorsiones a la hora de dirimir la variable causante de la
variación de las ventas. Por ejemplo, si partimos de una semana dada en la que las ventas son de 100 unidades y
el precio es de 1 Euro, en este caso, la variable ventas en Euros tendría un valor de 100 Euros. Una semana
después realizamos una disminución de precio a 0,8 Euros acompañada de una campaña de televisión para
anunciar la bajada, suponemos que el efecto conjunto de estas dos variables supone un aumento de ventas a 120
unidades y nuestra variable ventas en Euros pasa a ser de 120x0,8 = 96 Euros. La información que recibiría el
modelo econométrico sería una disminución de ventas en Euros de un 4% pasando de 100 a 96 Euros (cuando en
realidad las ventas en volumen habrían aumentado en un 20%) y un aumento de la inversión en publicidad, lo que
el modelo interpretaría como una correlación negativa entre publicidad y ventas al no detectar el efecto precio. Sin
embargo, si utilizamos las ventas en volumen aportaríamos al modelo una información bien distinta que no
provocaría distorsiones de lógica económica: el aumento de las ventas de 100 a 120 unidades es debido al efecto
conjunto de dos variables, por un lado la bajada de precio y por otro el aumento de la publicidad.
Distribución ponderada
La distribución ponderada es una medida de la calidad de la distribución de un producto, nos indica el porcentaje
Estos índices se obtienen dividiendo las ventas realizadas en promoción entre el total de ventas. En nuestro caso
se incluyen tres tipos distintos de promociones; Índice de Intensidad Promocional en Exposición Especial (IIP EE);
Índice de Intensidad Promocional con Folletos (IIP F), y el Índice de Intensidad Promocional en Reducción
Temporal de Precios (IIP RTP).
Gross Rating Points de televisión (GRPS) a 20" y GRPS a 20" Acciones Especiales (AAEE)
La medida GRPS sólo tiene en cuenta a las personas que han visto el anuncio emitido y forman parte del público
objetivo, excluyendo a las que lo han visto pero no forman parte de este público. Es el producto de dos variables
que son, el porcentaje de nuestro público objetivo que ha visto el anunció y el número de veces que lo ha visto
multiplicado por 100. Por tanto los GRPS son una medida de presión publicitaria exclusivamente sobre nuestro
público objetivo, de forma que 200 GRPS podría significar que el 100% de nuestro público objetivo ha visto el
anuncio 2 veces o que el 50% de este lo ha visto 4 veces. El hecho de usar esta variable en vez de inversión en
euros se debe a que como ocurría en el caso de las ventas la inversión en Euros es una combinación lineal de dos
variables, número de GRPS y precio de estos, de forma que si por ejemplo, se da una bajada de precios en los
GRPS por circunstancias del mercado televisivo, el modelo econométrico la interpretaría como una disminución en
la publicidad (introduciendo una distorsión en el análisis) cuando en realidad el nivel de presión publicitaria se
mantiene constante.
Dado que las campañas de televisión se componen de anuncios con varias duraciones en cada campaña, en
nuestro caso 11 duraciones distintas desde los 5 segundos a los 120 segundos, es necesario homogeneizar estos
formatos a un único de 20 segundos, por ejemplo, 2 anuncios vistos de 30 segundos son equivalentes a 3 de 20
segundos. Los datos los proporciona la empresa de audimetría Kantar Media.
En este caso y dado que no se disponía de una medida equivalente a los GRPS de televisión para estas variables,
se utiliza directamente la inversión publicitaria en Euros, aún a riesgo de sufrir algunas desviaciones por las
fluctuaciones de los precios a lo largo del tiempo.
Notoriedad de marca
La variable notoriedad de marca se expresa en porcentaje y para su estimación se usan datos de los tracking de
marca elaborados por el Instituto IPSOS. Cuantifica las respuestas a la pregunta: ¿antes de hoy ha oído hablar de
la marca...? respecto al número total de encuestados. Para el tracking se realizaron durante todo el periodo de
análisis 700 entrevistas telefónicas semanales mediante submuestras diarias de 100 entrevistas, dando un total
de 36.500 entrevistas por año. Tal y como se puede observar en la Tabla 1, los valores oscilan entre un valor
mínimo del 84%, una media del 96% y un máximo de 100% y representan el porcentaje de personas que conocen la
marca.
Esta variable mide el impacto del precio en las ventas. Para calcularla se suman las ventas totales semanales en
valor (deflactadas por el IPC) de todas las marcas de distribución y se dividen por las ventas totales semanales de
todas estas marcas en volumen dando el precio medio semanal, una vez obtenido el dato se resta al precio de la
propia marca para averiguar el diferencial.
Esta variable, mide la frecuencia de búsqueda de las palabras clave relacionadas con las propiedades beneficiosas
para la salud de la marca, cubriendo todo el periodo analizado en la regresión, desde 2009 hasta 2014. Los datos,
proporcionados por las tendencias de búsqueda Google3, son el resultado de dividir el número de búsquedas de
las palabras clave entre el número total de búsquedas en Google en el mismo tiempo y lugar. Para indexar estos
valores de 0 a 100, los valores obtenidos por este cociente se dividen por el dato más alto en todo el rango y se
multiplican por 100.
Dentro del modelo se introducirán algunas variables "dummy" o ficticias que toman valores de 0 ó1, y
representaran factores como la estacionalidad. Por ejemplo variable dummy puente de mayo, toma valor 1 en la
semana en la que ocurre el puente de mayo y el resto del tiempo toma valor 0. Para poder incluir estas variables en
el modelo es necesario que la marca confirme que el fenómeno es un hecho aislado y puntual.
Análisis de la duración del efecto de la publicidad a corto plazo en las ventas, Adstock
Como efecto a corto plazo de la publicidad entendemos el impacto en las ventas producido por esta en la propia
semana y en las posteriores a la emisión (no hemos de confundirlo con el efecto a largo plazo, meses o años y que
representaremos mediante la variable de notoriedad). La duración del impacto de la publicidad a corto plazo se
mide mediante el modelo de Adstock (Broadbent, 1979). El modelo cuantifica el efecto directo sobre el aumento en
ventas que puede tener una campaña a lo largo de las semanas posteriores a su emisión y su disminución a través
de un modelo de decaimiento geométrico:
Donde Publicidadt puede ser GRPS o cualquier otra medida de inversión publicitaria, como inversión en Euros, en
el momento t. El parámetro cuantifica el efecto que en esta semana tiene la publicidad de la semana anterior. Por
ejemplo, un = 40% implica que esta semana conservamos el 40% del impacto de la publicidad de la semana
anterior, este impacto decae a un ritmo *, de forma que en las dos semanas posteriores habrá disminuido al 0,42 =
16% y así sucesivamente. A partir del parámetro es posible conocer el tiempo en semanas en los que decaerá
hasta el 50% o bien al 90% el efecto de la campaña. Para el nivel de = 40% el tiempo que tarda el efecto de la
campaña en decaer el 90% se calcularía como ln(0,1)/A = ln(0,1)/0,4 = 2,5 semanas.
Las funciones de impulso respuesta se basan en los resultados obtenidos de un modelo de vector autoregresivo
(VAR). La especificación matemática del modelo VAR exige que las series utilizadas sean estacionarias,
entendiendo por estacionariedad el mantenimiento de las propiedades de media y varianza a lo largo del tiempo en
la serie (aunque sea sobre una tendencia). Caso de que la serie no lo sea, habremos de realizar la primera
diferencia para conseguir el objetivo de estacionariedad. El test de Dickie-Fuller aumentado, Tabla 2, nos indica
que tanto la serie de ventas como las variables de publicidad son estacionarias, por lo cual se puede realizar el
análisis VAR en nivel.
Económicamente el hecho de que la serie de ventas sea estacionaria nos indica que los impactos en esta son
temporales y una vez desviadas las ventas por las innovaciones (por ejemplo publicidad), estas vuelven en un
cierto tiempo a recuperar su valor medio, lo que implicaría que la serie tiene un movimiento de reversión a su cuota
de mercado media (Dekimpe y Hanssens 1999). Es decir, cuando emitimos una campaña esta tendría dos efectos,
uno de un impulso en ventas y otro de un aumento en la notoriedad, para mantener estos efectos hemos de seguir
emitiendo publicidad dado que de otra forma el efecto en las ventas disminuirá progresivamente cuando dejamos
de emitirla hasta alcanzar un nivel similar al anterior. Caso de que la serie no sea estacionaria el efecto de los
impactos sería permanente, desviando ésta de sus propiedades originales, por ejemplo, emitimos una campaña y
esta hace aumentar nuestras ventas, dejamos de emitirla y estas se mantienen en el nuevo nivel alcanzado.
La siguiente ecuación presenta el modelo VAR utilizado para K = 2 retardos determinados por el criterio Hannan-
Quinn (1979) y que para series estacionarias tiene la siguiente forma:
...
Siendo Yt el vector (6x1) de las variables endógenas: Ventas, GRPS 20", GRPS 20" AAEE, Prensa, Internet y GRPS
20" del Principal Competidor. A el vector (6x1) de constantes, B(k)i la matriz (6x6) de coeficientes para el retardo k,
Cn el vector de variables exógenas incluyendo las variables estacionales que afectan a la serie de ventas y ?~(0,)
la matriz de covarianzas de los residuos. Una vez estimado el modelo VAR se puede calcular su vector equivalente
de medias móviles de orden infinito que nos permitirá conocer la respuesta de las ventas a un impulso en las
variables de publicidad de 1 desviación típica. En la Figura 1 se pueden ver los gráficos de la respuesta de las
ventas a los impulsos de las variables de publicidad con un intervalo de confianza del 95% obtenido mediante
bootstraping usando el programa Gretl.
Una vez obtenidas respuestas de las ventas al impulso de las variables de publicidad, pasamos a estimar su
duración con un intervalo de confianza al 95% y asumiremos que el efecto no existe cuando el intervalo de
confianza incluye la línea de 0. A partir de aquí establecemos como hipótesis que la respuesta decae al 90% en la
mitad de la semana donde desaparece definitivamente, obteniendo de esta forma el valor que nos permitirá
Podemos observar que el efecto de mayor duración es el de la publicidad en internet y consideramos lógico este
resultado, dado que el producto tiene efecto sobre la salud y que la publicidad recibida en la navegación por
internet puede ser tomada con mayor atención generando por tanto un impulso de mayor duración en el tiempo.
La siguiente variable con mayor impacto son los GRPS 20" seguidos por los GRPS 20" AAEE y la Prensa. Todas
estas variables significativas serán incluidas en el modelo después de haber realizado la transformación en
Adstock, cada una con su coeficiente estimado. Como podemos observar en la Figura 1 el posible impacto
negativo de los GRPS 20" del principal competidor no es estadísticamente significativo al incluir todos los
intervalos de confianza el 0, lo cual puede ser lógico dado que el posible impacto se reparte entre todos los
competidores, por lo tanto no serán contemplados en el modelo.
Las variables que usaremos para explicar las ventas las separamos en tres grupos, el primero incluye las variables
del marketing mix: distribución, notoriedad de marca, publicidad en televisión en distintas campañas y formatos y
publicidad en otros medios; el segundo incluye información de la competencia, como diferenciales de precios con
MMDD; y el tercero resume los factores económicos y sociales que afectan a las ventas, como estacionalidad en
las mismas, variaciones en el ciclo económico, e interés de la búsqueda en internet de la categoría. El modelo
responde a la siguiente ecuación:
...
Para conocer en más detalle la relación entre las variables del modelo ajustado se realizó el cálculo de la matriz de
correlación que se puede observar en la Tabla 4.
Una vez verificada la estructura de la matriz de correlación se procede a la creación del modelo, Gráfico 1, dado
que tiene un R2 del 86,08% interpretamos que hemos conseguido capturar un 86% de la variabilidad de las ventas.
Las variables incluidas en el modelo, sus coeficientes y su porcentaje de aportación individual a las ventas totales
de todo el periodo se pueden ver en la Tabla 5.
El coeficiente de regresión indica la variación en ventas por el aumento de una unidad en la variable explicativa,
manteniendo el resto constante. Si el coeficiente es positivo significa que esta variable tiene contribución positiva
a las ventas y viceversa.
En el Gráfico 2 se puede observar la aportación individual de las distintas variables del marketing mix a las ventas
Distribución Ponderada
La aportación de la variable distribución ponderada es de un 63,8% a las ventas totales y podemos asumir que una
distribución tan amplia como la de la marca es el sustento del nivel base de ventas. Esta variable aunque pudiera
asimilarse a la constante de la regresión recoge información que la constante no aclararía, como por ejemplo,
cómo afecta a las ventas la salida de un determinado mercado o la pérdida de un determinado canal de
distribución.
Las ventas obtenidas a través de promociones son la suma de los efectos de los Índices de Intensidad
Promocional en Exposición Especial (IIP EE), el Índice de Intensidad Promocional con Folletos (IIP F), y el Índice de
Intensidad Promocional en Reducción Temporal de Precios (IIP RTP) dando una aportación conjunta a las ventas
de un 6, 2%.
Incluye las variables GRPS de televisión e inversión en Euros en prensa e Internet, todas ellas transformadas en
Adstock. Gran parte de la publicidad emitida consistió en aportar información sobre las cualidades del producto y
su efecto beneficioso para la salud, el objetivo no era sólo realizar ventas a corto plazo sino también crear
notoriedad de marca en la categoría para promover las ventas futuras. El aporte de la publicidad en televisión
tanto en campañas como en acciones especiales (AAEE), es de un 6,3% de las ventas. La publicidad en prensa e
Internet tienen una aportación conjunta de un 0,5% de las ventas. Dando un total de 6,8%.
Notoriedad de Marca
Clary y Dyson (2004) indican que el efecto actual de la publicidad a corto (representada por las variables con
Adstock) en las ventas no es suficiente para que las campañas sean rentables siendo necesario medir también el
efecto acumulado de la publicidad en el largo plazo para conocer la rentabilidad real de la publicidad. En nuestro
caso una aportación de la publicidad a corto de un 6,8% (y por nuestra experiencia a lo largo de los años, el efecto
suele ser menor) a las ventas totales no justifica el alto volumen económico invertido dado que como veremos
más adelante obtendremos un ROMI negativo. Sin embargo, revisando la literatura sobre el tema, observamos
algunas conclusiones interesantes sobre los efectos de la publicidad a corto plazo. Driver y Foxal (1986)
concluyen que la publicidad a corto plazo, aparte de la función de generar ventas, tiene otras funciones que se
relacionan con el efecto a largo plazo: i) La publicidad se ha de acumular durante un tiempo para alcanzar niveles
en los que sea efectiva. ii) Los receptores actuales de la publicidad no son necesariamente los consumidores
actuales, el impacto de la publicidad puede tener efectos posteriores. iii) La publicidad inculca hábitos que la
publicidad futura mantendrá. iv) La publicidad está sujeta a desgaste y a obsolescencia y necesita renovación. Por
otro lado, Aaker y Day (1974) analizan la jerarquía de efectos generados por la publicidad y concluyen que la
publicidad influye en la notoriedad y que ésta a su vez influye en el comportamiento de compra. Siendo uno de los
Huang y Sarigöllü (2012) concluyen que para bienes de consumo existe una relación positiva entre notoriedad y
resultados en ventas a través del proceso: notoriedad -> prueba -> refuerzo. Somos conscientes de que para que
este proceso sea efectivo, ha de complementarse con la contribución de la distribución y promociones de precio
(variables analizadas por separado en nuestro modelo). Macdonald y Sharp (2000) encuentran mejoras en los
resultados de la marca en el mercado relacionadas con la notoriedad. Indican que los consumidores ante la
elección entre productos con diferencia en notoriedad muestran una mayor predilección por los más conocidos
según el ciclo: elección de producto con más notoriedad, prueba de otros productos y vuelta al producto con más
notoriedad. En nuestro caso se da la circunstancia especial de que el producto analizado tiene efectos positivos
para la salud y en este caso, el conocimiento de la marca disminuye el riesgo percibido por el consumidor a la hora
de tomar la decisión de compra (Moisesku 2009) aumentando de esta forma la probabilidad de compra.
Srinivasan, Vanhuele y Pauwels (2008) indican la pertinencia de incluir en los modelos de marketing mix las
denominadas "mindset metrics" y especialmente la variable notoriedad. En su estudio los resultados revelan que
métricas como la notoriedad tienen un efecto en las ventas más allá de los efectos directos de la publicidad, el
precio, la distribución o las promociones. Por ello insisten en la necesidad de incluir en este tipo de modelos
métricas perceptuales que permitan capturar los efectos positivos a largo plazo de la creación de marca.
Debido a estos motivos, consideramos adecuado incluir esta variable en el modelo y poder utilizarla como una
aproximación del efecto a largo plazo de la publicidad, aunque somos conscientes de que la notoriedad es una
variable muy rica y generada por un número mayor de variables como pueden ser otros instrumentos de
comunicación, la distribución o el propio producto. En nuestro modelo, la variable notoriedad de marca, tiene una
contribución a las ventas totales de un 32,37%, la segunda más importante después de la distribución. Y puede
ayudar a justificar el efecto a largo plazo de las estrategias de inversión publicitaria en la creación de valor para
los accionistas.
El hecho de incluir en el modelo estas dos fechas se debe a dos acciones especiales que fueron realizadas por la
marca en esos periodos y que de forma conjunta tuvieron un impacto de un 0,2% en las ventas totales.
Precio
Como cabía esperar, el diferencial de precio con la marca de distribución tiene un impacto negativo en las ventas
totales siendo este de un -15,2%.
Se incluyen variables que reflejan cambios en el entorno, como el interés por la búsqueda de la categoría en
Internet, que aporta un 5,9% de las ventas y la incipiente recuperación de la economía Española ocurrida en los
años 2013 y 2014, con un impacto de un 1,8%. Por otro lado, variables que recogen los aumentos en ventas en las
primera y última semanas del mes por el cobro de las nóminas y la J apertura en el primer domingo de mes de los
centros comerciales en 7o algunas Comunidades Autónomas Españolas, su efecto conjunto es de un 1,0%.
Finalmente, se incluyen variables que recogen la caída de ventas por factores estacionales, con un efecto conjunto
de un -2,9%.
Una vez realizado el modelo y aisladas las aportaciones de cada variable, contamos con la información necesaria
para cuantificar en términos económicos el retorno de la inversión en publicidad. En el Gráfico 4 mostramos las
ventas generadas por la publicidad emitida en televisión, prensa e Internet, la que consideramos publicidad a corto
y las ventas generadas por la notoriedad de marca que consideramos que representa el impacto a largo de la
publicidad.
Para ilustrar el análisis del cálculo del ROMI y del EVAM tomaremos el año completo de 2013, durante el cual un
5,9% del total de ventas se deben a la publicidad a corto, y un 29,9% al efecto de la notoriedad de marca o
publicidad a largo, el efecto conjunto de ambas variables aporta un 35,8% de las ventas totales del periodo. Para el
cálculo del ROMI y del EVAM asumimos un Margen Bruto de gran compañía del sector de un 50% (PWC, 2015, pág.
18), para el coste de los recursos financieros usamos un wacc del 10% en consonancia con las empresas del
sector y asumimos una tasa impositiva del 30%, acorde con las tasas actuales en España.
A la luz de esta información y siguiendo paso a paso el proceso de cálculo del beneficio incremental explicado
anteriormente, se obtienen los resultados que se detallan en la Tabla 6, donde aparecen los resultados financieros
desagregados de la publicidad a corto plazo incluyendo televisión, prensa e Internet, y por otro lado, la suma de los
efectos de la publicidad a corto plazo y la notoriedad de marca representando el largo plazo.
Si sólo tenemos en cuenta la publicidad a corto plazo, el ROMI es de un -33% y una vez restado el wacc de un 10%
obtenemos una rentabilidad de la publicidad de un -43%, el EVAM del periodo habría sido de -1,9 M de Euros, es
decir, habríamos destruido valor para los accionistas por este importe. Para calcular el impacto económico de la
notoriedad de marca no incluimos la inversión realizada, que estaría representada por la publicidad acumulada, el
esfuerzo en distribución y en campañas promocionales de los años anteriores, dado que financieramente se
pueden considerar como costes hundidos, costes que nunca se incluyen al evaluar una inversión. Al añadir el
efecto de la notoriedad de marca el resultado es totalmente distinto, en este segundo caso el ROMI es de un 308%
al que si restamos el 10% de wacc nos da una rentabilidad del 298% y se habría creado valor para los accionistas
de un EVAM de 9,2 M de Euros.
Desde hace años se viene abogando por la estandarización y clarificación de los métodos usados para medir el
ROMI (por ejemplo, IPA 2008 y Farris et al. 2015), sin embargo, a los autores nos les consta que se hayan
proporcionado ejemplos reales de su cálculo describiendo de forma detallada los modelos econométricos de
marketing mix necesarios para su obtención. Estos mismos modelos también permiten realizar el cálculo de una
de las medidas más comunes de la creación de valor para los accionistas, el EVA, que ha sido adaptada por los
autores para medir la creación de valor del marketing, EVAM.
La estimación del valor de para el Adstock a través de curvas impulso respuesta es una forma transparente de
medir el impacto de la publicidad en el tiempo y permite además conocer la significación de las estimaciones y
fijar con mayor precisión el tiempo de decaimiento del efecto de la publicidad.
La metodología planteada cumple tres objetivos: 1) En el día a día de los departamentos de marketing permite
medir los resultados o eficacia de las acciones realizadas, pudiendo servir para remodelar nuestro marketing mix e
incentivar o desincentivar determinadas acciones. 2) Permite obtener una información que nos indica la eficiencia
económica y la rentabilidad de las inversiones, que aparte de ser clave para los departamentos de marketing, es
trascendente para los departamentos de control financiero. 3) De cara a la alta dirección y para la comunicación
con accionistas, inversores y analistas la información de la creación de valor a través del EVAM ayudará a una
mejor comprensión de la gestión realizada y a mejorar la información disponible para que éstos puedan tomar sus
decisiones de asignación de recursos.
Como limitaciones, indicamos que esté análisis ha sido realizado específicamente para un producto que tiene
efectos en la salud, y para el cual el conocimiento de la marca es un aspecto muy importante a la hora de tomar la
decisión de compra, (Moisesku 2009), por lo cual, consideramos que los resultados no son extrapolables a otras
categorías de productos, sin embargo, pensamos que la metodología sí lo es y por eso proponemos como futura
línea de investigación un estudio más amplio en el que se puedan comparar los resultados de ROMI y EVAM para
otras categorías, especialmente en las que no exista ese componente de riesgo que implica su uso para la salud, y
poder comprobar en productos con bajo riesgo percibido, los efectos de la publicidad a corto y de la notoriedad de
marca.
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Transition Study". Columbia Business School, New York
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Sirkin, K. (2005). "Contributing to the Bottom Line: Marketing Productivity, Effectiveness and Accountability".The
Board Room Project. http://www.themasb.org/wp-content/ uploads/2009/04/marketing-productivity-
effectiveness-and-accountability-tbp-july-20051.pdf
NOTAS
1. Agradecimientos: Nos gustaría agradecer las valiosas aportaciones del editor y de un revisor anónimo. El
presente artículo forma parte del proyecto de investigación 06/ 16 financiado por ESIC Business &Marketing
School en colaboración con CONENTO.
2. Autor de contacto: ESIC Business &Marketing School; Av. Valdenigrales s/n; 28223 Pozuelo de Alarcón (Madrid);
ESPAÑA
3. www.google.com/trends
DETAILS
Location: Spain
Issue: 52
Pages: 18-75
Number of pages: 58
Publication subject: Business And Economics--Banking And Finance, Business And Economics--
Management
ISSN: 16985117
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3232/UBR.2016.V13.N4.01
LINKS
ABSTRACT
FULL TEXT
M2 PRESSWIRE-December 27, 2016-Advanced Digital Marketing Training Courses - Certification Programs digital
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((Comments on this story may be sent to [email protected]))
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ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)
Marketing describes the social processes involving the free exchange of goods and services, it is also called the
art of selling products. First of all, it is a process based on the planning and execution of ideas, setting prices, as
well as the promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services. The growing importance of the concept of
sustainable development and corporate social responsibility makes that the marketing strategies of companies
are beginning to be based on responsibility and honesty. That form of marketing leads to the implementation of
cause related marketing. It involves combining economic objectives of the company with social objectives. There
are many positive examples of such actions and activities led by companies. Unfortunately, there are also
controversial cases, often arousing distaste among consumers. They are caused by misunderstanding of ideas
and the desire to improve the company's image and catch the attention to the existence of the brand on the market
in an aggressive way. The aim of the study is to present the application of cause related marketing with the
principles of corporate social responsibility, as well as the controversy appearing in this area.
ABSTRACT (POLISH)
Marketing opisuje procesy spoeczne polegajce na swobodnej wymianie produktów i usug - nazywa si go równie
sztuk sprzedawania produktów. Przede wszystkim jest to proces oparty na planowaniu i realizacji pomysów,
ustalaniu cen, a take promocji i dystrybucji idei, towarów oraz usug. Wzrost znaczenia koncepcji zrównowaonego
rozwoju i idei spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci biznesu powoduje, e strategie marketingowe w firmach zaczynaj
bazowa na odpowiedzialnoci i uczciwoci. Tak postrzegana forma marketingu prowadzi do implementacji
marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanego. Polega on na czeniu celów ekonomicznych firmy z celami spoecznymi.
Mona znale wiele pozytywnych przykadów takich akcji i dziaa prowadzonych przez przedsibiorstwa i sucych
spoeczestwu. Niestety pojawiaj si take kontrowersyjne przypadki, budzce czsto niesmak wród konsumentów.
Spowodowane s one niewaciwym zrozumieniem idei oraz chci poprawy wizerunku firmy i zwrócenia uwagi na
istnienie marki na rynku w agresywny sposób. Celem pracy jest przedstawienie zastosowania marketingu
spoecznie zaangaowanego z uwzgldnieniem zasad spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci biznesu, a take kontrowersji
pojawiajcych si w tym obszarze.
FULL TEXT
Headnote
Abstract
Marketing describes the social processes involving the free exchange of goods and services, it is also called the
art of selling products. First of all, it is a process based on the planning and execution of ideas, setting prices, as
well as the promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services. The growing importance of the concept of
sustainable development and corporate social responsibility makes that the marketing strategies of companies
DETAILS
Issue: 47
Pages: 77-88
Publisher: University of ód
ISSN: 14293730
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/1429-3730.47.06
LINKS
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)
The purpose of this article is to analyze the influence of the sciences and the current philosophy in the early
twentieth century in the first studies in Marketing. To that end, was chosen the work Marketing Problems written
by Harvard professor Melvin T. Copeland in 1920, an important author in the early days of Marketing thinking. It
was tried to evidence how he, like other researchers of the period, was based on the methods used by the sciences
of the time in the search of a theoretical contribution to the nascent discipline. It is evident how the first studies in
Marketing appeared, focusing on the influence of the context, reflecting the 2nd. Industrial Revolution, which
presented demands that the traditional areas could not solve, resulting in a new space for the first analysts in
Marketing. The first courses, works and authors that contributed to the institutionalization of the area are
presented. Besides the analysis of the method used by the author as the classification and cataloging of
distribution phenomena, methodical description of the agents involved in the process and hierarchization of
distributors.
ABSTRACT (PORTUGUESE)
O propósito deste artigo é analisar a influência das ciências e da filosofia corrente no início do século XX nos
primeiros estudos em Marketing. Para isso, foi escolhido como objeto de pesquisa a obra Marketing Problems
escrito pelo professor de Harvard, Melvin T. Copeland em 1920, importante autor nos primórdios do pensamento
do Marketing. Procurou-se evidenciar como ele, a exemplo de outros pesquisadores do período, baseou-se nos
métodos usados pelas ciências da época na busca de um aporte teórico para a nascente disciplina. É evidenciado
como surgiram os primeiros estudos em Marketing, com foco na influência do contexto, reflexo da 2ª. Revolução
Industrial, que apresentou demandas que as áreas tradicionais não conseguiam resolver, abrindo espaço para os
primeiros analistas em Marketing. Apresentam-se os primeiros cursos, obras e autores que contribuíram para a
institucionalização da área. Além da análise do método usado pelo autor como a classificação e catalogação dos
fenômenos de distribuição, descrição metódica dos agentes envolvidos no processo e hierarquização dos
distribuidores.
FULL TEXT
_TVM:UNDEFINED_
DETAILS
Volume: 16
Issue: 4
Section: Artigos
LINKS
ABSTRACT (SPANISH)
El artículo estudia evolutivamente la función comercial de las webs turísticas oficiales de los destinos españoles
cuya oferta se centra en el producto sol y playa, por ser este el motor principal del turismo en España, y por ser la
web una herramienta indispensable en la comercialización de sus productos y servicios. La metodología se basa
en una revisión bibliográfica sobre marketing e Internet en el sector turístico y sobre la función comercial de los
sitios webs en general y de los turísticos oficiales en particular. Se desarrolla un estudio exploratorio de las webs
turísticas oficiales españolas de los destinos cuya oferta se centra en el producto sol y playa mediante un análisis
de contenido de variables relativas a su función comercial, así como de su evolución desde la llegada del modelo
2.0. Se parte de la hipótesis de que las webs turísticas oficiales han evolucionado hacia modelos más comerciales
y se alcanzan unos resultados que verifican dicha hipótesis, pero evidencian una falta de aprovechamiento de las
ventajas del marketing 2.0. Por otra parte, el estudio sugiere una serie de medidas que las organizaciones de
marketing de destino deben adoptar con el fin de remediar estas deficiencias y optimizar la función comercial de
sus sitios webs.
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)
The article evaluates the development of the commercial role of the official Spanish tourist destinations' websites
which focus on the sun and beach product as this is the main attraction for tourists in Spain and because the
websites are essential marketing tools for tourism products and services. The methodology is based on the
literature review about marketing and Internet in the tourism sector, and on the commercial role of websites in
general, and in particular of the official ones. An exploratory study of the official Spanish touristic destinations
websites which focus on the sun and beach product is undertaken by means of the analysis of content of variables
concerning their commercial function, and of their evolution since the arrival of the model 2.0. The article starts
with the hypothesis that official tourism websites have evolved into more commercial models. The results
achieved by the study verify this hypothesis, but reveal failure to take advantage of the benefits that marketing 2.0
can offer. Furthermore, the study suggests a series of measures that destination marketing organisations should
adopt to remedy these shortcomings and optimise the commercial function of their websites.
ABSTRACT (PORTUGUESE)
O artigo estuda evolutivamente a funçao comercial das webs turísticas oficiais dos destinos espanhóis cuja oferta
centra-se nos produtos sol e praia, por ser o motor principal do turismo na Espanha e por ser a WEB uma
ferramenta indispensável na comercializaçâo de seus produtos e serviços. A metodologia baseia-se em uma
reviso bibliográfica sobre marketing e internet no setor turístico e sobre a funçao comercial das páginas webs em
geral e dos destinos turísticos oficias em particular. Desenvolve um estudo exploratório das webs turísticas
oficias espanholas dos destinos cuja oferta centra-se no produto sol e praia mediante uma analises de conteúdos
variáveis relativas a funçao comercial. Assim como de sua evoluçao desde a chegada do modelo 2.0. Partindo da
hipótese de que as Webs turísticas oficiais evolucionaram a modelos mais comerciais alcançando resultados que
verificam essa hipótese. Mas evidenciam uma falta de aproveitamento das vantagens do marketing 2.0. Por outra
parte, o estudo sugere uma série de medidas que as organizaçöes de marketing de destino devem adotar com a
finalidade de remediar estas deficiencias e otimizar a funçao comercial de suas páginas webs.
FULL TEXT
RESUMEN
El artículo estudia evolutivamente la función comercial de las webs turísticas oficiales de los destinos españoles
DETAILS
Location: Spain
Alternate title: Marketing 2.0 applied to the tourism sector: the commercial function of the websites
of destination marketing organizations MARKETING 2.0 APLICADO AO SETOR
TURISTICO: A FUNÇAO COMERCIAL DAS PÁGINAS WEBS DAS ORGANIZAÇÖES DE
MARKETING DE DESTINOS
Volume: 21
Issue: 143
Pages: 1-23,1A-22A
Section: INVESTIGACIÓN
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15178/va.2018.143.01-23
LINKS
FULL TEXT
CLEARWATER, Fla., Sept. 27, 2018 /PRNewswire-PRWeb/ -- Progressive Dental Marketing wins a 2018 WebAward
for outstanding achievement in web development. The specific website judged by the committee was created for a
leading oral and maxillofacial surgeon. A marketing and consulting firm specializing in growing dental practices,
from general dentists to oral surgeons, Progressive Dental Marketing has designed custom websites for over a
thousand dental clinicians across the U.S. and internationally.
Considering the continuously changing internet landscape, constant innovation is essential to any digital
marketing campaign. Recognizing leaders in state-of-the-art website development and design for over 20 years,
the Web Marketing Association presented the Medical Standard of Excellence award to Progressive Dental
Marketing. This award is given to what they consider the standard that all other websites in the healthcare field
should strive for. Under the Associations category, the Academy of General Dentistry was also given a Standard of
Excellence WebAward for their latest site upgrade. For any category, a team of expert judges evaluated each site
based on seven key areas including innovation, design, technology, content, ease of use, copywriting, and
interactivity.
Progressive Dental Marketing is already an award-winning company. Ranking on the Inc. 5000 list for the fastest
growing companies in the country for the last five years, this ground-breaking team has also ranked on the
Business Observers' Gulf Coast 500 List and the GrowFL Companies to Watch List. Website development,
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FREDERICK, Md., Nov. 29, 2018 /PRNewswire-PRWeb/ -- Illumine8 Marketing &PR of Frederick, Maryland, is a two-
time gold winner of the 2018 MarCom Awards.
The first award was for an eBook called Home Energy Comparison Guide for Brunswick Crossing, a master-planned
community in Brunswick, Maryland. The eBook placed in the Digital Media category under the E-Communication
and E-Book (iBook) subcategories.
The second award was for a Valentine's Day-themed inbound marketing campaign called Love, Ryan for Ryan
Homes at Brunswick Crossing. The entry was the first win for a marketing campaign and placed in the Strategic
Communications category under the Marketing/Promotion Campaign and Digital Marketing subcategories.
"We're thrilled to earn these two awards from the Association of Marketing and Communication Professionals,"
Illumine8 CMO and Founder Christina May said. "Thank you to our amazing team and our clients."
According to the MarCom Awards, more than 6,500 entries came from 20 countries, including Canada, China,
England, Germany, Guam, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Turkey, and the US.
Entries were judged for "talents [that] exceed a high standard of excellence and whose work serves as a
benchmark for the industry" from "corporate marketing and communication departments, advertising agencies, PR
firms, design shops, production companies and freelancers."
Additional information about the MarCom Awards can be found at http://www.marcomawards.com or on our blog.
About Illumine8 Marketing &PR
Illumine8 is a marketing consultancy that combines business strategy, creativity, and customer-focused sales
practices to deliver sustainable and measurable results to help our clients meet and exceed their growth goals.
More information can be found at http://www.illumine8.com.
DETAILS
Location: Turkey Russia United States--US Canada Saudi Arabia Germany Guam Singapore
Maryland England China South Korea
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