LECTURE NOTES

ON

NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

A.A. EMMANUEL
M.K. ALAKINDE

DEPARTMENT OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING,

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY,
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,
AKURE, ONDO STATE, NIGERIA

NOVEMBER 2008
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND INTERELATIONSHIPS ........................................................................................... 3

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CREATION OF PAST AND FUTURE SETTLEMENTS. .................................................. 6

EFFECTS OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FORCES ON DEMAND FOR SHELTER AND TRANSPORT. ............................... 111

LAND TENURE SYSTEM AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF PLANNINGAND NEW TOWNS …………………………………………………..14

SOME SALIENT ISSUES ON THE ENVIRONMENT…………………………………………………………..………………………………….………18

EFFECTS OF ADVANCES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ......................................................................................... 21

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................................... 32

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND INTERELLATIONSHIPS.
Out of innumerable definitions, in simple terms, Science could imply a body of
knowledge about the universe (with greater emphasis on the earth) especially based on
examination and tests and on facts that could be proved. Dimitris (2008) says that science is
the knowledge of the existing which systematically totally covers a number of issues. He
believes that science is one and its purpose is the understanding of all phenomena
(occurrences, observable facts, experiences, trends, etc). For easier understanding of the whole
of universal rules, science is divided into partial “sciences’’ and each one covers its objective
field. It can be deduced then that environmental science deals with the science of the
environment.

1.1 ENVIRONMENT- DEFINITION AND SCOPE

The word “Environment” is traditionally defined as the total surrounding which includes
natural and biological resources. But with the current trend of sustainable development, the
definition of the Environment has been widened to include natural and human resources and
their interaction with each other. The World Bank therefore defines the environment as “the
natural and social conditions surrounding all mankind and including future generations” (World
Bank, 1991).
Environment could be treated within the framework of natural human surrounding and
activities, which include biophysical components and processes of natural environment of land,
water and air. It also includes all layers in the atmosphere, inorganic and organic matters (both
living and dead), socio-economic components and processes of the human environment. These
components and processes include social, economic, technological, administrative, cultural,
historical, archaeological components and processes. Land and associated resources,
structures, sites, human health, nutrition and safety are also inclusive.
With respect to the above description of the environment, three categories can be
deduced. These are natural, physical and cognised or perceived environment. The natural
environment should be taken to include those components that have originated independently
of man. This category is concerned with biosphere and its interaction with weather and climate,
landforms and soil. Physical environments include the entire component of man’s surrounding

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and the tangible works of man. This also includes cities, transport and communication networks
and other major engineering works and other aspects of technology devised for the control and
exploitation of the resources of the natural environment.
The concept of cognised or perceived environment is defined in terms of the human
understanding of the environment, especially his immediate environment. How man uses the
resources of the environment depends on the perception of frequency and distribution of these
resources. The rationale lies in the fact that it is people who use the resources in the
environment. The large number of people in the rural areas depends on the natural and
biospheric resources of land, water, plants and animals on a day-to-day basis. At different level
of explanation, the industrialized societies depend on the utilization of the natural environment
to maintain their standard of living for supply of raw materials and have sinks for waste
disposal. It therefore implies that interaction between human and natural resources is more
important. The environment can therefore be defined as external conditions capable of
influencing the growth and development of living organisms, which are simultaneously being
reversibly affected and influenced by the same living organisms.

1.2 RESPONSIBILITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS

Considering environmental science, there is an overlapping of responsibilities with the
engineering disciplines since they are highly involved in the implementation of several physical
projects within the environment. Structural, civil and highway engineering professions are good
examples in this respect. Also, the professions of Architecture, Estate management, Quantity
Survey, Industrial Design and Building Technology have their roles to play.
Among several duties, the Architects design and model physical structures in the
environment. The Quantity Surveyors analyses and advises on cost of physical projects. The
Estate Manager through several economic analyses determines the value, markets and
manages land and landed properties. The Industrial Designer brings beauty to the works of the
Architects through various artistic impressions or patterns that he creates.
All these professionals work within the small world that the planner has created for
them through the site plan or layout. Also planners often work in a consortium and in such a
place, a particular project might have gone through many hands of allied professionals (such as
demographers and statisticians) before the physical planner’s approval. Planning is seen at the

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centre of activities coordinating the work of some input professionals to create a platform for
output professionals. Furthermore the planner uses the machinery of development control as a
thermostat for regulating physical activities in the environment in order to maintain his goal of
achieving a healthy, aesthetic and functional environment.
Technical expertise, socio-cultural considerations and demographic projections go into
the writing of the master plan. From the conception of the plan, consideration is given to
economic factors and the site’s physical resources such as climate, vegetation and topography.
The implementation of the plan depends on the skills of various consultants, while the
politicians give final approval or otherwise to the plan.
In technical terms, land refers to what exists underneath, on and above the earth. This
simply implies that the atmosphere around us needs some care. Issues that border on
environmental degradation concern the planner and the planning profession. Litigations
coupled with summit consensus have come handy has powerful tools in the hand of the
planner through various governments and dealing with such issues.
It could be seen vividly that the role of the planner in this profession justifies his
designation as the custodian and controller of activities in the environment.

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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CREATION OF PAST AND FUTURE SETTLEMENTS
2.1 THE ORIGIN OF EARLY SETTLEMENTS
Urban researchers have attempted to define a settlement as an assemblage of persons
settled in an area or locality. It is a dynamic phenomenon. Hence settlements could be seen as
growing from their smallest forms to the largest conurbations in existence. For so long, man has
lived in clusters for mutual co-existence, defence and some other factors. The growth of such
clusters has been from small villages or a collection of huts to the present form of 21st century
urban centres. However, present day urbanization with cities dominating the socio-economic
life of the regions has its origin in Western Europe.
The origin of human settlements dates back to the beginning of civilization. Earlier on,
man depended on fruit gathering and hunting for survival and as such the early man
(Palaeolithic man) was essentially nomadic. He moved in response to available resources prior
to the domestication of vegetal and animal resources.
The Neolithic man started the domestication of plants and animals around river valleys.
He started the earliest form of sedentary human existence. The early settlements were thus
essentially agricultural in nature and this was dominant on the pre-literate world for many
years in Europe, Asia, America and Africa.
The earliest settlements came up in S.W Asia around 10,000 BC around rivers Tigris and
Euphrates of Mesopotamia. However the truly agricultural villages based on effective farming
(food production) came up between 7,000 and 6,750 BC in Jarmo of N.E Iraq. The following
information shows when village structures came up across the globe.
Lower Egypt - 5,000 BC
Atlantic Europe - 4,000 BC
India - 2,500 BC
Meso America - 3,000 BC
West Africa - 1,500 BC

2.2 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CREATION AND GROWTH OF MODERN SETTLEMENTS
It has been discovered that several modern settlements came into existence through
indices other than agriculture. Some of these settlements (after their “birth”) even grew on

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factors that were totally different from that which originated them. Historical discourse will
always establish such factors as migration, war, trade/commerce, transportation, political
decisions, industrialization and colonial influence as some of the ‘founding fathers’ of some
modern settlements.
History has it that several cities in the western part of Nigeria were creations of
migrants from Ile-Ife, the Mother City of the Yorubas. Another variant of the Yoruba history has
it that they actually migrated from an unspecified place in the Far East. The people later settled
in diverse places favoured by certain factors giving rise to what now exists as several towns and
villages.
In the 15th century, people of the Awori branch of the Yorubas from the west, Egba
Yorubas from the NW, Ijebu Yoruba from the immediate North and Bini (Edo) from the Benin
Empire in the east moved into the area which is now known as Lagos. Almost immediately, the
Lagos Island section started growing on fishing and farming with some other trading activities
initiated by the Aworis. Later on the coming of the Portuguese in the 1760s gave birth to slave
trade, which was afterwards abolished.
Oil exploration in the Niger delta region has given birth to Garden cities like Port
Harcourt. Also settlements have grown around major industrial complexes, which were initially
isolated in location. The need to provide goods and services for the labour force of such
industries coupled with the growth of several small scale industries resulted in new settlements
that continued to grow with time. This is also true for places where other useful mineral
resources have been found and exploited by man.
Such political decisions to create satellite or new towns have led to certain modern
settlements that are close to being self-sustaining. In most circles, the intention is always to
relieve an existing city of congestion, overpopulation and some other concomitant effects of
urbanization. At times, it could be the creation of new administrative centres as it is the case
when talking about Abuja. The creation of new states has also given rise to the new state
capitals in which growth and development is fast-tracked.
In certain situation, some settlements such as Ore and Ninth Mile in Nigeria have been
developed due to the construction of major roads passing by the town or the fact that these
settlements are major exchange routes for travellers going to different parts of the country.
Businessmen and women who provide the needs of these travellers many of which are traders

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have come to settle down in such towns and have consequently helped in the development of
such towns.
In some cases, a combination of several factors has led to the growth of certain
settlements after their creation. This is true for Lagos and Ibadan in Nigeria. In the case of
Ibadan, after its creation some centuries ago, several factors which include its proximity to
Lagos, industrialization, presence of research and tertiary institutions, administrative functions,
availability of social infrastructures and its nature as a nodal town were major contributors to
its growth. No wonder it remains the largest traditional city in West Africa. Presently there is a
clamouring for the creation of Ibadan state in Nigeria
It is of great importance to mention that the creation of major transport routes has led
to the growth of major towns (like Ibadan) and also resulted in the creation of new ones (in
form of linear settlements).

2.3 CONSIDERATIONS FOR LOCATING NEW SETTLEMENTS

In urban and regional planning the concept of site planning refers to the art and science
of allocating different portions of land to different uses and relating the site itself to its
surrounding activities.
This concept sees a system as existing within a larger system. The actual location (site)
is seen within the context of a bigger and surrounding environment (situation) with a lot of
cybernetic interactions involved. In definite terms, the process of creating a new town or
settlement will therefore involve considering the influence of such things as nearby towns,
markets, resource centres, and infrastructure on intended settlements. At the onset, the
planner selects alternative sites for consideration and then carries out various analyses on
these sites to determine the best among the alternatives. In the course of his analyses,
considerations are given to factors, which include both natural and cultural factors.

2.3.1 CULTURAL FACTORS

These factors, which are mainly man-made, involve issues that border on the culture
and lifestyle of the people who are meant to live on the site. They include
1. The use in to which the site will be put (e.g. industrial or administrative) will also need
consideration.

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 2. The general land use pattern and the effect of future developments close to the town
need to be studied. This has to do with the inter-relationship between the particular
area in question and neighbouring landuses. The influence which they will have on each
other to a large extent determines the welfare of the new settlement.
3. Cases of on-site and off-site pollution must be investigated and mitigative measures
looked into. Environmental degradation is a serious problem in recent times.
4. Furthermore, the history of the location will deserve some attention and historical
features would have to be noted and preserved for reasons ranging from being used as
tourist attractions to maintaining the culture f the people.

2.3.2 NATURAL FACTORS

The study of these factors involves an extensive work on several physical features that
have to do with land. These factors include:
1. Topography (relief)
This includes the valleys, plains, mountains, rolling topography and the general rise and
fall of the landscape with their gradients and altitudes above sea level. This will determine the
location of water supply source and residential buildings. It will also determine road design
pattern and the general temperature of the area among other things. Also, the presence of rock
outcrops is considered in the light of possible landscaping or beautification design for the
purpose tourism and recreation
2. Geological base
The mineral composition, strength of underlying rock and the possibilities of such
disasters as landslide or subsidence is considered. This goes a long way in determining the
possibility or otherwise of locating certain facilities or on certain portions of land during design
and construction
3. Hydrology
Consideration is given to surface and sub-surface water bodies, river basins, flood zones
and the location of still waters (such as lakes and ponds). This will determine availability of
water for domestic, agricultural, industrial and any other use in the area being planned. It will
also help to plan against probable natural disasters such as flooding while also helping to bear
in mind the need for avoiding pollution of water.

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 4. Soil
For the purposes of agricultural uses, drainage and foundation erection among others;
the type, fertility, acidity, salinity, profile and structure of the soil will need some attention.
Additionally, issues of gardening and landscaping are affected by the quality and quantity of
topsoil at the disposal of the people who will make use of the designated area.
5. Climate
Climatic factors greatly influence activities on sites. The vagaries of weather cannot be
overlooked. Hence, there is need to study the rainfall pattern and such things as the direction
of prevailing wind and the temperature of the environment. This will determine the specific
location of industries, refuse dumps and incinerators. The drainage pattern and types of
farming to be encouraged among other things will also be influenced by climate. Additionally,
the orientation of buildings will be influenced and landscaping features will be determined by
the climate type.
6. Wild life and Ecology
The need to protect endangered species and the use of certain areas as conservation
centres or zoos has recently given birth to this consideration. Eco-tourism is greatly concerned
with preservation of the inter-relations between components of the eco-system especially the
flora and fauna.
7. Vegetation
An analysis of the vegetation in order to identify the different types of plants (including
important trees) and how to preserve them is very necessary. Also this helps to predict the cost
of site clearance in the process of implementation. Thick forested areas will consume more
time and financial resources to clear for construction of buildings compared with grassland or
areas with scanty vegetation.

All the factors discussed above are very salient ones to be considered when siting
modern settlements since they go a long way in determining the functionality and sustainability
of the town in the future.

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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 EFFECTS OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FORCES ON DEMAND FOR SHELTER AND TRANSPORT.
3.1 SOCIAL FORCES
The word ‘social’ has always been used (as an adjective) to qualify whatever has to do
with man in the society depending on the centre of attraction. The use of the word ‘social’
could involve some complexity in its implication.
Social forces could imply a lot of things. It could be forces generated by human activities
or social activities within a particular place. According to Chapin (1965), social forces are certain
processes generated by human behavioural patterns. These human behavioural patterns have
a way of fashioning out the land use patterns in cities. They are borne out of mass values held
by people within a society. These are a combination of individual values exhibited by persons
within the society. For example the taste for variety in choice of store or school, the desire to
live among people of the same ethnic group or among fellow elites or to stay close to place of
work are all likely factors that are responsible for centralization while preference for serenity or
open-order living, an attempt to avoid pollution and filth or problems of ethnic conflict can lead
to decentralization. As mentioned earlier on, this could develop into a complex scenario since
the human environment consists of various mass values held by divers groups within the
environment.
Social forces could either be push or pull forces. The push forces repel people and
development while the pull forces attract people and development to a particular place.
Consequently the volume and type of demand for shelter and transport evolves from whether
push or pull forces are in operation. If pull
forces are in operation, a fast growing Individual values

settlement is likely to occur and the bigger

Mass values
the settlement is, the greater the probability
of having more and high standard
Social forces
accommodation and vehicles coupled with
the likelihood of congestion. The situation is
Number and types of shelter and transport
the other way round when push forces are
in operation. At least, the experience will be that of reduction in habitable houses (most likely
due to ageing) or housing. Transportation is also affected in this respect. One could easily

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resolve that the effects of social forces on demand for shelter and transport are seen in the
number of houses and transport systems and their various types/modes, as they exist in any
locality.

3.2 ECONOMIC FORCES

It has always been difficult to isolate the influence of social forces from economic forces
as they affect demand for shelter and transport although they are two (2) distinct sets of forces.
In most cases, they operate together to influence the setting.
Economic forces are forces of demand and supply – at least on the micro level – and
issues that border on government fiscal and economic policies. Chapin (1965) affirms that “The
economic explanations of the urban land use pattern begin with forces extending far beyond the
immediate environs of any particular urban centre of interest and involve considerations of the
structure and functioning of the urban economy as it fits into the larger economy of the region
and the nation.”
It is not a truth far fetched that the economic state of a particular region or nation goes
a long way in determining the level of demand for shelter and transportation. Low per capita
income (as in most developing countries) does not encourage acquisition of private/personal
shelters. The issue of land value and cost also goes a long way to determine land use patterns.
This in essence affects the prices of land and invariable the rate of development in any
settlement. A good economy generates an increase in demand for housing and transport and
vice versa. Statistics has shown that there is a direct relationship between housing stock and a
country’s GNP or economic growth. This is because the construction of houses, which
automatically necessitates road construction, provides jobs for a large number of individuals
and companies thereby improving both the micro and macro economy of a country.
Social Problems Associated with Demand for Shelter and Transport
1. Over crowding in homes
2. Paucity of social and health services
3. Racial discriminant factor in property letting/leasing
4. Traffic congestion on roads
5. General filth
6. Development of slums & squalors

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 Major economic problems associated with demand for shelter and transport include
1. High cost of land
2. High cost of shelter and building materials
3. Exorbitant cars especially for private use.
Most major cities in the world have similar experiences related to those mentioned
above. The decision-makers have a lot to do in directly or indirectly providing shelter for the
people and the redistribution of population. The creation of such administrative centres like
Abuja has helped to relocate many people and this has resulted in several economic and social
activities giving rise to an increasing demand for shelter and transport in the city. Some of the
social problems mentioned above are environmentally related and are detailed below as
experienced in Nigeria.
3.3 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN NIGERIA
1. Inner-city decay, the presence of slums, squalors and ghettos and the disappearance of
urban fringe.
2. Inadequate communal facilities (such as those for education, health, recreation, etch),
utilities (such as water, electricity, communication, etc) and services (storm water drainage,
sewerage and sanitation, refuse collection and disposal, street cleaning, etc).
3. Environmental heating and pollution as a consequence of inadequate transport system
resulting from poor road facilities and transit system and resulting in traffic congestion.
4. Gas flaring from major industries.
5. Bush burning especially during the harmattan season.
6. Desertification especially as it is approaching from the Sahara desert through the northern
zone of the country.
7. Poor waste disposal.
8. Oil spillage in the Niger-Delta region
9. Greenhouse effect as a result of the general global warming.
10. Noise pollution from major industrial plants

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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 LAND TENURE SYSTEM AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF PLANNING AND NEW TOWNS.
Land is a natural resource, which according to the land economist is limited in supply.
The consciousness of this fact arose from the effect of man’s increasing population and
activities on the roughly 30% dry-land portion of the globe. Certain constraints have also
limited the use of this dry land on the earth not to mention the need to preserve some areas
for ecological reasons. Conservation of the natural habitat to protect the ecosystem and the
need to maintain the replenishment of the oxygen bank in a world where increasing volume of
carbon IV oxide is causing global warming cannot be overemphasized. The need to allot land for
gainful use and the prevention or settlement of land disputes has given rise to divers land
tenure systems across the globe.

4.1 LAND TENURE SYSTEM

Omole (1999) simply defines land tenure as the “way(s) in which land is occupied or
owned”. It’s important to note that the word occupancy and ownership depict different
meanings.
Poostchi (1986) sees land tenure systems as the legal, contracted or customary arrangements
whereby people in farming gain access to productive opportunities on the land such as land,
water, housing, etc. He went further to establish that they constitute all the rights, duties,
liberties and exposures of individuals and groups to the use of and control over the basic
resources of land and water.
A more comprehensive definition is the one given in the main report of land use panel
of 1977 as “The Fabric of rights and obligation which comprise the tripartite relationship
between man, land and the society”.
Deep meditation on the definitions cited above gives an in-depth understanding of what
the land tenure system is all about. Divers land tenure systems operate all over the world, but
the centre of focus is the Nigeria context. However, certain principles apply to the customary
or traditionally tenure systems – the early tenure system – virtually across the globe. These
principles are:
1. Land is held by the community or local group or tribe, which is held in trust by the family,
the village or clan
2. Individual right to use the land is based strictly on being a member of the community.
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3. The title of any member of the community to land is purely usufructory.
4. Land is seen as belonging to the living, dead and unborn members of the community.
5. Aliens are allotted land but not with the same privileges as the indigenes and their
children cannot inherit a part in the land.
Great history trails the customary land tenure systems in the northern and southern states of
Nigeria. In the North, issues that touch the Fulani conquest, the British intervention, the impact
of Sir Lord Luggard and Perry Girourd and series of proclamations, ordinances and laws in 1900,
1902, 1910, 1916 and 1962 are all vast contributions to the scenario.
Land tenure system in the Southern part of Nigeria does not have a complete history
without mentioning the activities of the traditional rulers, sales and fragmentation of land
especially by the greedy land speculators and the resulting disputes over land.
Another observation that is note worthy in the customary tenure system of the
southern states is the marked differences in inheritance matters. Among the Binis, only the
eldest son of the deceased inherits land. To the Yorubas, all children, both male and female
have a share in the land while in Ibo and Ibibio lands, only the male children may inherit the
family land though female children may be allocated portions of land to cultivate.

4.2 THE NEW TENURE SYSTEM – THE LAND USE ACT (1978)
The Federal Military Government promulgated the Nigerian new tenure system titled
the Land Use Act in March 29, 1978. Its main purpose was to make land available to all,
including individuals, corporate bodies, institutions and government. By the decree known as
decree No. 6 of 1978, land throughout the federation is now held in trust by the Government.
The right to allocate land in the urban areas of each state is vested in the military governor,
while land in the rural area is under the management and control of the local government with
the clearance from the state government.
The justification for the Land Use Decree could be summarized as follows:
1. The need to have a united land tenure system.
2. It was necessary to curtail the activities of land speculators who had turned land to a
marketable commodity.
3. There was the need to make every Nigerian have access to at least a plot of land in any
part of the country for developmental purpose.

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4. The need to have a truly indigenous land law free from the colonial law that operated in
the northern states.
5. The need to merge the merits of the customary land tenure law and the English legal
system to be able to face-off the shortcomings and uncertainties in the customary law.
Due to the population growth, the economic growth and advancement in technology, the
traditional rulers and customary trustees of land were unable to protect and control the use of
land under their care. This gave rise to need for direction in the use and administration of land
in Nigeria. This decree has 8 parts; altogether divided into 51 sections details of its content
could be obtained from relevant literature including Omole, 1999.

4.3 PHILOSOPHY OF PLANNING AND NEW TOWNS

Planning has been with man as far back as history. The bible account of creation – of the
world – places emphasis on zoning and it places man as the environmental manager of all
resources. Man has an intrinsic urge to plan while the psychologist believes that man has
planning as a social drive. When planning is neglected, the intolerable situations which could
have been avoided through planning results.
Nigeria was a colony of Great Britain between 1861 and 1960. Our planning framework
thus easily took off from British town and country planning practice. Planning in Nigeria dates
back to the 1920s, when Ikoyi in Lagos was developed to cater for the needs of the colonialists
and the reclamation exercise at Oko – Awo to rid Lagos of the ravaging Bubonic plague. Thus
the need for healthy environment accounted for the early intervention of planning practice in
Nigeria. Health Acts were promulgated and these started planning on its present day footing in
Nigeria.
In Britain, planning started on health grounds too. The population boom following the
industrial revolution (of the 17th – 18th century) brought about congested settlements and
problems of filth and squalor became prevalent. In a kind of titivation process, health laws
were enacted (Starting from mid 19th century) to curtail death and sustain health. They include;
Public Health Act 1948
Nuisance Removal Act 1855
The Torrens Acts 1868
The Sanitary Acts 1866

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 The Gross Acts 1875
Before now, many people were dying of suffocation and epidemic. The town planning
division took-off from the Ministry of Health after the Great London Fire in 1666. The Division
was later merged with the Ministry of Local Government. About this same time, philanthropists
or social reformers with their Utopian motivation also waved into the matter. These Utopians
did not only write books on city formation and planning but also demonstrated it by creating
new towns and Garden cities. Some notable ones include Ebenezer Howard, Le-Corbusier,
Patrick Geddes, Henry Right, Arthur Clarence Perry (Neigbourhood Concept), and Lewis
Mumford. Also George Cadbury built Bournville in 1879, Titus Salt constructed Saltier in 1853
and William Lever, a soap manufacturer developed Sunlight in 1883 as a model village for his
workers. Robert Owen established an industrial complex at New Lamark in 1820 while
Ebenezer Howard (1903) masterminded the Garden City movement, established a city called
Letchworth and also began the construction of Welwyn Garden city in 1919.

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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SOME SALIENT ISSUES ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Recent pressing problems have awakened the consciousness of man to the need to give
serious considerations to the dynamics of the environment. Such problems include those of
global warming, ocean surge and the ozone layer depletion. Ever before now, planning
principles have been useful tools in the control of activities within the environment all with the
aim of making the environment safe and conducive for human habitation.
From time to time, the environment is scanned in other to assess the demand or need
of the environment and also to determine the demand or stress being posed on the
environment by human activities. Here two types of demand are established vis-à-vis “demand
of” and “demand on” the environment implying a “need’ and a “nuisance” respectively.
Whichever is of interest to environmentalist, he assesses the situation of things through
researches.
Tools for research(es) include surveys, data collection, taking inventory and various
analyses among other things. Resources, which include time, become very vital in the whole
process. The National Housing Policy of Nigeria is a product of a research carried out on the
demand of the populace for housing in Nigeria.

5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Environment in the context of environmental management can be defined as the
external conditions capable of influencing the growth and development of man and other
organisms, which are simultaneously being reversibly affected and influenced by the living
things. Management is the process of doing things, which involves the combination and
utilization, or organization of resources towards the attainment of common set goals and
objectives. The primary objectives of management include planning, organizing and control.
Others are directing (leading), resourcing, activating, representing, conducting, communication,
motivating, innovating and very importantly decision-making.
Environmental management is a complex system, which involves multi-sectors
(manufacturing, agriculture, urban and rural, and household services), multi-system (water
supply, sanitation, transport, communication, etc) and multi-actors (governments, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), Community Based Organizations (CBOs), International

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Organizations and Private bodies). Against this background, the management of the
environment is multi-dimensional. It therefore requires the input from divers and related fields
such as planning, building, architecture, quantity survey, and industrial design. Such is the case
because the accumulated skill is very important in order to understand the dynamism and
complex state of environmental issues. Furthermore, environmental planning is the core area
of environmental management. It is therefore important to note that planning is the custodian
of the environment.

5.2 CONTROL OF DEVELOPMENT

Development in relation to the built environment means carrying out building or
rebuilding, engineering, mining or other operations on, over or under land of making of any
material charge in the use of any building or land (Keeble, 1978). In order to achieve the
objectives of physical planning, the development activities of man within the totality of the
environment must be properly monitored & controlled. The process by which this is secured is
called “Development Control”. Development control regulates any building or rebuilding
operation in connection with land. It involves the regulation of the detailed aspects of
development about which precise guidance cannot be given by the development plan so as to
ensure convenience and sightly results.
Development control regulates the orderly planning of settlements by stipulating
adequate standards for all aspects of planning. It will dictate that private and public buildings
whether in residential, commercial, industrial, or administrative use must have sufficient
lighting, ventilation and access with sufficient setback from the centre-line of the road. It is the
duty of the Development control department to also engage in routine surveillance in order to
detect contraventions to planning standards.

5.3 MAINTENANCE AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Maintenance comes under 2 broad categories.
1. Preventive maintenance
2. Corrective maintenance
Within the environment preventive maintenance is usually effected through the use of
various standards. These standards include space standards, ambient standards, design

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standards and building codes. These standards are usually enforced through laws, which are
meant to prosecute offenders. Zoning is another useful tool for maintaining an ideal
environment. This is a situation whereby different land uses are allotted different portions of
land in a settlement in order to have orderly layout and for easy management. Consequently
there are such things as industrial zones or estates and residential zones or estates. It is always
said that prevention is better than cure. Such is the case with preventive and corrective
maintenance of the environment.
Corrective maintenance comes via Renewal programmes. Urban Renewal is a branch of
planning which deals with transformation of degenerated areas into ideal environments that
are conducive for habitation. There are different approaches to urban renewal including with
common examples including re-development and re-habilitation.
In the process of maintenance and improvement of the environment, capital projects
are embarked upon and these in most cases are meant to provide municipal facilities for the
people. The provision of pipe-borne water, supply of electricity, road construction and even
provision of recreational facilities all come under this umbrella. However much of these deal
with the tangible environment while until recently, concerns about the atmospheric
environment has been ignored.

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CHAPTER SIX
6.0 EFFECTS OF ADVANCES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Science is simply the knowledge obtained by observation and testing of facts. It deals
with the composition, classification and characteristics of various things in nature. Men who
commit their lives to the study of science are called scientists. Early and pioneer scientists
devoted their time to investigative researches, acquisition of knowledge and analytical tests of
the accumulated information. Their devotion and diligence yielded them many discoveries.
This marked the beginning of advancement in science as more scientists modified their theories
and increased their knowledge. It is a well-known fact that technology, medicine and public
hygiene all had their origin in science. Technology makes use of scientific researches to fashion
out or develop improved ways of doing things or solving problems. It is the practical application
of the knowledge acquired in science. There are branches of technology like industrial and
information aspects. Finding fault with old inventions and making adjustments and
modifications on them is an ever-continuing passion of technology and such is the process that
leads to sustained advances in technology. The scientific desire and technical know-how has
made scientists thirstier to produce better things everyday.
While medicine and technology belong to the class of natural or physical science,
hygiene is an example of a social science. However, of importance is the fact that advances in
science and technology have led to advances in medicine, public hygiene and agriculture to
mention a few; and it cannot be ignored that advancement has brought a seemingly greater
number of benefits to the human race. An improved state of living is one of the benefits of
scientific advancement on man. It’s just that there is always the other side of the story when
benefits and gains are discussed in the system of things.
As Newton said, to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This is what
could be said of the resultant good and side effects of advancement in general. Just like fire
when not properly controlled, advancement in its every sense could be a good servant but a
bad master. Man must realize that Technology is “made” for man and not vice versa.

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 6.1 MERITS OF ADVANCEMENT
1. Industrial technology
In specific terms the list of benefits is an endless one when discussing advancements in
general. The biggest benefit comes from industrialization. Industrial technology has produced
machineries and heavy equipments that have improved the state of living of humans and
facilitated how men earn their living. These benefits include development of equipments to
carry out jobs that could not be done by man before now. These machineries make a judicious
use of resources available and do much work in less time. So we have the advantage of high
productivity. It saves man much time and labor. Economic and commercial activities have been
facilitated leading to the growth and industrialization of the environment through banking
finance and a lot of other financial service industry.
Beneficial effects of industrial technological advancement on an environment include
good road and electricity. An environment in which an industrial estate is located has the
benefits of infrastructural development and growth (i.e. if it had been a rural setting before).
Getting a rural environment industrialized like that does attract more people to the
environment. This leads to its physical growth. Virtually all facilities and equipments being used
in the various aspects of life come from the industries. Even in medicine, equipments for
treatment of therapies are manufactured in industries. It then goes on to touch transportation,
housing, telecommunication, sports, agriculture, water, etc.
2. Agriculture
In agriculture, plant and animal breeding has improved. Mechanized farming has
reduced the percentage of Americans involved in food production to less than 5% and there is
still surplus to cater for suffering nations. Now, there are Genetically Modified Crops (GMCs)
which are developed with predetermined traits and features as desired by the farmers or
agriculturists. Synthetic fertilizers are manufactured and used on farms to boost the production
of farm products while irrigation systems have turned initially dry lands to productive areas for
farming.
3. Construction and Material Engineering
Building materials come in different forms as researches continue in the building industries and
pre-cast structures are now used in mass housing as obtained in several modern estates and
garden cities across the globe. Material Engineering has really contributed to improvement in

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the Building and Automobile industries through the production of composite materials.
Reinforced glass and bullet proof materials are used in homes and cars for security purposes in
addition to the use of the use of several other materials for surface finishing in homes and
offices. This is not to mention the various fittings by several manufacturing companies in
different parts of the world.
4. Transportation
In transportation the gains are all around us. Road, rail and water transports have really
changed. The use of submarines testifies to this in water transport. The Aviation industry has
made it possible for man to travel even across oceans and to the outer space through the help
of Aeronautic Engineering.
5. Information technology
Information technology involves the use of computers for commercial, business and
postal transactions. Business calls or mails that took much time before can now be gotten
across to the desired recipient within seconds. These facilities have bettered the lot of man in
major ways. Aeronautic Engineering is a good friend of telecommunication since it has helped
in launching satellites that now aid global communication in various forms (internet inclusive).
These are benefits of advancement in technology within the last century. But there is much
more.
6. Medicine
Medicine deals with life - human life. It has branches and related fields such as botany,
anatomy, pharmacy, biochemistry, and microbiology. Through research work and analyses,
experiments and observations, advances have come about in medicine. There have been cases
of diagnosing life threatening diseases and illnesses. Advances also include breakthroughs in
surgical operations on ailing humans. There have been cases of healing fractured bones and
suturing together of mutilated limbs. Paternity disputes on a child can now be verified through
the examination of the DNA of the man and child. Medical advancements, it is obvious has
improved man’s state of living. It has been able to specify appropriate feeding habits men
should develop and clothing they should wear in different climates. This has helped to increase
man’s rate of survival and residence in the environment. Treatments are now possible for so
many terrible diseases like cholera and malaria fever. The growth of cancer could be slowed
down through Radiography. Synthetic drugs are available with different types of vaccines to

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curtail the spread of various diseases. Now there is complete artificial heart for those whose
hearts are failing them (see Time Magazine, July 16, 2001, page 50 & September 3, 2001, page
68).
7. Entertainment
The entertainment industry has gotten a big boost especially through the electronic
media. Such entertainment is also spreading on the internet with availability of video facilities
for football matches and movies. Motion pictures have been greatly aided while several storage
media have been developed for audiovisuals in form of video compact discs and digital video
discs. Several multi sound-systems are developed by various companies with a high level of
competition thereby increasing the quality of facilities available in the entertainment world.
Video cameras of high quality and functions have helped the industry while easy-to-use digital
cameras with facilities for high-resolution zoom lenses have replaced the old manual ones.
8. Sports & crime detection
Sport facilities now come in different forms and quality from divers sport kits companies
while professional sportsmen can make requests for customized kits to be used for special
events. Also, Stadia of different designs are capacities are being constructed across the globe
with state of the art technology to facilitate sporting activities. Big intelligence agencies and
security outfits like the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA) of the USA have greatly benefited from Forensic research in the process of crime
detection while also making use of special equipments for their investigation.
9. Pubic health and hygiene
Public hygiene is the science and principle of keeping people in health both in body and
mind. It is about the norms for cleanliness and healthy living. It is the science of the
establishment and maintenance of health. Experts and specialists in the field of public hygiene
have been able to give good methods and modalities on maintaining good hygiene. These
modalities were tested with time and were modified. These marked the advances in public
hygiene and public health. Governments have also set up bodies that are tasked with the job of
maintaining good public hygiene in the society.
Good public hygiene in the society involves environmental sanitation, waste
management, pollution control and the power of recreation and rest on the mind of humans.
Both experts and government bodies do a lot to improve the standards of hygiene of the

24
people in the society by qualitative and effective research backed up by well-proven
experiments and experiences. They are also given authority to promulgate rules and laws for
cleanliness. There are governmental organisations that control wastes, pollution, maintain
sanitation and highlight the need for relaxation and recreation. They also give proper
enlightenment and education to the masses on the effects and consequences of abiding by
these rules. When people responded positively, it has had some effects on man and the
environment.
Public health has improved with facilities for proper solid waste disposal. Solid waste is
being recycled in some parts of the world to generate electricity and to make plastics and bags
for various uses. Treatment of domestic water at water works makes water safer for
consumption than before while the development of sewerage makes way for proper sewage
treatment. Good and nutritious food can be eaten by man to boost his health, in sharp contrast
to days in which man would eat anything, whether good or otherwise. Humans can now dwell
in clean houses and good looking environments under healthy climatic conditions. The days
marked by little scientific knowledge made men to risk dwelling in houses where they suffered
adverse weather conditions.
Proper clothing in varying climatic conditions and environment has been made available
as encourage by proponents of good public health. The environment has been greatly improved
since much beauty and comfort have been given to it through the provision of relevant
infrastructures, public utilities and social amenities like good roads, pipe borne water and the
sewage system. As a result of discoveries many environments that seemed useless before can
now be usefully utilized for agricultural or industrial purposes. Many environments now enjoy
the benefits of being a site of attraction or recreational park as a result of unusual resources
discovered there. Beneficial effects of improved public health on the environment include
increased beauty of the environment through the plantation of flowers and beautiful shrubs. .
Research and experiments have led to the discovery of auxins, which could alter the rate of
functioning of plants to suit the purpose desired for a particular environment. Trees can now
be planted around a building to serve as windbreakers during storms and fierce winds. This
prevents the building from being destroyed and thus keeps it preserved for a much longer use
and period of time

25
 Good effects of advances in public hygiene on man still abound. They include man’s
discovery that he could live in good health with less financial cost in a well-ventilated house,
with a clean and tidy environment. Humans can now take proper diet, simply in the correct
proportion and enjoy they health being boosted. It is obvious this has helped man to live well
and erase a lot of illnesses and diseases. It has reduced the death rate and the financial costs of
taking care of sicknesses. It has saved man much time too by just adhering to the simple rules.
Proper education and enlightenment is given to people on the good effects of recreation and
relaxation after hectic hours at work. This helps their minds to relax, rest properly, thus
efficiently equipped for the challenges of another day and the demands of another day’s work.
Their output at work is increased as they discover they could face their work without any sense
of boredom or depression but with confidence.
The environment has enjoyed the benefits of being made cleaner, tidier, freer of wastes
and pollution, and the attraction of other settlers to it. When more people come to settle
down in the environment more houses would be built. This is physical growth of the
environment. Clean and good looking environments also attracts foreign investors and
business moguls to invest in the environment, such investments lead to industrialization of the
settlement; industrialization leads to the growth and development of the environment, growth
leads to socio-economic stability. Socio-economic stability leads to better standards of living for
people in the environment.
10. Computing
The wonders that computers can do in this age cannot be ignored with its high level of
versatility. Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) and the general Artificial Intelligence is a
wonder in this age while the Internet is no mean contributor in the whole scenario. Every field
of life makes use of professional packages/software have been introduced to ease
professionalism. Fun and relaxation have been made easier and more interesting with
introduction of computers.
Man seems to be getting more and more comfortable everyday with advancement but
there are warning signals to take note of if the future generation will still have to stay on this
planet.

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 6.2 DEMERITS OF ADVANCEMENT
Humans have also suffered from scientific and technological advancement. The present
situation has led to several moves by international organizations to save the planet from the
path of doom that it seems to be trailing.
1. Pollution
In the face of industrialization, environmental pollution has done much harm to the
globe than social cost can account for. Factories and chemical companies pose dangers of
improperly channelled and inappropriately discharged toxic wastes to rivers, lands and
settlements. Such rivers experience a termination of aquatic life while those lands are
rendered useless for any agricultural purposes. The case could be worse if the major occupation
of the settlers is mainly fishing and farming. This means many would have to look to other
sources to earn their living. The presence of an industry in a settlement causes pollution of air
and water. It has been discovered that the smoke released into the atmosphere by industrial
plants causes dizziness, headaches, eye irritation, coughing, and shortness of breath in human
beings. What is now known today as global warming resulted from the pollution of the
environment with Greenhouse gases (e.g. methane and carbon-iv-oxide) from industries.
Consequently, the sea level is rising as the ice at the poles continues to thaw. The production
of Chloro–fluoro–carbons (CFCs) such as aerosols as obtained in refrigerators have done much
havoc to the Ozone layer – a tri atomic layer of Oxygen – which prevents harmful rays from the
sun from reaching the earth. On land, water bodies are being polluted by various effluents,
which increase the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) thereby starving aquatic life of oxygen.
The petroleum industry with its effluents has done much damage to marine life through oil
spillage in the process of exploration.
2. Nuclear and chemical damage
Toxic waste dumps resulting from disarmament of nuclear warheads and pollution from
nuclear fallouts of Nuclear power plants and reactors seriously affect plant and animal health.
The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 in Russia left in his trail much sorrow associated with various
health complications and deformities in children born after then. The sophistication of modern
technological advancement has encouraged ballistic and nuclear warfare. It’s a fact that the
present stock of armaments in the world can destroy it several times over. Biological weapons
being used in wars always lead to mass destruction of lives and properties, desolation and

27
destruction of good lands that could have been effectively and properly used for a lot of
beneficial purposes. The effect is not only on the present generation but also on the generation
unborn as deformed babies could result from the use of such weapons.
As an environment develops physically, there are side effects of destruction of the
natural ecosystem of animals. Many trees, which could have been preserved, are cut down and
in cases of slow development of land after bush clearing such land becomes a victim of agents
of denudation like erosion and sun radiation which lead to loss of major nutrients in the soil.
3. Ethical issues
Ethical issues are coming up with questions on the moral justification for such things as
cloning and the misuse of In-vitro fertilization (IVF) to produce human beings in the field of
medicine. These are just few of the numerous causes for alarm. There has been an increased
standard of living; some do really struggle hard to match up with the standards of living in their
environment like the taste for sophisticated houses or as a symbol of wealth. Overpopulation is
also another bad effect.
4. Transportation - accidents
In the area of transportation, there have been a lot of harmful effects of technological
advancement on man. Increasing road and air accidents, which lead to loss of human lives-a
result of man’s desire to travel at faster speed. Plane crashes have led to the major loss of
human lives at instant points in time.
5. Information technology – radiation and cyber crime
Information technology also abounds with its own side effects. Users of mobile phones
face the threats of getting cancer through the habitual use of their cell-phones as high-powered
radiations are probably being transmitted into their brains when they use it. Computer users
face the danger of having a virus attack on their information network. This could cause
innumerable losses in financial and business terms. The internet fraud makes many individuals
including corporate bodies susceptible to huge economic loss while “hackers” are criminals
which can tap into classified information of multi-national companies.
6. Medicine – radiation, drug side-effects and overdose
In the area of medicine, advancements have also had some side effects on humans.
Men have come a long way in abusing resources meant for his good. Men now resort to
prescribing drugs for themselves to their own detriment. Some powerful drugs being

28
manufactured recently have had painful side effects on the users. Men also had to endure
some of agony of having radiations passed through their bodies to correct certain malfunctions
during surgical operations; some lose their lives through taking drugs out of ignorance.
7. Agriculture – chemical poisoning
In the field of agriculture, the use of pesticides and herbicides on farmlands in riverine
areas lead to accumulation of these chemicals in the ground and are later washed down into
rivers by strong storms during heavy rainfalls. Consequently that leads to river poisoning and
extinction of aquatic live. The water in such an environment would be polluted.
8. Public health and hygiene
Advances in hygiene also have its own setbacks. The organizations set up by the
government sometimes harass people illegally and unnecessarily. Some are not faithful to their
jobs. And some times it cost much to live in a good, clean and healthy environment. Also cases
of overpopulation are prevalent when people discover that a certain environment is clean and
they rush to it. Cases of a settlements being deserted for better and cleaner ones lead to the
deterioration and desolation of such environments. A deserted building, for example becomes
a hideout for men of the underworld and this poses a threat to society on the long run.
It is obvious that with increase in scientific breakthrough and associated advancements,
there is also an increase in the side effects of these advancements. This will always be the case
since man is not perfect and the resource often meant for its good sometimes becomes
harmful to him. The world truly needs a kind of “Development Control” in his developmental
process. Whether there will be a consensus on how to effect this control remains a question
yet to be answered.

6.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development is the latest paradigm, which is used to explain the
relationship between environment and development. This paradigm originated from the
dialectics between frontier economics and deep ecology through environment and resources
management to eco-development. Frontier economics is based on neo-classical economic
approach, which sees infinite economic growth and prosperity as the dominant imperative.
Deep ecology, which is a reaction to frontier economics, is based on anti-growth models and
sees harmony with nature as the dominant imperative. Environmental protection was then

29
developed by frontier economics in reaction to deep ecology and incorporates environmental
concerns within economic models by internalising the cost of protection or cleans up. Resource
management and eco-development emphasized human living in harmony with nature and the
use of natural resources sensitively and sustainably. In the 1980s, the central idea moved from
a focus on natural resources management with overall aim of conservation of resources to the
wide development that meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of
future to meet their own needs. The World Commission on Environment and Development
(1987) defines Sustainable Development as “a process of change in which exploitation of
resources, the direction on investment, the re-orientation of technological development and
institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potentials to meet
human needs and aspirations”.
Sustainable development has meaning only to the extent that it underpins a mode of
development that can be continued into future. Exploitation of resources is a key aspect of
sustainable development. The maintenance and enhancement of living standards require the
continual exploitation of resources. There are three dimensions to sustainable development;
concerns on natural resources, institutional development and appropriate management skills.
With respect to concern for natural resources, people need to understand the system, process,
and danger that underlie the utilization of natural resources.
Certain institution changes are very essential to the management of sustainable
development. These are participation of the community, roles of NGOs and International
Organizations such as World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United
Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), World Health Organization (WHO), etc. Lastly, the
area of appropriate management skills requires the ability to handle conflict such as
negotiation, mediation and judgment in a dynamic and turbulent environment.

30
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chapin F. S. (1965): Land Use Planning. London. University of Illinois Press.

Dimitris, L. (2008). Introduction. Tourism Issues. vol4. p6.

Frank, T.R. (1996). Managing Sustainable Development; Definitions, Paradigms and Dimensions
in M.A. Khan (Ed.) Sustainable Development. John Wiley and Sons Inc. pp53-55.

Gorman, Christine (2001): The Artificial Heart, Revisited Time Magazine, July 16, page 50.

Keeble (1978): principles of Town and Country Planning.

Lema, E.S. (1998). Urban Environmental Problems and Sustainable Improvement Programmes
In Developing Countries. Paper Presented at The 29th Annual Conference Of The Nigerian
Institute of Town Planners. Held at Makurdi, Benue State From 28th to 30th October 1998.

Margaret, Peil (1991): Lagos.

Martens, Ellin (2001): He takes a licking, keeps on ticking. Time magazine September 3, page 68.

Okecha A.O. (2000): pollution and conservation of Nigeria’s environment. T’ Afrique

International Associates. Owerri

Ologun O. A (2002): Good and Side Effects of Advances in Science, Technology, Medicines, and
Public Hygiene on Humans and the Environment. Being paper submitted to the Department of
urban and regional planning, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.

Omole F. K. (1999) Planning Issues in Nigeria: land tenure system and the land use act. Lagos.
Frontline Publications Ltd.

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Schwetdtfeger W. F. (1982) Traditional Housing in Africa: A comparative study of houses in
Zaria, Ibadan and Marrakesh. New York. Willey and Sons.
Sjoberg, Gideon (1965): Origin and Evolution of cities. Scientific American September 1965 page
54-63

Ologun Oluwayemisi Akin (2002). Good and Side Effects of Advancement On Humans and The
Environment. Paper Submitted on Nature of Environmental Science. Federal University Of
Technology, Akure.

World Bank (1991). Environmental Assessment Source Book. Vol 1. Technical Paper 139. World
Bank, Washington.

World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford
University Press. Oxford.

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Survey and Geoinformatics
Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of accurately determining
the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between
them. These points are usually on the surface of the earth and they are often used to establish
land maps and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes

Surveying has been an essential element in the planning and execution of nearly every form of
construction. Its most familiar modern uses are in the fields of transports, building and
construction, construction, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership
Geoinformatics is a revolutionary new enabling technology, concerned with the gathering,
analysis, acquisition, dissemination, management, and visualisation of geographic data with the
aim of gaining knowledge and better understanding of the built and natural environments. It is
also a broad-based and interdisciplinary field of study. Geoinformatics remote sensing
techniques give us the ability to measure and observe our environment and especially the
features that are beyond the capability of the human eye. Geoinformatics data management
and analysis techniques allow us to turn these measurements into useful information and
knowledge with which we can identify patterns, track feature behaviour over time and predict
the future state. To do this, Geoinformatics combines knowledge of Mathematics, Computer
Science, Geodesy, and 3D modelling. The field of Geoinformatics can be applied to a wide range
of (research) fields such as Hydrology, Crisis Management, Serious Gaming and Simulation,
Urban Planning, and Land Administration
Geoinformatics encompasses:
· Remote Sensing – analysis and use of aerial photography and satellite images

· Surveying including Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

· Cartography – the art and science of representing real world phenomena on maps
(including web-based presentation)

· Geographic Information Systems (GIS) – management and analysis of spatial

(geographic) data and related attributes in databases

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Application Areas
Geoinformatics applications are constantly evolving as various industries identify new needs
and uses for their data. The applications span many fields and disciplines. A few examples are:
· Tracking exotic and invasive animal and insect species

· Supporting fire prevention, emergency response and damage assessment

· Maintaining electric, gas, water and telecommunications networks

· Understanding the effects of pesticides and chemicals

· Identifying and evaluating potential wetland conservation and restoration sites

· Tracking disease and increasing access to healthcare

· Managing crime and identifying high risk areas

· Climatology

· Testing of theories and the discovery of pattern and regularities in business

· In-car navigation system and tracking

· Metrological

· In complex humanitarian emergency

· Use in solving problems of digital technology .etc

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