Reading - Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Deductive and Inductive Arguments
In philosophy, an argument consists of a set of statements called premises that serve

as grounds for affirming another statement called the conclusion. Philosophers
typically distinguish arguments in natural languages (such as English) into two
fundamentally different types: deductive and inductive. Each type of argument is said
to have characteristics that categorically distinguish it from the other type. The two
types of argument are also said to be subject to differing evaluative standards.
Pointing to paradigmatic examples of each type of argument helps to clarify their key
differences. The distinction between the two types of argument may hardly seem
worthy of philosophical reflection, as evidenced by the fact that their differences are
usually presented as straightforward, such as in many introductory philosophy
textbooks. Nonetheless, the question of how best to distinguish deductive from
inductive arguments, and indeed whether there is a coherent categorical distinction
between them at all, turns out to be considerably more problematic than commonly
recognized. This article identifies and discusses a range of different proposals for
marking categorical differences between deductive and inductive arguments while
highlighting the problems and limitations attending each. Consideration is also given
to the ways in which one might do without a distinction between two types of
argument by focusing instead solely on the application of evaluative standards to
arguments.
1. Introduction
In philosophy, an argument consists of a set of statements called premises that serve
as grounds for affirming another statement called the conclusion. Philosophers
typically distinguish arguments in natural languages (such as English) into two
fundamentally different kinds: deductive and inductive. (Matters become more
complicated when considering arguments in formal systems of logic as well as in the
many forms of non-classical logic. Readers are invited to consult the articles on Logic
in this encyclopedia to explore some of these more advanced topics.) In the
philosophical literature, each type of argument is said to have characteristics that
categorically distinguish it from the other type.
Deductive arguments are sometimes illustrated by providing an example in which an
argument’s premises logically entail its conclusion. For example:
Socrates is a man.
All men are mortal.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Assuming the truth of the two premises, it seems that it simply must be the case that
Socrates is mortal. According to this view, then, this would be a deductive argument.
By contrast, inductive arguments are said to be those that make their conclusions
merely probable. They might be illustrated by an example like the following:
Most Greeks eat olives.
Socrates is a Greek.
Therefore, Socrates eats olives.
Assuming the truth of those premises, it is likely that Socrates eats olives, but that is
not guaranteed. According to this view, this argument is inductive.
This way of viewing arguments has a long history in philosophy. An explicit distinction
between two fundamentally distinct argument types goes back to Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)
who, in his works on logic (later dubbed “The Organon”, meaning “the instrument”)
distinguished syllogistic reasoning (sullogismos) from “reasoning from particulars to
universals” (epagôgê). Centuries later, induction was famously advertised by Francis
Bacon (1561-1626) in his New Organon (1620) as the royal road to knowledge,
while Rationalist mathematician-philosophers, such as René Descartes (1596-1650) in
his Discourse on the Method (1637), favored deductive methods of inquiry. Albert Einstein
(1879-1955) discussed the distinction in the context of science in his essay, “Induction and
Deduction in Physics” (1919). Much contemporary professional philosophy, especially in
the Analytic tradition, focuses on presenting and critiquing deductive and inductive
arguments while considering objections and responses to them. It is therefore safe to say
that a distinction between deductive and inductive arguments is fundamental to argument
analysis in philosophy.
Although a distinction between deductive and inductive arguments is deeply woven into
philosophy, and indeed into everyday life, many people probably first encounter
an explicit distinction between these two kinds of argument in a pedagogical context. For
example, students taking an elementary logic, critical thinking, or introductory philosophy
course might be introduced to the distinction between each type of argument and be taught
that each have their own standards of evaluation. Deductive arguments may be said to
be valid or invalid, and sound or unsound. A valid deductive argument is one whose logical
structure or form is such that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
A sound argument is a valid argument with true premises. Inductive arguments, by contrast,
are said to be strong or weak, and, although terminology varies, they may also be
considered cogent or not cogent. A strong inductive argument is said to be one whose
premises render the conclusion likely. A cogent argument is a strong argument with true
premises. All arguments are made better by having true premises, of course, but the
differences between deductive and inductive arguments concern structure, independent of
whether the premises of an argument are true, which concerns semantics.
The distinction between deductive and inductive arguments is considered important
because, among other things, it is crucial during argument analysis to apply the right
evaluative standards to any argument one is considering. Indeed, it is not uncommon to be
told that in order to assess any argument, three steps are necessary. First, one is to
determine whether the argument being considered is a deductive argument or an inductive
one. Second, one is to then determine whether the argument is valid or invalid. Finally, one
is to determine whether the argument is sound or unsound (Teays 1996).

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Deductive and Inductive Arguments

In philosophy, an argument consists of a set of statements called premises that serve

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