International Journal of Construction Management

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Investigation of critical factors influencing

construction of airports: the case of India

Vandana Bhavsar, Shaun Thomas Alex, Vaishnav P. K., Abraham Jose, Nevin
George Koshy & Shubham Atiwadkar

To cite this article: Vandana Bhavsar, Shaun Thomas Alex, Vaishnav P. K., Abraham Jose,
Nevin George Koshy & Shubham Atiwadkar (2022) Investigation of critical factors influencing
construction of airports: the case of India, International Journal of Construction Management,
22:15, 2905-2913, DOI: 10.1080/15623599.2020.1831220

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Published online: 19 Oct 2020.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
2022, VOL. 22, NO. 15, 2905–2913
https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2020.1831220

Investigation of critical factors influencing construction of airports: the case

of India
Vandana Bhavsara, Shaun Thomas Alexb, Vaishnav P. K.b, Abraham Joseb, Nevin George Koshyb and
Shubham Atiwadkarb
a
School of General Management, National Institute of Construction Management and Research, Pune, Maharashtra, India; bSchool of
Construction Management, National Institute of Construction Management and Research, Pune, Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Airport construction projects are distinctively unique and complex compared to other infrastructure and Airports in India; airport
construction projects. Globally, construction of airports is often associated with large-scale cost and time construction; critical factors;
overruns. However, studies that explicitly delineate the examination of critical factors affecting the airport relative importance index
(RII); factor analysis
construction are scant and highly unexplored. This study aims to bridge the knowledge gap by identify-
ing the main factors affecting airport construction in India from clients’ and contractors’ perspectives
using factor analysis. Based on a literature survey and expert interviews, questionnaires listing 21 attrib-
utes for clients, and 19 attributes for contractors were sent. Critical factors obtained from the analyses are
as follows: a) Client-side – Pre-construction phase issues, Multi-organizational involvement issues and
External issues; b) Contractor-side – Project implementation issues, Client related issues and Technical
issues. The findings are intended to significantly help varied stakeholders to enhance the quality and suc-
cess rate of future airport construction projects in developing countries.

Introduction with international standards. There is a minimum tolerance to

construction errors or unsatisfactory quality of work when com-
A large transport infrastructure project reaps huge economic
pared to other projects. Maintaining runways is also a difficult
benefits in any country. This transport infrastructure mostly
task and demands for quality and precise work. Furthermore, as
involves construction activities. Generally, construction projects
several organizations are involved, the decision-making process
also have more influence on different developmental aspects of a
is not easy. The level of security required also differs to a great
country. Hence, infrastructure and transportation are considered
extent between airport projects and other projects. Thus, unlike
to be an essential component of a country’s economic develop-
other infrastructure construction projects, airport construction
ment, growth and manufacturing. With rapid urbanization and
in an era where distance is measured in terms of time, the avi- projects are inherently complicated and entail more uncertainties
ation industry in the transport sector becomes a crucial factor in resulting in increasing delays more frequently. In this regard, the
providing effective transport systems to the people. Globally, air- construction of the airport constitutes an essential element of the
ports are increasingly growing into an inter-modal transportation whole airport operations.
centres in recent years and so a huge investment in the airport Although, airport constructions are completed and commis-
construction project will have enormous impact on a country’s sioned globally at some point in time, these projects are often
economic development. However, the task is to optimize the associated with extensive cost and time overruns, safety issues,
value of assets and minimize the costs associated with building, operational disruptions, and subsequent damage of reputation.
operating and maintaining such projects. In other words, it is Therefore, successful completion of an airport construction elicits
imperative that such construction projects and their related activ- a multitude of planning given that airport construction projects
ities are executed successfully and in an efficient way. According are intrinsically complex and are multi-disciplinary involving
to Marinelli et al. (2018), implementing relevant tools and identi- varied stakeholders. As concluded by Dvir et al. (2003), project
fying factors affecting cost efficiency during the construction of success is closely linked to effective project planning (viz., defin-
such projects is imperative to achieve the value for money. ing and meeting technical specifications and goals) rather than
Although the factors and sources of these uncertainties may project management tools and procedures. In a developing coun-
vary, they provide important information and lessons for other try like India, infrastructure projects are exposed to a lot of
economies too. uncertainties and risks like political turmoil, unavailability of
Airport construction projects are considered to be unique and resources, changing regulatory rules, capacity constraints, tech-
complex in characteristics when compared to other constructions nology adoption constraints, etc., leading to costly conflicts
like real-estate projects and even other infrastructure projects between the parties involved and time and cost overruns.
like roads, bridges, etc. Airport projects demand high levels of Regardless of the development of an enhanced understanding of
safety and surety in the construction process. Standards to be project management techniques and the development of new
met in these construction projects are high and should match technologies in India, infrastructure projects are fraught with

CONTACT Vandana Bhavsar [email protected]

ß 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2906 V. BHAVSAR ET AL.

Figure 1. Year-over-year (Y-o-Y) percentage change in air traffic in India.

Source: CMIE Economic Outlook (2019)- Civil Aviation: Traffic at Airports.

planning deficiencies. Acknowledging the fact that the perform- airport construction project. The present study, thus, seeks to fill
ance of any project success is closely linked to effective project this gap in the extant literature by investigating, identifying and
planning, these projects in India result in delays and analysing the critical factors that can pose a threat to the suc-
cost overruns. cessful completion of airport projects in India from clients’ and
Like with the city, airports too need to integrate a wide range contractors’ perspectives. Identification of the critical factors is
of activities, facilities and services. The planning of constructing intended to significantly impart the clients, contractors, project
an airport is carried out in the same manner as planning of a managers, and government in understanding and enhancing the
city wherein the traditional theory of ‘Rational Comprehensive performance of airport construction in India.
Model’ of planning is used. This theory is based on the decision- Given the above setting, the intent of this work is to investi-
making model. However, this theory has been criticized since it gate and understand the various critical factors that can pose a
hardly incorporates flexibility. In view of the fact that the airport threat to the successful completion of airport projects in India.
construction may need to integrate several stakeholders, dynamic Emanating from this goal, are following research objectives: 1)
and flexible strategic management tools are indispensable. Identification of factors involved in construction of airport proj-
Therefore, sound airport planning should not only include ects in India; 2) Determining the most critical factors affecting
rational analysis, but should also incorporate social, economic, the construction of airport projects in India from the client’s and
political, and environmental interactions and context. Since all contractor’s perspective.
these stakeholders have substantial contributions during the air- The outline of remaining sections is as follows: Section
port construction, internal and external environmental and Current scenario of airports in India provides an overview of air-
human-related factors play a major role in making construction ports in India and in particular, the air traffic in the country;
projects successful. Additionally, numerous factors like macro- Section Literature review outlines various strands of existing lit-
economic, non-confirmatory regulatory requirements, aerodrome erature on infrastructure construction projects; Section Research
safety, etc., may also endanger the success of airport construc- methodology summarizes the qualitative and quantitative
tion. Hence, a proper investigation of all factors that can affect research methodology; Section Results and discussions discusses
the project performance is a pre-requisite for the commencement
the results and Section Conclusion focuses on the conclusions.
of actual construction.
Although there exists a large body of empirical literature on
success factors related to construction and infrastructure projects Current scenario of airports in India
(Chua et al. 1999; Chan et al. 2004; Iyer and Jha 2005, 2006;
Alaghbari et al. 2007; Jin et al. 2012), airports have been less For the past decade, airport construction projects all over the
researched in urban transportation. Besides, studies that explicitly world have been increasing in numbers due to the rising demand
delineate the examination of critical factors affecting the delays and scale of greenfield projects and airport extension works. The
in airport construction are scant and highly unexplored both in fast-moving world demands fast transport modes and thus, air
developed and developing economies. According to the latest transport becomes the best mode of transport between cities,
report of National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP), in India, the countries or continents. With the growing middle-class popula-
large transportation infrastructure projects face specifically major tion and an increase in budget airline services, the future of air
bottlenecks due to procedural delays, project implementation, transport in India shines brighter than ever. The civil aviation
non-availability of funds, environmental concerns, etc. Especially sector in India has emerged as one of the fastest emerging sec-
in countries like India, where standards and regulations are tors in the country since last 3 years. As per the final report of
stringent, there are several factors that can endanger a successful NIP, the Indian aviation market is the third largest in the world.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 2907

Additionally, in terms of airport connectivity, India is ranked The second type comprises of studies related to the identifica-
fourth amongst 140 countries in the Global Competitive Index. tion of critical factors influencing large infrastructure construc-
Currently, six airports viz., Lucknow, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, tion projects. Lee (2008) examined the general causes of cost
Guwahati, Mangalore and Thiruvananthapuram owned by the overrun in Korean social overhead capital projects – roads, rails,
Airport Authority of India (AAI) are being developed under airports and sea-ports and found that the repeated scope change
Public-Private Partnership (PPP) and several other Greenfield was one of the major causes in airport projects. Park and
and Brownfield developments are in progress. Furthermore, the Papadopoulou (2012) concluded that awarding contracts to the
airport sector investments in the overall infrastructure invest- lowest bidders and the poor managerial practices in Asia are
ment have been increasing at a compound annual growth rate of some of the major factors that lead to cost overruns. In yet
around 16% during the fiscal year 2013–17. Figure 1 shows the another study related to risks in Public Private Partnership (PPP)
year-over-year (Y-o-Y) percentage change in traffic at airports or Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) projects, Tang et al. (2013)
in India. ranked critical factors and categorized them into four main
A report by India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF) suggests groups viz., procurement-related, stakeholder-related, risk-related
that, with Government schemes like Ude Desh ka Aam Naagrik- and finance related, whereas, Singh (2010) concluded that PPP
Regional Connectivity Scheme (UDAN-RCS), the India’s aviation infrastructure projects are also vulnerable to delays and cost
industry is expected to witness `35,000 crores (US$4.99 billion) overruns, but the contractual and institutional approach can be
investment in the upcoming four years. Owing to the develop- adopted to mitigate the problems. Jin et al. (2012) in their study,
ment of new airports in Tier II and Tier III cities, the Indian identified 33 critical success factors of Malaysian infrastructure
government is planning to invest US$1.83 billions for the devel- projects from the contractors’ perspective to achieve project
opment of airport infrastructure along with the aviation naviga- management objectives. Flyvbjerg et al. (2003) studied 258 trans-
tion services by 2026. AAI is planning to invest `15,000 Crores port projects in 20 nations in terms of cost overruns and con-
(US$2.32 billion) in 2018–19 for expanding existing terminals cluded that a significant cost escalation has become a rule in
and constructing 15 new ones. It is, however, recognized that on transportation projects world over.
an average, airport construction in India faces a delay of The third type of studies includes few articles, news and case
51 months (Project Management Institute (PMI) and Klynyeld studies that have addressed various facets of the airport industry.
Peat Marwick Goerdeler (KPMG)). Hence, the better perform- Comprehensive information on the status of various global air-
ance of airport construction projects is of utmost importance. port projects and on varied aspects of air transport industry
could be sourced from Airport Council International (ACI)
World Airport Development news and International Air
Literature review Transport Association (IATA), respectively. Goetz and Szyliowicz
(1997) argued the necessity of adopting a more flexible approach
Most of the urban development infrastructure projects viz., road, rather than a traditional rational comprehensive model while
railway, civil aviation and power sectors involve most construc- planning transportation projects, specifically airport projects.
tion activities. However, such construction projects being com- Freestone and Baker (2011) examined various spatial planning
plex and transient in nature, effective and efficient application of models related to airport development and gauged their sustain-
project management tools, skills, and knowledge are required. ability on different economic, environmental, social, and govern-
Several researchers in the past have studied and identified vari- ance dimensions. In another investigation, Khalafallah and El-
ous factors (attributes) responsible for either success or failure of Rayes (2008) analyzed an application example to implement an
a construction or infrastructure project. According to them, these advanced multi objective optimization model for planning air-
factors if properly managed, would result in greater success of port construction site layouts which is capable of minimizing
the project and if not managed properly, might be disastrous for construction related security problems. Manoj and Shivaji (2010),
the success of the project. However, all these studies are project in their study, proposed a new project management methodology
specific and are in the context of developed economies. in the design interface management of airports to mitigate
Furthermore, these studies suggest that critical success factors unnecessary construction reworks at the design stage and thus
are common to construction and infrastructure projects globally saving time and cost of the project. Yoo (2009) examined factors
including India. impacting each security task responsible for aviation security,
In the extant literature, there are three strands on analysing whereas, Halpern and Graham (2016) surveyed 124 airports glo-
the critical factors influencing the construction projects. bally and concluded that the route development activity has a
The first type consists of identifying risks based on critical positive impact on the performance of airports. Alnasseri et al.
factors related to construction projects. Scholars like Wang et al. (2013) suggested a theoretical framework for airport operators in
(2004), Mishra and Mishra (2016), and Ansar and Thomas order to manage and control the construction operation for air-
(2019), investigated the critical risk factors (like inflation, envir- ports, by integrating project management theories with human
onmental and geological risk, tight project schedules, design var- resource strategies. Shami and Kanafani (1997) examined the
iations, statutory clearances, etc.) related to various international issue of renovation of airports and suggested a total disturbance
construction projects and ranked them in order of criticality of cost model to minimize the disturbance factors between a con-
the risk. While, Ramabodu and Verster (2010), Alaghbari et al. struction project and aircraft operations. In his article, Hopper
(2007), Iyer and Jha (2006), Chan et al. (2004), and Chua et al. (2018) illustrates a risk assessment framework for airport devel-
(1999) identified critical factors leading to cost overruns and opment. He identifies and analyses the main types of intrinsic
project delays and also ranked them in the order of importance development risks and suggests measures to mitigate these risks.
of factors to be handled. In yet another study, Homthong and Iyer and Banerjee (2016) through the case study approach
Moungnoi (2016) identified critical factors and their impact on and project management theory examined and ranked the factors
operations and maintenance performance of the construc- that impact scheduled construction delays for nine different air-
tion industry. port projects of India. According to them, factors such as land
2908 V. BHAVSAR ET AL.

acquisition, rehabilitation and environmental clearances delay the Respondents’ profile

execution of Greenfield projects. Whereas, a large number of
The selected respondents were client, contractor and consultant
Brownfield projects do not have such challenges, but still face
professionals in the field of airport construction. All identified
inordinate delays and disruptions, in addition to facing cost
overruns and disputes. Hitherto, there hardly exists any study, to respondents have had experience in airport projects of various
the best of our knowledge, which rigorously investigates and metro cities across India. Responses for the client-side question-
evaluates the critical factors impacting the airport construction. naire were gathered from officials of AAI (AAI – Mumbai, Pune,
Delhi, Mangaluru) and other client airport organizations like
Cochin International Airport Limited (CIAL), Kannur
Research methodology International Airport Limited (KIAL), Delhi International
Airport Limited (DIAL) and Bengaluru International Airport
The research methodology for this study primarily involves lit-
Limited (BIAL). For the contractor-side evaluation, professionals
erature review, personal and telephonic interviews, questionnaire
with specific expertise in contracting firms of airport projects
surveys, and data analysis. Much has been researched on critical
were considered. The questionnaire survey was mainly conducted
attributes for different types of construction projects, infrastruc-
through e-mails. A total of 56 questionnaires were distributed
ture projects, transportation projects, etc. The preliminary study
and 47 responses were obtained (25 from client organizations
consisted of extensive literature surveys to identify critical factors
affecting airport construction. However, due to lack of research and 22 from contractor organizations), with a response rate of
in this area, the attributes identified were further cross checked 83.93%. The experience of the respondents is given in Table 2.
by the number of personal and telephonic interviews with airport Although the size of the sample was relatively small, the quality
construction professionals to have an in-depth insight into such of the responses was considered to be highly reliable for analysis
projects. Few case studies, literature review, annual reports of the due to relevant industry experiences, personal level interactions
airport and expert interviews demonstrate the understanding of and clear understanding of the questionnaires among the
problems that airport construction projects face and helped in respondents (Vaus 2001). Heterogeneity in the survey sample of
framing the questionnaire, specifically for airport construc- this study was maintained by distributing questionnaires to select
tion projects. groups of respondents representing key roles across various air-
In any construction project, a client plays a major role in the port projects and organizations in India.
project since they initiate the projects. Their knowledge, experi-
ence, skills and behaviour play a major role in the success or fail-
ure of the construction projects. However, the roles and Relative importance index
responsibilities of the client change throughout the course of the
project life cycle. The contractor, on the other hand, actively Studies of various researchers (Assaf et al. 1995; Kumaraswamy
controls and is involved in the daily construction works and also and Chan 1998; Iyer and Jha 2005; Faridi and El-Sayegh 2006)
converts the drawings into projects. suggest that the mean and standard deviation of each attribute is
Therefore, to have meaningful insights on issues related to not an appropriate measure to evaluate overall rankings as they
airport construction from a clients’ and contractors’ perspective, do not reflect any relationship between them. Hence, the RII
personal and telephonic interviews were conducted. Face-to-face method is used in the ranking of the identified attributes as con-
interviews were conducted with proficient airport officials of sidered by the respondents. It is one of the most widely used
Kannur International Airport Limited (KIAL) and Cochin methods and can be calculated using the following equation:
International Airport Limited (CIAL), to understand the various
aspects related to client-side during airport construction. RII ¼ RW=ðA  NÞ
Furthermore, one telephonic interview was conducted with a
highly experienced professional from one of India’s leading air-
port contracting firms for discussing contractor-side aspects of where RII: relative importance index; W: weight given to each
construction. attribute; A: highest weight (here, 5); N: total number
Subsequent to the identification of attributes affecting airport of responses.
construction, a total of 21 attributes from client-side and 19
attributes from contractor-side were framed. Table 1 lists these
attributes, which were then used to prepare separate question- Factor analysis
naires for client-side evaluation and contractor-side evaluation.
The questionnaire hence prepared consisted of two parts: Part A: Although descriptive analysis is a significant tool for ranking the
General information – It includes general or personal informa- attributes, it does not suggest any clustering effects of similar
tion regarding the respondents like name, organization, and attributes. Factor analysis is a powerful tool to identify underly-
work experience of the respondent. Part B: Attributes that affect ing variables or constructs. The main objective of factor analysis
the performance of airport construction projects. The respond- is to reduce attributes being tested to a fewer number of dimen-
ents were asked to rank the factors on a scale of 1–5 (Five-point sions that are more meaningful and independent of each other.
Likert Scale) according to the importance, where 1 indicated To evaluate the issues of low correlation, singularity and
very low impact and 5 very high impact. Google FormsTM were adequacy of the survey data, correlation matrix, anti-image cor-
used to circulate the questionnaires for both client-side and con- relation, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test, and Bartlett’s test of
tractor-side evaluations. The responses obtained were subjected sphericity were employed. Furthermore, to group correlated
to data analysis. Relative importance index (RII) and factor ana- attributes into fewer underlying factors and to better interpret
lysis were conducted to identify the criticality of attributes that these orthogonal factors, principal component analysis (PCA)
have an impact on the airport construction. and Varimax rotation tests were conducted.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 2909

Table 1. Identification of attributes and sources.

Identified client related attributes Identified contractor related attributes
R01 Trade unions and strikes# C01 Trade unions and strikes#
R02 Change in government C02 Harsh climatic conditions#
R03 Harsh climatic conditions# C03 Incomplete/ varying bill of quantities (BOQ)
R04 Land acquisition and rehabilitation@ C04 Limited scope for design in Engineering, Procurement and
Construction (EPC) contract
R05 Relocating religious institutions  C05 Complexity in airport ground lighting design
R06 High quality standards to be met ⸸ C06 Complexity in runway construction
R07 Change in scope and dynamic planning@ C07 High volume of earthwork involved
R08 Safety (Job-site and Public)@ 
C08 Longer service design life 
R09 Authenticity of existing testing labs † C09 Unavailability of skilled labour ⸸
R10 Lack of proper Indian codes and standards C10 Import of machinery and equipment 
⸸

R11 Lack of prefabrication and automation C11 High quality standards to be met ⸸
R12 Inflation and interest rates#† C12 Safety (Job-site and public)@
R13 Unrealistic budget planning# C13 Employment laws@@
R14 Difficulty in financial approvals@ C14 Delayed material delivery† 
R15 Complexity in Licencing (Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry C15 Multiple transfer of client organization ⸸
of Defence, Bureau of Civil Aviation etc.)
R16 National and international environmental laws@ C16 Delayed decision making due to inefficient organizational
structure on client side†⸸
R17 Staff morale and attitude #
C17 Poor stakeholder management by client-side†⸸
R18 Multi-organizational involvement (customs, police, fire C18 Logistics involving heavy parts ⸸
force etc.)
R19 Information Privacy C19 Difficulty in selection of subcontractors for specialized
†
works†⸸
R20 Delay in approval of drawings (wetting)
R21 Difficulty in selection of contractor
Source: interviewees responses; @ACI; @@
Iyer and Banerjee (2016); #Iyer and Jha (2005); †Doloi et al. (2012); ⸸
Jin et al. (2012).

Table 2. Experience of respondents.

Percentage (%) of respondents
Nature of work 1–5 yrs 6–10 yrs 11–15 yrs 16–20 yrs 21–25 yrs >25 yrs
Client/Consultants 24.0 20.0 16.0 8.0 12.0 20.0
Contractors 61.9 14.3 9.5 0.0 9.5 4.8

Table 3. Ranking of attributes.

Client-side attributes RII Rank Contractor-side attributes RII Rank
R04 Land acquisition and rehabilitation 0.833 1 C11 High quality standards to be met 0.81 1
R03 Harsh climatic conditions 0.67 2 C14 Delayed material delivery 0.77 2
R05 Relocating religious institutions 0.658 3 C09 Unavailability of skilled labour 0.743 3
R15 Complexity in Licencing (Ministry of 0.642 4 C03 Incomplete/varying BOQ 0.733 4
Home Affairs, Ministry of Defence,
Bureau of Civil Aviation etc.)
R07 Change in scope and dynamic planning 0.633 5 C18 Logistics involving heavy parts 0.714 5
R08 Safety (Job-site and Public) 0.633 5 C08 Longer service design life 0.714 5
R06 High quality standards to be met 0.633 5 C12 Safety (Job-site and public) 0.714 5
R18 Multi-organizational involvement 0.608 8 C15 Multiple transfer of client organization 0.695 8
(customs, police, fire force etc.)
R19 Information privacy 0.608 8 C16 Delayed decision making due to 0.676 9
inefficient organizational structure on
client side
R17 Staff morale and attitude 0.608 8 C02 Harsh climatic conditions 0.676 9
R16 National and international 0.6 11 C10 Import of machinery and equipment 0.667 11
environmental laws
R09 Authenticity of existing testing labs 0.583 12 C06 Complexity in runway construction 0.657 12
R21 Difficulty in selection of contractor 0.55 13 C13 Employment laws 0.657 12
R20 Delay in approval of drawings (wetting) 0.55 13 C07 High Volume of Earthwork Involved 0.6 14
R12 Inflation and interest rates 0.542 15 C01 Trade unions and strikes 0.6 14
R13 Unrealistic budget planning 0.542 15 C17 Poor stakeholder management by 0.59 16
client-side
R01 Trade unions and strikes 0.517 17 C05 Complexity in airport ground 0.581 17
lighting design
R14 Difficulty in financial approvals 0.5 18 C19 Difficulty in selection of subcontractors 0.581 17
for specialized works
R10 Lack of proper Indian codes 0.496 19 C04 Limited scope for design in 0.581 17
and standards EPC contract
R11 Lack of prefabrication and automation 0.496 19
R02 Change in government 0.492 21
2910 V. BHAVSAR ET AL.

Table 4. Client-side factor analysis – components extracted.

Details of factors and attributes Factor loadings Variance explained
Factor 1: Pre-construction phase issues
R21 Difficulty in selection of contractor 0.779 26.669%
R07 Change in scope and dynamic planning 0.600
R10 Lack of proper Indian codes and standards 0.677
R11 Lack of prefabrication and automation 0.626
R20 Delay in approval of drawings (wetting) 0.584
R13 Unrealistic budget planning 0.844
Factor 2: Multi-organizational involvement issues
R15 Complexity in Licencing (Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Defence, 0.882 21.561%
Bureau of Civil Aviation etc.)
R18 Multi-organizational involvement (customs, police, fire force etc.) 0.676
R19 Information privacy 0.793
Factor 3: External issues
R02 Change in government 0.842 17.360%
R12 Inflation and interest rates 0.858

Results and discussions the attributes in each factor as displayed in Table 6. Their value
ranges between 0 and 1; and a value nearer to 1 indicates greater
Ranking of attributes internal consistency and vice versa. As mentioned by Zhang
Table 3 indicates the ranking of attributes based on RII values (2005), there is no thumb rule for threshold of acceptability of
for client-side and contractor-side evaluations, respectively. alpha values since the alpha value gets inflated in the presence of
Acquisition of land and rehabilitation of the affected, emerged as a large number of variables. In this study, the alpha value for all
the major issue of concern for the clients. Land acquisition has client-side attributes is 0.804 and that for contractor-side is 0.826
become one of the most challenging tasks in the development of which is considered to be good.
airports, or rather, any infrastructure project in India, resulting
in severe delays in the execution of these projects. The results
corroborate from previous works of Alaghbari et al. (2007), Lee Discussions
(2008), Singh (2010), Ramabodu and Verster (2010), Tang et al. Labelling of the groups to reflect the correlation of all attributes
(2013), Iyer and Banerjee (2016), and Ansar and Thomas (2019). in that collection was done after extracting the factors. Factors
Adhering to high quality standards emerged to be the major each from the client and contractor perspectives are discussed
cause of worry for contractors. Various quality aspects such as below as per the descending order of variance explained.
moisture intrusion, structural and aesthetic deficiencies in con-
crete, inconsistencies in fire protection, or water resistance can
result in significant damage to the structure, high replacement Client-side factors
costs and revenue losses. The results corroborate from previous Pre-construction phase issues. The first factor named ‘Pre-
works of Mishra and Mishra (2016), Homthong and Moungnoi Construction Phase Issues’ contains six attributes and explains
(2016), Wang et al. (2004), Alaghbari et al. (2007), Doloi et al. 26.67% of total variance. It is related to issues faced by client
(2012), and Iyer and Jha (2006). Nonetheless, RII fails to show organizations prior to commencement of actual project construc-
the relationship between these attributes. tion. The first attribute, difficulty in selection of the contractor, is
a key factor for timely commencement of the project. The hiring
of an inexperienced contractor for airport projects generally
Factor analysis results in a series of complexities, which in turn will lead to time
Factor analysis was conducted to have an insight of the observed overruns and affect project performance. The second attribute,
correlated attributes into a much lower number of underlying change in scope and dynamic planning, is mostly caused by a
factors. The KMO statistics show the proportion of variance in lack of clarity or coordination between the client and contractor.
the attributes that might be caused by underlying factors. KMO Change in scope will always cause an increase/change in work,
value ranges between 0 and 1 and a value of less than 0.5 indi- thereby causing an increase in time, cost or both. Revised sched-
cate sampling is not adequate for factor analysis (Kaiser 1974). ules and dynamic planning are needed to keep up with the
In the present study, a total of 11 attributes each from client and change in scope. The third attribute, lack of proper Indian codes
contractor side are selected based on correlation, while other and standards, poses technical difficulties in the project. Few
attributes were found to have no significant correlation with one Indian codes exist for the specification of airport projects which
another and were thus eliminated from further analysis. For the makes quality considerations difficult for the client. Since Bureau
client-side, the KMO value of selected 11 attributes is 0.606, of Indian Standards (BIS) is missing for more than 50% of the
while, the contractor-side has 0.612 KMO value for selected advanced materials used in construction today, American or
11 attributes. British Standards are referred, for most of the times. The fourth
The PCA and Varimax rotation results are summarized in factor, lack of prefabrication and automation, also results in
Tables 4 and 5. A total of three main factors, each for client-side delays. Advanced prefabrication and automation technology help
and contractor-side with their names describing their common in faster progress of work with lesser labour force at site. Often,
and latent properties, were identified. The three factors related to in such complex projects, this ensures proper safety too.
client-side, explain 65.59% of the total variance, whereas, the The fifth attribute, delay in approval of drawings (wetting), is
contractor-side factors explain 71.14% of the total variance. due to the complex nature of the project. Reputed institutes like
Furthermore, to confirm the reliability of the measured attrib- Indian Institute of Technologies are usually assigned the duty of
utes and scale, the Cronbach’s alpha test was also employed on verifying the drawings to proceed further. Lack of coordination
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 2911

Table 5. Contractor-side factor analysis – components extracted.

Details of factors and attributes Factor loadings Variance explained
Factor 1: Project implementation issues
C03 Incomplete/varying BOQ 0.650 26.493%
C18 Logistics involving heavy parts 0.740
C19 Difficulty in selection of subcontractors for specialized works 0.651
C08 Longer service design life 0.848
C11 High quality standards to be met 0.805
Factor 2: Client related issues
C15 Multiple transfer of client organization 0.856 25.470%
C16 Delayed decision making due to inefficient organizational structure on client side 0.778
C17 Poor stakeholder management by client-side 0.809
C04 Limited scope for design in EPC contract 0.704
Factor 3: Technical issues
C05 Complexity in airport ground lighting design 0.722 19.178%
C06 Complexity in runway construction 0.839

Table 6. Cronbach’s alpha for all attributes – client and contractor side.
Client-side attributes Contractor-side attributes
Attributes Cronbach’s alpha Attributes Cronbach’s alpha
Attributes in factor 1 0.796 Attributes in factor 1 0.814
Attributes in factor II 0.823 Attributes in factor II 0.833
Attributes in factor III 0.726 Attributes in factor III 0.689
All attributes selected for factor analysis 0.804 All attributes selected for factor analysis 0.826

among the officials may lead to delays in this process. For from the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), (3)
example, the Dabolim airport (Goa) faced 15 months delay due Approvals for activities like mining, water usage from rivers or
to changes in scope and inadequate planning, resulting in short- reservoirs, the use of explosives, cutting of trees, pollution clear-
age of materials and construction of an additional structure. ances for setting of plant or equipment etc. AAI operated air-
Furthermore, the project also faced delays in approval of draw- ports enjoy permanent operational permits, however, privately
ings from road and highways authority for connecting the air- operated airports require licenses, which has to be renewed peri-
port approach road to National Highway-17 (PMI and KPMG, odically. The complex procedures for obtaining these clearances/
2019). A separate department may be set up to take care of these licenses are time-consuming and may lead to delays in project
issues. The sixth attribute, unrealistic budget planning, poses an completion and overall project performance.
enormous challenge to the client. There are more hidden costs
in airport projects compared to other projects. If the budget External issues. The third factor from the perspective of clients,
planning is faulty at the beginning, it will head towards a cost external issues, explains 17.36% of the total variance and contains
overrun from day one. Therefore, systematic planning for cost two attributes. External socio-political and economic environ-
overruns is required in the initial phase itself by taking into con- ments affect the successful completion of airport projects to
sideration all the parameters. Selecting the most suitable source some extent. Clients have to keep track of these changes during
of fund and proper management of cash flow is also important. all project phases. They have a large impact on the operational
phase of airport projects as well. Change in government and sub-
Multi-organizational involvement issues. Factor two explains sequent change in government policies influence airport projects.
21.56% of the total variance and comprises of three attributes. A client may have to make necessary changes in the overall pro-
The first attribute under this factor is the complexity in licensing. ject scope considering these changes, which may result in cost
Involvement of several regulatory agencies like the Ministry of and time overruns in the project. Also, pressure from govern-
Home Affairs, Ministry of Defence, Bureau of Civil Aviation, ment bodies to change top officials when there is a changing pol-
Pollution Control Boards etc. make the whole process complex. itical environment affect projects. A separate body may be
However, one cannot compromise on these factors. A dedicated formed, consisting of top officials and local representatives of all
body to take care of the timely approvals can be set up to sim- major political parties, to oversee the successful project comple-
plify complex licensing procedures. The second affecting attri- tion. Such a body can tackle problems like Government change,
bute is multi-organizational involvement, as many departments trade union disputes and also local social issues like land acquisi-
like Customs, Police and Fire Force are involved in the project. tion, rehabilitation etc. Inflation and interest rates play a role
Hence, it is very important to properly understand the oper- considering the long duration of airport projects. It results in
ational requirements of all these bodies before planning the cost overrun, for the most parts during implementation and
work. Conflict of interests should be avoided. The third attribute operational phases. In India, Pakyong Airport in Sikkim, suffered
is Information Privacy, which deals with safety concerns. Airport a delay of more than 86 months due to resistance from local
projects are highly sensitive projects with respect to national authorities, prolonged road blockage due to strikes, resulting in
security. Strong restrictions on sharing of sensitive information price and interest cost escalation (PMI and KPMG, 2019).
limit the working of client organizations in certain areas.
According to a study by Gupta (2013), a list of approvals and
clearances from various statutory bodies are required for airport Contractor-side factors
developments (both construction and operation) in India. These Project implementation issues. The first factor deals with issues
include; (1) Director General Civil Aviation (DGCA) permissions during the project implementation phase and explains 26.49%
for construction and operation, (2) Environmental clearances variance and includes five attributes. The first attribute,
2912 V. BHAVSAR ET AL.

incomplete/varying bill of quantities (BOQ), due to lack of clarity Airfield Ground Lighting (AGL) for visual guidance during night
of project scope between client and contractor, poses a huge landings is an important airfield operation. AGL requirements
challenge to contractors for executing a proper on-site manage- are complex and need to follow ICAO guidelines for design and
ment plan, thus resulting in cost overruns and delays during installation. The critical challenge is to transfer the design points
project execution. The second attribute, logistics involving heavy onto the field with utmost precision. AGL should be integrated
parts, is related to issues faced by contractors in supply and into runways, taxiways and aprons with robust power installa-
delivery of huge and heavy parts like aerobridges. It consumes tions and backup which can take over in seconds during emer-
much time and may cause safety contingencies if not managed gencies. Furthermore, globally the number of specialized
well by the contractor. Cooperation from the general public, contractors for AGL works is also limited. The second attribute,
Police, Electricity Boards, etc. is also very important. The third complexity in runway construction, is one of the most critical
attribute under this factor is difficulty in selection of subcontrac- areas in an airport project. Levelling and compaction at optimum
tors for specialized works. Airport projects consist of high skill moisture content is to be done at every 2.5 meter. In most proj-
and technology-demanding works, like runway construction, air- ects, work needs to be completed before/after monsoons or else
port ground lighting, prefabrication in terminal buildings to will lead to long breaks. Specifications and accuracy related to
name a few, which may not be present in other infrastructure Bitumen mix also need to be maintained for runway pavement.
projects. Thus, the availability of experienced sub-contractors for Modern construction techniques and advanced machinery will
such works is scarce and hence greater is the difficulty for con- help to sort down these technical challenges.
tractors to find competent sub-contractors. The next two attrib-
utes, longer service design life and high-quality standards to be
met can be read in conjunction. Since airport projects are Conclusion
intended for very long periods of usage, high quality standards This study deals with the critical factors influencing the con-
must be ensured in every activity. Contractors have to ensure struction of airports in India. Although extensive research work
that all specifications specified by the client are met so that inter- has been carried out to identify critical success factors and other
national standards are upheld during its entire operational phase. risk factors involved in general construction, very less studies
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has set have been conducted in India, directed specifically to airports.
high standards and zero tolerance for most of the activities in This study, hence, focuses on identifying the critical factors
order to obtain the highest levels of quality. This ensures world- affecting the construction of airport projects in India, from cli-
class standards, but at the same time increases risks of rework to ent-side and contractor-side perspectives. Initially, various prob-
the contractor if the work done is below quality requirements. able attributes were identified by extensive literature surveys and
personal interviews with experts in the field of airport construc-
Client related issues. The second factor from the contractor’s per- tion and management. Furthermore, a questionnaire survey
spective comprises issues faced due to inefficient administration approach was adopted. The responses were then ranked using
from the client’s side. Odeh and Battaineh (2002) stated that cli- RII method and factor analysis was conducted for identification
ent related issues cause delays in construction projects. This fac- of critical factors. The results of RII suggest that land acquisition
tor explains 25.47% of the total variance and takes account of and rehabilitation of the affected, is the major issue of concern
three attributes. The first attribute, multiple transfer of client for clients, whereas adhering to high quality standards is the
organization, deal with those issues faced when the client organ- major cause of worry for contractors. Factor analysis extracted
ization keeps on changing at various stages of the project. It three critical factors for client-side viz., pre-construction phase
leads to a lack of communication and coordination and will also issues, multi-organizational involvement issues, and external
result in several changes in scope of work according to the vary- issues; while factors extracted for contractor-side are: project
ing interests of the changing client bodies. It becomes tough for implementation issues, client related issues, and technical issues.
contractors to work according to the interests of different client It may be noted that the results of the study are, more or less in
organizations at different stages. The second attribute, Delayed line with the interviews carried out with client-side and contrac-
decision making due to inefficient organizational structure on cli- tor-side professionals.
ent-side, affects the construction project when the client lacks a Among the varied types of construction works, airport con-
proper organizational structure to streamline the decision-mak- struction projects are highly complex and have distinctive fea-
ing process. In such situations, decisions on important issues get tures since they involve large and divergent activities.
delayed, consequently affecting project performance. The third Furthermore, airports are exposed to a broad spectrum of rules,
attribute, Poor stakeholder management by client-side occurs due standards and regulations developed by external agencies. This
to inadequate flow of information amongst various stakeholders results in delay in resolving issues, disputes and problems during
involved (like design department, contractors, regulatory bodies, airport construction work. Hence, the findings of this study are
financial bodies etc.). The client organization must plan appro- expected to serve as general guidelines to varied stakeholders
priately to avoid clash amongst stakeholders and ensure a involved in the airport construction project to bolster the quality
smooth progress of the project. The final factor is limited scope and success rate of future airport projects both in India and
for design in Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) other developing countries.
contract. Compared to other EPC contract projects, there are
many special tender clauses in airport projects which limits the
freedom of contractor in design and alterations. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the support from officials of
Technical issues. The final factor signifies Technical Issues faced Kannur International Airport Limited (KIAL) and Cochin
by the contractors during the course of the project. It explains International Airport Limited (CIAL), especially, Mr. K. P. Jose,
19.18% of the total variance and focusses on two attributes. The Director (KIAL- Engineering), Ms. Jessy Paul, Dy. General Manager
first attribute here is Complexity in airport ground lighting design. (CIAL- Civil Engineering Dept.), Paul J. Kocheril, General
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 2913

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