Structure and Pastoral Theology of

Teaching Christianity

Composition and Structure

Around 396, Augustine, who had been consecrated Bishop of Hippo shortly
before, undertook the writing of Teaching Christianity (De doctrina christiana ).
The first version ended at Book III, 25, 35; in 426-427 he added the end of the
third book and the whole of the fourth ; he interrupted his work on the revision of
all his writings, the Revisions, in order to supply a conclusion to the early books
of Teaching Christianity, which he regarded as " incomplete ." Everything
suggests a long -pondered work, the structure of which is outlined by the author
himself: " The first three books help in understanding scripture; the fourth shows
how one who has understood it should express himself .” 2 The heart of the work,
and its driving force, is therefore sacred scripture, understood and adopted “ as the
sole foundation of a truly Christian education ." With this in mind Augustine
develops a whole series of questions and topics having to do with the twofold
purpose he has already identified : to understand the scriptures and to express them.
Here we have, for the first time, a “program of higher studies that provide a
complete formation of the mind and are conceived solely in function of the
religious purpose which Christianity assigns to the intellectual life. "** Visible
here is the vast difference between the new education proposed by Augustine
and the admittedly analogous purpose of secular classical education : the Chris
tian orator is “ the bearer of the word of God, the minister of saving truths . ”s On
the other hand, the seemingly encyclopedic range of knowledge required by
Augustine in the educational program of Teaching Christianity follows, in
fact, the simple line that inspired the grammatical schools of antiquity in its
decline, and leads to the demand (one that would be amply met) for the necessary
manuals and repertories so that Christians might acquire from them the little
they needed without excessive effort . If, then, Teaching Christianity can be
“
regarded as the fundamental charter of Christian education " by reason of its
restrictive program of research and study and its emphasis on the use of
repertories, it also shows itself “ a very peculiar testimony in the history of
decadence ."
But it is in the word " teaching " (doctrina ) that the very special nature and
structure of Augustine's treatise come into view; the word is a pregnant one and
has been the subject of a great deal of writing and discussion.8
11
12 Introduction

The impossibility of translating the Latin doctrina by a single word is due

to the several meanings of a term which Augustine uses now to indicate the
activity of teaching, now to designate the content of this activity, and, in cer
tain cases such as the title of this work, to convey both meanings at once . It
is to be noted, however, that Augustine's specific purpose , namely, to edu
cate people in aa faith which by its nature needs to be “ thought out, " is im
plicit in the very word doctrina, which sums up “ the entire field of Christian
knowledge that is to be gathered from its three sources: scripture, tradition ,
and the living authority of the Church ." 10 To sum up: in the light of Augus
tine's statement in the Revisions, Teaching Christianity is meant both as a
guide in learning the truths of faith contained in scripture and as a methodol
ogy for teaching others the truths learned.11
As for the structure and contents of the work, let me give a quick outline
of the essentials, while referring the reader to the fuller expositions found in
various other studies. 12 As Augustine says at the beginning of the first book,
the treatise is divided basically into two parts: one, which includes the first
three books, deals with a way to discover what needs to be understood," and
another, comprising substantially the fourth book, deals with “ a way to put
across to others what has been understood .”
After the Prologue, in which the purpose of the treatise is defined and some
possible criticisms are taken up, the first book is divided into four parts dealing
with the contents of the faith: principles and basic distinctions between things
and signs, means and ends ( 1 , 1-4); dogmatic contents ( 1,5-19); principles of
Christian ethics ( 1 , 20-38 ); principles of biblical exegesis ( 1 , 39-44 ).
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The second book is devoted to studies having to do with the Bible and has
three sections: remarks and general principles on “ signs" and on the canon of
scripture (2, 1-13); knowledge ofthe biblical languages and an appraisal of the
translations of the Bible (2, 14-23) ; the aid given by the natural sciences, the
humanistic disciplines, and philosophy in the study of scripture (2, 24-63).
The third book, likewise in three sections, has for its subject the interpre
tation of sacred scripture: ambiguities in the text due to problems of gram
mar (3, 1-8); ambiguities in the scriptures due to a metaphorical use of
words, and charity as a hermeneutical criterion (3,9-41 ); a discussion of the
seven rules of Tychonius (3, 42-56).
The fourth book, which might be entitled “ the Christian teacher and
preacher,” explains, in four sections, how to expound and teach the truths
that have been learned : basic principles of oratory (4, 1-10) ; examples from
scripture (4, 11-26) ; the three aims and corresponding styles of oratory,with
examples from Paul and the Fathers (4, 27-50) ; ten rules for Christian ora
tory; prayer (4, 51-64 ).
1
 Introduction 13

The way in which Teaching Christianity is arranged has focused attention

on some expressions used by Augustine that, along with the pregnant term
doctrina, make it possible to define more closely the shape and structure of
the treatise. Press has studied the use of tracto - tractatio (" treatment" ) 133 and
the special character of the rhetorical element in Teaching Christianity; he
sees this as being in the line of the classical tradition and he defines it as “ an
account of tractatio scripturarum ,” in which “classical rhetorical theory has
been transformed to meet the needs and serve the purposes of a new commu
nity and a new culture.”" 14

Theology and Pastoral Activity

The relationship of theology to pastoral activity, to which only passing ref

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erences are made in the various studies that analyze Teaching Christianity and
pass judgment on it, deserves some further attention . After all, it is a relation
ship that pervades the whole of Augustine's activity, and it can be said that, un
like our own age, there were no periods of real crisis in this relationship nor did
it become especially problematic throughout a large part of the patristic age,
when theology and pastoral activity ordinarily collaborated and influenced
each other.
The reason for this necessary connection was recently pinpointed by the
Church's Magisterium in an Instruction that has given rise to debate. The es
sentially exegetico-theological activity of the Fathers (it was said) took
place in medio Ecclesiae (“ in the midst of the Church"); the Fathers were ac
tive participants within a setting of liturgy and the Church and they were ani
mated by a genuinely apostolic faith in their thinking and speaking. 15
In Teaching Christianity Augustine intends to instruct Christians how to
practice a “ faith that has been thought out” and and to avoid and surmount
the obstacle created by a particular educational tradition that had become
rigidified in the form of rhetoric . To this end, he skillfully places his pastoral
concern within the framework of biblical theology. This fruitful interrela
.

tionship, which for centuries nourished the faith and " Christian education,"
comes down to us in its richly relevant reality and provides the key for read
ing “ a very modern book . ” 16
Let us therefore look again at the essential lines and most salient stages of
the work.
1 ) The sections most directly dealing with theology are to be found especially
throughout the first book of Teaching Christianity, and Augustine gives the rea
son for this while at the same time delimiting the scope and extent of what he has
to say: “ I have wished to talk about things to do with faith, as much as I
14 Introduction

judged sufficient for the moment; because much has already been said on the
matter in other volumes, whether by other people or by myself."'!? What he is
offering, then, is a concise review , a “ short inventory," of truths in the area of
dogma and morality18 that constitute as it were the essence of Christianity
according to biblical revelation 19'' and that are here placed in the pedagogical and
educational perspective proper to the treatise. In this setting, the area of the
“ disciplines, " rather than being subordinated , is closely connected with the
requirements of " doctrine "; thus to know and to teach are two complementary
phases of a single theological and pastoral activity.20
Fundamental to this pastoral didactics is the assertion of God's absolute
transcendence2l and resulting ineffability.22 It follows from this that God is truly
sought beyond the ladder of created living things and even beyond the life of
the intellect, which by its essence is immersed in the realm of what is mutable.
In God, wisdom , which is identified with what is immutable, is infinite.23 But if
God is completely ineffable, then it is impossible to affirm even his ineffability.
The only way of escaping from this paradoxical aporia is by silence,24 but a
silence that is swiftly overtaken by the need and compelling desire to speak of
God, who “ has accepted the homage of human voices," which express praise
and thereby bring immense joy.25
At the outset, there is a connatural intuition that impels the mind to think of
a being " than which there is nothing better or more sublime. " 26 In this way, the
truth of God that emerges from the bosom of this fruitful silence becomes the
object of a joy that eventually leads to the fullness of enjoyment; it offers an
exciting prospect that opens upon the " way " of the human being to the
homeland; everything else, the res, is simply a means which one “ uses " in order
to attain to the “ enjoyment” of the supreme Good. The dialectical distinction
between using " and " enjoying " (uti - frui) is already anticipated here.27 The
fullness of this enjoyment is to be found in the relationship with the Trinity, the
one substance in which the Father is distinct as unity, the Son as equality, and
the Holy Spirit as “ the harmony of unity and equality .” 28 In addition to the
repeated emphasis on the equality of nature in the three divine Persons, we
glimpse a reassertion ofthe doctrine ofsubstantial, because immutable, relations
that grounds the principle of the trinitarian distinction of Persons. This is the
line taken in The Trinity, which, even chronologically, moves in parallel as it
were with Teaching Christianity.29
All this requires that human beings undertake a journey of enlightenment and
purification that would be impossible for them if their weakness were not offset
by the very “ wisdom " of God , which manifests itself “ in mortal flesh " and
draws them to itself in a process of assimilation. This wisdom is the Word “ who
became flesh and dwelt among us. "30
 Introduction 15

The identification of Wisdom with the Word made flesh , which is later taken
up explicitly,31 recalls the personification of sophia -sapientia -wisdom in the
Book of Proverbs and, in particular, the tortuous Christological exegesis of the
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famous passage, Proverbs 8:22, an exegesis that had a long life, especially in
the East.32 Augustine develops a sagacious line of reasoning that reveals his
pastoral concerns, as in the light of 1 Corinthians 1:21 and John 1:10 he applies
the biblical idea of incarnate wisdom to the history of salvation. “ Wisdom " was
already in the world, but human beings did not recognize him; the resultant
impossibility of their knowing God through wisdom became part of the wise
plan of God , who sent the Word Wisdom into the world to save believers
"through
“ the folly of preaching ."33 This conception sums up the Augustinian
doctrine of the mediation of Christ in its various aspects: it is one, because the
mediator, the God -Man , is one;34 it is the cause of freedom and salvation for
human beings ;35 it is universal.36
Characteristic of Christologicalreferences in Teaching Christianity 1 , 11 is
the recourse, frequently practiced by Augustine, to the analogy with human
thought, the intention being to shed light on the mystery of the Word who
became flesh “ in order to dwell amongst us” “ without being changed in the
least.” As thought achieves communication by taking the form of sound and yet
in the process undergoes no change but remains “ undiminished in itself,” so
the Word of God takes flesh in order to manifest himself, but his nature remains
unchanged. This image helped an essential formula of faith enter into and spread
through the stream of tradition and thus to become a bit of the patristic riches
inherited by the liturgy : Quod fuitpermansit,quod non erat assumpsit (“ What
he was he remained; what he was not he assumed").37
The incarnate Word effects redemption by " curing some of our ills by their
contraries, others by homeopathic treatment," just as medicine does, that is,
applied to the illnesses of the body. Humanity fell through pride and is cured by
humility; the supposed wisdom of the tempter caused humanity's ruin , and the
“ folly ” of God saves it; the corrupted soul of a woman caused the disease, but
9

we are saved from this by " a woman's body preserved intact." Conversely, the
man who was led astray by a woman is set free “ by one born of aa woman ” ;
human beings are saved by a human being, mortals by a mortal, and the dead
are redeemed by his death.38 The ultimate goal of the redemption is assimilation
to Christ, the uncreated and ineffable Wisdom of God , which while being our
home also becomes the way to that home, the way to the Father.39 In keeping
with Pauline soteriology,40 Augustine sees in the resurrection and ascension of
Christ the source of a great hope that nourishes and sustains the faith of believers.
Not only that : the theologically indestructible support of this faith is the fact that
16 Introduction

the resurrection shows us "how willingly he had laid down his life for us, by
having the power in this way to take it up again ." 41
In short, Christ's free choice of the supreme sacrifice (his free will was a
subject of lengthy debate before and during the Councils of Ephesus and
Chalcedon) is the act of love that united the death and resurrection of the Lord
into a single mystery of salvation .
When seen from a viewpoint dear to Augustine and expressed, here again,
by an analogy that links the process leading to resurrection with the interior life
of the human person , the resurrection of the flesh is part of the mystery of Christ:
After death, which is due to " the chains of sin , " the body will be " refashioned
for the better" by putting on immortality,42 just as the soul, in virtue of
repentance and conversion , is transformed for the better and renewed.
This line of thought includes an indispensable reference to the nature and
final destiny of the Church. The gifts which human beings receive from God on
their journey to resurrection are meant for the building up of his Church.
Referring explicitly to Saint Paul,43 Augustine says that the Church is both body
and spouse of Christ and gathers into a healing unity the many members who
have been purified by numerous temporal trials, “ so that, once it has been
snatched from this world, he may bind his wife the Church to himself for ever,
not having any stain or wrinkle, or any such thing. '44 The unity of the Church
as thus conceived implies the reality of a " body " whose members receive a
life - giving solidarity from the head, which is Christ.45 On its journey through
time the Church possesses “ the keys " of forgiveness and mercy that have been
entrusted to it by Christ; faith in this power obtains a forgiveness of sins that is
ratified by heaven .
Augustine's explanation delves once again into the intricacies of religious
psychology and brings to light aa disconcerting aspect of this psychology: those
who do not believe that their sins can be forgiven them are trapped in a despair 1

that renders them worse, as though they were convinced that without this faith
"nothing better remains for them than to be evil. " *46 This paradox expresses
Augustine's conviction that for the exercise of the power to absolve that has
been granted to the Church there is an essential condition, namely, a heartfelt
repentance that is the habitual practice of every authentic spiritual life. "47
But the primary and basic task of this power of the keys is to give an authentic
interpretation of the scriptures, one that reveals the kingdom of charity " and
guides those who have received the " key " of forgiveness and of the spiritual
life.48 Augustine's thinking thus broadens and extends to the universal media
tory role of the Church, a role mysteriously connected with the universal salvific
1

love of Christ. Augustine's ecclesiology, while taking account of the dynamic 1

co -presence of Christ, the Church, and human beings, lays a greater emphasis
 Introduction 17

on the doctrine of the birth of God in the heart of the believer, " the interiority
of the heart, as compared with the rest of the patristic tradition, especially the
Greek.49
2) The ethical content of Teaching Christianity, which is primarily and
closely connected with the truths of faith and therefore with dogma, which forms
as it were the basic fabric,so is inspired by the key distinction between uti and
frui, “ use " and " enjoyment," both of which are understood on the decisive
ontological level,si even though the distinction is situated on the level of
" scientific knowledge about res and signa . " The use- enjoyment pair is the point
of convergence for the fundamental motifs of Augustine's theology of Christian
love with its two branches: human love and the love of God for human beings.
Augustine locates the relation between the Good and goods, between divine
Love and human loves, beyond the realm of " things." At the same time, he
limits human use to created things understood as " instruments " for reaching
the supreme goal, which is God , who alone is the proper object of enjoyment
because he is the only reality that is to be loved "for itself." 2 Augustine uses a
fine comparison to explain the dialectic of these relationships: As " exiles in a
foreign land,” people on the way to our own country, we cannot lose ourselves
in the pleasures of the journey " and stop to " enjoy" what we can really only
“ use,” but “ we have to use this world, not enjoy it, so that we may behold the
invisible things of God," which are made understandable through created
things.53
Some have thought to find in the Augustinian conception of love a kind of
“egocentrism” and resultant " instrumentalism . **54 Nygren had made a thor
ough study of this question and formulated a double answer." In its object the
Augustinian conception is definitely theocentric, because no object can vie
with God for our love "; but if we consider the kind of love, the conception is
clearly egocentric, because “ even in God I seek my own good ." O'Connor even
says: “ This, of course, violates the well -known Kantian principle of always
treating persons as ends and never merely as means. " :56 The weak point of this
statement, however, is that it does not take into account the difference in
perspective: Kant's is immanent (“ the realm of ends"), Augustine's is transcen
dent and metaphysical . 7 It is in this particular perspective that we must view
the hierarchy of ends established by the ordo amoris, in which the enjoyment
of God includes both love of neighbor (and forgiveness as an act of a will that
is strengthened by memory and not by forgetfulness ) and a virtuous self- love. ' :58
The epicenter and full motivation of this “ theology of Christian love " are
found in God's love for humanity, in the unfathomable depths of the “meta
physics ofGod as Love. " S9 Since God is by nature love, he cannot but love either
by way of enjoyment or by way of use. He cannot love human beings with
18 Introduction

enjoyment, since that would represent an absurdity, inasmuch as God would

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have to love a being “ outside of" himself as an ultimate and finalizing object;
in the final analysis he would be not-God.60 Therefore God, who is the fullness
of being, loves human beings insofar as he “ uses" them, but not in the way that
we " use" others in our love of the neighbor. The analogy brings into focus the
vast difference between God and human beings and the absolute ontological
divine transcendence: God loves as creator, humans love as creatures; God's
love is changeless, the love of human beings is subject to the mutability of their
nature; the love of human beings spurs them to the enjoyment of God, while
God loves them because they enjoy him.61 It is this “theocentric perspective"
that governs Augustinian anthropology, the original contributions of which
enrich the fundamental elements of the patristic tradition.62
Having received from God “ both their very existence and their love for
him, " 63 human beings are taken up and elevated to the level of participation ,"
which makes them be “ in the image and likeness” of God; and this elevated
"nature " of theirs flows out and finds expression in the dynamic love that is the
essence of the image-likeness, which is in constant tension toward the Infinite.64
What is brought to light here is the true, that is, interior, character of our journey
of purification , in the footsteps of Christ, toward the beatifying union with the
changeless Truth.65
The complex subject of the Christian freedom that presides over this journey
of purification and salvation is the subject of a rapid but important reference in
connection with signs,66 that is, with " things" that signify other things and refer
to these. Among these signs are the sacraments, such as baptism and the
eucharist, “ so awesome to understand and so pure and chaste to celebrate . "
These we venerate “ not in a spirit of carnal slavery, but rather of spiritual
freedom , ” so that we will not be slavishly bound to the letter and will avoid
substituting the “ signs " as such for the things signified.67The reference to and
broad distinction between sign and thing signified are an indispensable element
in any discussion of the sacramental teaching of Augustine, in which sacramen
tum is normally connected with sign.68
A further original touch is to be found in the context of the subject under
discussion: freedom thus understood is also aa liberation that is expressed in and
made a reality by the resurrection of the Lord ,69 which thus advances and guides
70
the eschatological journey of sacramental grace.?
A subtle and widespread snare endangers human freedom : the superstitious
practices more or less connected with magic. An especially harmful practice is
astrology with its resulting astrological fatalism.7l Writers before or contempo
rary with Augustine attacked the foolishness of this birthday science," which
imagined that it could predict the fate of the newborn child on the basis of
 Introduction 19

mysterious calculations of the position of the stars at the moment of its birth.72
But, using the well -known and widespread argument of Carneades, they at
tacked more explicitly the disturbing results of astrological fatalism , which
strangled personal freedom and destroyed the foundation of social life.73
With the dialectic of freedom and with the theology of Christian love is
connected the theme of love of self and of one's own body, as part of the
problematic relationship of body and soul.74 In dealing with this problem here
Augustine remains " closer to the Pauline reading of it than to the dualistic
presuppositions of Neoplatonism"7s that are to be seen in other Augustinian
contexts. The view expressed here is a reasonable balance in which the writer
asserts the positive value of the body but at the same time its subordination to
the life of the spirit in a relationship of integration and harmony that is pursued
in this life and rendered complete and comprehensive in eternity after the
resurrection .
In this view there is implicit a theological perspective involving creation and
the incarnation and resurrection of Christ, and, at the same time, the theology of
the mystical body.76 The theology of the incarnation , in particular, brings out the
positive value of the human body and the unsustainability of any depreciation of
and attack upon the body.77 The resurrection will renew the substantial union of
body and soul, ensuring an indestructible existence for both ; but it will bring death
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to the wicked and eternal life to the just. In the first case , there is aа clear reference
to the second death " that definitively and permanently separates the soul from
God . This death is due to the attitude of those who do not renounce the world or
undertake the journey of conformity to the truth and are therefore " dragged down
78
by the death of the body into a more grievous death still.
These are the most important “ fragments " of theology that are strewn
especially throughout the first book of Teaching Christianity; but the fragments
are solidly connected with the dominant idea, namely, “ the theology of Chris
tian love" that is revealed in the scriptures.

Dogmatic Exegesis
In aa short essay entitled “ Exegesis and Dogmatic Theology,", 79 Karl Rahner
brought into focus the not always peaceful relationship between exegetes and
dogmatic theologians and pointed out the attitude of mutual coldness and
distrust and even, at times, of resentment that prevailed between them. The result
was a certain distance between the two camps of exegesis and dogmatic
theology. To bridge this gap Rahner proposed a method and aa basic objective,
namely, to do both exegesis and dogmatic theology as a " service" to the
Magisterium and therefore to all human beings, to whom the gospel message is
20 Introduction

addressed. This is a very pastoral outlook, in which tasks of a rather overwhelm

ingly scientific and technical nature are directed to facilitating the teaching of
the faith to modern human beings.80
As in the case of the earlier-mentioned relation between theology and
pastoral practice, the problem of exegesis and dogmatic theology calls for a
return to the experience of the Fathers, for whom exegesis and dogmatic
theology normally worked hand in hand. Augustine is aa typical example of this
collaboration: his dogmatic works show aa solid basis in biblical exegesis, and
in his specifically exegetical works, especially those that are wide- ranging, we
see exegesis firmly directed to the service of a dominant doctrinal concern .81
But a critical appraisal of Augustinian exegesis in its various aspects, on which
a great deal has been written , is a complicated matter, since it must take into
account, first and foremost, a vast activity that was carried on over a lengthy
period of time and thus made room for a succession of understandable second
thoughts and nuanced changes of view.82
From the viewpoint of the long -lasting controversy between literalists and
allegorists Augustine's exegesis is quite balanced: while he gives a sometimes
exclusively literal interpretation of many pages of scripture, his predilection for
the spiritual meaning makes him an exegete who is “ ready to engage in
allegorizing, but in moderation , " all the more so since he understands allegory
in a broad sense as " an interpretation based on figures" and usually uses such
9

words as “ figure ” in referring to the idea .83

Teaching Christianity is a basic text for understanding the methodology and
motifs that are typical of Augustinian exegesis. A foundational principle is the
superiority of the scriptures over every other rich text and even over the very
treasures of pagan culture,84 the reason being that the scriptures " contain
everything that a Christian, whether layperson or cleric , needs to know . " 85 But
the scriptures often put difficulties of various kinds in the way of understanding,
although, on the other hand, these are providential means of overcoming pride
through committed toil and of refreshing the mind when it experiences bore
dom .86 Augustine had had personal experience of these difficulties: the bare
simplicity and great modesty of the scriptures, which intellectual pride rejected
as " unworthy of being compared with the dignity of Cicero " ;87 embarrassment
at inconsistencies in the text, or the “ disagreement” between some narratives,
such as the two genealogies of Christ in Matthew and Luke.88
A further difficulty is due to the polysemy, or plurality of senses, in the
scriptures, a problem that engaged Augustine in various forms and for a long
9
time and that finds definitive formulations and " real progress " in Teaching
Christianity.89 The “ different" sense extracted from a biblical passage is
legitimate if it is confirmed by other passages of scripture and is therefore “ in
 Introduction 21

agreement with the truth": this falls under the action of God's Spirit and of
providence, which thus reveals the full, generous fruitfulness of the scriptures.
Only a person " well equipped and well furnished " will be able to discuss and
resolve the obscurities and many ambiguities contained in the scriptures.91
In dealing with signs, the ambiguities of which are due to sin ,92 it will be
necessary above all to distinguish between the proper" and "metaphorical"
senses and to allow oneself to be guided by the Spirit who gives life and to
avoid being enslaved by the letter that kills.94 Even the seven exegetical "rules"
set down by Tychonius for the allegorical interpretation of difficult or ambigu
ous biblical passages - rules which Augustine acknowledges to be of great help
in understanding the scriptures — are used under the standard and with the
attitude of spiritual freedom that allows the person to rise above the rigid
formulations of these rules and to find new " rules " beyond them. In any case ,
it will be useful and even necessary to have recourse at every moment to the
authority of the Church , to which Christ has entrusted the Bible as a “ sign .'" 995
Charity is the essential and supreme hermeneutical criterion in Augustinian
exegesis. Exegesis is thus linked to the central theology of love, and Augustine
can, even as an exegete, be called the “ Doctor of charity." 96 The study of
scripture must be done with a diligent and unremitting attention , " until your
interpretation of it is led right through to the kingdom of charity." 97 This is
accomplished in the light of five fundamental principles involving the three
theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity; while the first two fade away in
" 998
eternal life, charity “ will abide, more vigorous and certain than ever.
In this way, every error will be avoided, especially the error of loving one's
own interpretation to the detriment of the scriptures themselves, the result then
being a vacillating faith and a consequent drying up of charity. Augustine's
insight sees in this process an evangelical paradox: those who have firm
possession of the three theological virtues have no need of the scriptures except
" as a means of forming others.” Many, in fact, are able to live in solitude
" without books," because what the apostle says in an eschatological perspec
tive that applies to the here and now has already come to pass in them : “As for
prophecies, they shall be done away with , asfor tongues, they shall cease,
as for knowledge, it shall be done away with .” 100
Scripture is thus “ the means by which we are carried along" and is destined
to disappear when we have reached the final goal. 101 The image of a journey,
which has already been applied to the ongoing ethical tension in human life,
returns now as an exegetical journey through the seven degrees or stages of
love :102 fearful knowledge of the divine will ; modesty and piety in the presence
of scripture; true knowledge that teaches us to love God for his own sake and
the neighbor for the sake of God; fortitude; " counsel which goes with mercy”;
22 Introduction

love of neighbor with eyes purified; and, finally, “wisdom ," the last and most
important stage on a journey that starts with fear of God 103 and reaches the joy
of a full and serene contemplation of changeless love.104 Love thus guides and
coordinates all the stages of this biblical ascent in accordance with a dynamic
that becomes exemplary for the relationship between knowledge and charity.
Augustine devotes a lengthy section, in which he also takes up difficulties
and deviations, to the role of knowledge in relation to the scriptures, knowledge
being seen both as careful study and as a necessary store of wide -ranging
information. 105 Knowledge inspired by love builds up; otherwise it is empty, as
the apostle says: Knowledge puffs up, love builds up ( 1 Cor 8:2). Only when
accompanied by love does knowledge pierce the mystery and reach aa level that
is “ existential and experiential. ” Paul's profound words to the Ephesians supply
the key to this kind of knowledge,106 for they enable us to glimpse and “know"
the mystery of the cross, the dimensions of which embrace the universe. 107 Two
inseparable elements form the center and high point of this " existential experi
ence " : the hearing of the word and the Eucharist. 108 It is chiefly in the privileged
area of the New Testament dispensation that Augustine's exegesis, which is
characteristically Christocentric and ecclesial, forms a solid biblical theology. 109
Apart from the limitations noted and the reservations voiced by critics, 110
these are the most important and original results of Augustinian exegesis. It is
these that the few references to Teaching Christianity were meant to set forth
and reconfirm .

Theology of Oratory
The fourth book of Teaching Christianity is devoted, as Augustine himself
says, to “ a way to put across to others what has been understood " ll1 or, to put
it even more briefly, to the subject of Christian eloquence. While prescinding
from the properly rhetorical aspects, which will be considered separately, it
seems appropriate to call attention here to the underlying theology that charac
terizes and defines Augustine's explanation.
First of all , the basic assertion Augustine makes is that rhetoric, whose
devices are useful but not indispensable, must serve the truth , defend it against
error, and advance it.112 Following this line of thought, we reach a close
relationship, even a kind of unification , of eloquence with " wisdom ," 113 but a
>

union in which “ content controls form ." 114 On the other hand, the supreme and
unquestionable source of truth and “ wisdom " is the scriptures. Consequently,
the contents, the very form , and the explanatory tools will be modeled on what
the scriptures dictate, since these proclaim the great truths of salvation . Thus for
the Christian orator everything he says will always be of great importance.'15
 Introduction 23

The three functions of eloquence — to teach, to delight, to sway116_will also

draw their substantial inspiration from the requirements of the scriptures.
Teaching, which is a response to the Lord's categorical command,117 predomi
nates and justifies the other two. But, as has been said elsewhere, all this, once
again, presupposes and requires love as guide and standard of pedagogy. 118
Moreover, the determining motif in which the true teaching - oral or written
of a Christian " orator " is summed up and brought to completion is prayer; this
is the last and most important of the ten rules governing Christian eloquence: 119
let the preacher trust more in the piety of prayer" than in oratorical resources;
“ let him be a pray -er before being a speaker.'" 120
This final exhortation , which " certainly does not sound like a mere passing
thought," 121 is evidence once again of the typical Augustinian linking of
theology and pastoral practice with exegesis; it also sums up what may be called
the vertical and transcendent theological orientation of Teaching Christianity.
Mario Naldini

Notes

1. Revisions II, 4, 1. On the reasons for the long interruption see A. Pincherle, “ Sulla
.

composizione del De doctrina christiana di S. Agostino ," Studi in onore di E. Dupré Theseider
2 (Rome, 1974) 541-559.
2. Revisions II, 4, 1 .
3. M. Simonetti, Lettera e / o allegoria. Un contributo alla storia dell'esegesi patristica
(Rome, 1985) 338.
4. H. I. Marrou, S. Agostino e la fine della cultura antica (Milan, 1987) 331 .
5. Ibid ., 334.
2

6. Teaching Christianity II, 39, 59.

7. Marrou , S. Agostino, 342 .
8. See E. Kevane, “ Augustine's De doctrina christiana: A Treatise on Christian Education ," .

Recherches Augustiniennes 4 (1966 ) 122-133; I. Opelt, “ Doctrina und doctrina christiana,"

Der altsprachliche Unterricht 9 (1966 ) 5-22; G. A. Press, “ The Subject and Structure of
Augustine's De doctrina christiana," Augustinian Studies 11 ( 1980) 101-107; idem, “ Doctrina
in Augustine's De doctrina christiana," Philosophy and Rhetoric 17 ( 1984) 98-120.
9. Press, “ Doctrina , " 103; L. M. J. Verheijen, “ Le De doctrina christiana de saint Augustin ,"
Augustiniana 24 ( 1974) 12. (De doctrina christiana can mean either “On the teaching professed
by Christianity " or “ On the activity of teaching Christianity ." —Tr .)
10. L. Alici , S. Agostino d'Ippona, La doctrina christiana (Milan, 1989) 31 ; Marrou, S.
Agostino, 314 .
11. Press, “ Doctrina," 114.
.

12. See Kevane, “ Augustine's De doctrina christiana," 112-117; Press, “ The Subject, "
112-116; idem, “ The Content and Argument of Augustine's De doctrina christiana," Augustini
ana 31 ( 1981 ) 165-182 ; Alici , S. Agostino d'Ippona, 33-41 .
13. Prologue 1 ; 1 , 1 ; 4, 1 .
9

14. Press, “ The Subject," 113-124; idem, “ Doctrina," 115 .

15. Instruction on the Study of the Fathers in the Formation of Priests, issued by the
24 Introduction

Congregation for Catholic Education (November 10, 1989), in Origins 19 (1989-90 ) 549-561 . See
also Instruction on the Ecclesial Vocation ofthe Theologian, isued by the Congregation for the
Doctrine of the Faith (May 24, 1990 ), in Origins 20 ( 1990-1991) 117-126. In the present situation
this latter document calls for a close collaboration between the Magisterium and theology. See the
description of the true theologian in Gregory of Nazianzus, Or. 27, 7 ( PG 36:20B; ed. Gallay, SC
250: 286).
16. P. Brown, Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (Berkeley, 1967) 267.
17. I, 40 , 44 .
18. Marrou, S. Agostino, 288, note 37.
19. Verheijen, “ Le De doctrina christiana," 12-14.
20. Alici , S. Agostino d'Ippona, 23.
21. Prologue, 8-9.
22. I, 6, 6–7,7.
23. I, 8, 8–9,9.
24. Order II, 16,44 : “ of thatsupreme good that is better knownbynot knowing"; Ans. Adimant.
11 : " before which the majesty ofGod) a respectful silence is more fitting than any human words."
See E. Gilson, The Christian Philosophy ofSaint Augustine, trans. L. E. M. Lynch (New York,
1960 ), Part III.
25. I, 6, 6.
26. I, 6, 7. On this probable source of Saint Anselm of Aosta's ontological argument see Alici,
S. Agostino d'Ippona, 109, note 1 .
27. See Marrou, S. Agostino, 288; G. Istace, “ Le livre ler du De doctrina christiana de saint
Augustin," Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses 32 ( 1956) 292-301 ; W. R. O'Connor, “The
Uti-frui Distinction in Augustine's Ethics," Augustinian Studies 14 ( 1983) 45-62.
28. I, 5, 5 .
29. See Trinity V, 5 , 6.
30. See John 1:14.
31. I, 34, 38 .
32. See M. Simonetti, Studi sull'arianesimo (Rome, 1965) 9ff.
33. 1 , 12, 12 .
34. Confessions. 10, 43, 68; City ofGod IX, 15, 2; Sermon 47, 1 .
35. Trinity IV.
36. City of God X, 32 , 2 ; X, 47 .
37. Liturgia Horarum I. Octava Nativitatis Domini, Ant. ad Bened. (In the English translation of
the Liturgy of the Hours the verse is translated: “He remains what he was and becomes what he was
not." — Tr.] See the comparable formula in the so -called “Faith of Damasus “ : “He did not lose what
he was, but began to be what he was not" (DS 72; trans. in J. Neuner and J. Dupuis (eds.), The Christian
Faith in the Doctrinal Documents of the Catholic Church (rev. ed .; Staten Island, NY, 1982) no. 15,
p. 11 ). The analogy with thinking recalls Augustine's teaching on the verbum cordis (Sermon 119,7).
See Leo the Great, Sermon 27, 1 ; H. Rahner, L'ecclesiologia dei Padri (Rome, 1971 ) 19.
38. I, 14, 13.
39. I, 11 , 11 and 34, 38. See Istace, “ Le livre ler," 312 .
40. 1 Cor 15 : 1ff.
41. I, 15, 14.
42. See 1 Cor 15 : 50-53 .
43. Eph 1:23; 5 :23-32 ; Rom 12 :4.
44. I, 15, 4–15 .
45. This is the well -known Augustinian conception of the whole Christ." See Sermon 45, 5 ;
S. Grabowsky, “ Saint Augustine and the Doctrine of the Mystical Body of Christ," Theological
Studies 7 ( 1946) 72-125 .
46. I, 17, 18.
47. H. Chadwick, Agostino ( Turin, 1989) 61 .
48. III, 15, 23; see II, 8, 12 .
49. Rahner, L'ecclesiologia dei Padri, 97.
 25
Introduction

50. See Istace, “ Le livre ler," 298.

51. See O'Connor, “ The Uti -frui Distinction ," 43-62.
52. I, 22, 20.
53. I, 4, 4 and 1 , 22, 21. See Marrou, S. Agostino, 288; A. Di Giovanni, La dialettica dell
amore . “ Uti-frui” nelle Preconfessioni do S. Agostino (Rome, 1965 ) (on the origin of theuti - frui
distinction in Augustine ). On the special relevance of this doctrine for ethics see O'Connor, “ The
Uti- frui Distinction ,“ 43 .
54. K. Holl, “ Augustins innere Entwicklung,“ Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Kirchengeschichte
3 ( 1938) 54-116.
55. A. Nygren , Agape and Eros, trans. P. S. Watson (Philadelphia, 1953) 449-562.
56. O'Connor, “ The Uti -frui Distinction ," 45 .
57. See O. O'Donovan , The Problem of Self- Love in Saint Augustine (New Haven, 1980)
158-159; in the author's view the criticism of Augustine's opponents is directed against the
hedonism which they find in the Augustinian conception .
58. R. Bodei, “ Ordo amoris. " Conflitti terreni e felicità celeste (Bologna, 1991) 153. See
Augustine, Sermon 301 /A, 6.
59. A. Di Giovanni, “ Metafisica del Dio - Amore nel De Doctrina Christiana," Augustinianum
6 ( 1966 ) 294-300 .
60. Ibid ., 296 .
61. I, 31 , 34–32 , 35. See Di Giovanni, “Metafisica del Dio -Amore," 299-300.
62. See V. Grossi, Lineamenti di antropologia patristica (Rome, 1083) 63, 103, 137-139; A.
G. Hamman , L’uomo immagine somigliante di Dio, Italian ed. under the general editorship of E.
Giannarelli (Milan, 1991) 54.
63. I, 29, 30.
64. See I, 33, 36—34, 38. This is an echo of the characteristic epektasis ( “ stretching out;
reaching forth " ) of Gregory of Nyssa.
65. I, 10, 10 and I, 17, 16. On the relationship to the analogous theme in Plato see Alici, S.
Agostino d'Ippona, 112 , note 1 .
66. II, 1 , 1 ; III, 8, 12-9, 13 .
67. III, 9, 13. See Teacher 9: the knowledge of the res is “ worth more " than the knowledge of
the signum .
68. Augustine follows the line taken by the Roman and African tradition , not that of his teacher,
Ambrose. The res sacramenti belongs to the order of symbolism , while the virtus or vis sacramenti
has to do with the efficacy of the sacrament. The res sacramenti is Christ and indirectly grace. See
H. M. Féret, “ Sacramentum , res, dans la langue théologique S. Augustin ," Revue des sciences
philosophiques et théologiques 29 ( 1940) 232-240. See N. Bobrinksoy, “ L'Esprit du Christ dans
les sacrements chez Jean Chrysostome et Augustin, " in Jean Chrysostome et Augustin (Actes du
Colloque de Chantilly 22-24 Sept. 1974), ed. Ch. Kannengiesser ( Théologie historique 35; Paris,
1975) 263-264.
69. It is in this sense that I understand the pregnant meaning of “ freedom " as used by Augustine in
III, 9, 13: “ the clearest indication of our freedom has shone upon us in the resurrection of our Lord."
70. See C. Couturier, “Eschatology in the Sacramental Teaching of Saint Augustine," Studia
Theologica I ( 1947) 5-26.
71. II, 20, 30—23, 35 .
72. II, 22 , 33-34 .
73. See Basil of Caesarea, Hexaem . 6, 7; D. Amand, Fatalisme et liberté dans l'antiquité
grecque (Amsterdam , 1973) 382 .
74. I, 24, 24–25 , 26.
75. Alici , S. Agostino d'Ippona, 126, note 1 .
76. I, 11 , 11-16, 15 .
77. I, 11 , 11—12, 13. See City ofGod X ,29, 2; Alici, S. Agostino d'Ippona, 126, note 3.
78. I, 20, 19. See Alici, S. Agostino d'Ippona, 119, note 1 .
79. K. Rahner, “ Exegesis and Dogmatic Theology , “ Theological Investigations 5, trans. K.-H.
Kruger (Baltimore, 1966) 67-93 .
26 Introduction

80. H. Rahner, Ecclesiologia dei Padri (Rome, 1971) 38.

81. See Simonetti, Lettera e / o allegoria, 342-344, 354. The main doctrinal themes discussed in
Augustinian exegesis are given in M. Pontet, L'exégèse de S. Augustin prédicateur (Paris, n. d.); M.
Comeau, Saint Augustin exégète du quatrième évangile (Paris, 1930 ).
82. See B. De Margerie, Introduzione alla storia dell'esegesi 3. Sant'Agostino, Italian trans.
ed. by V. Grossi (Rome, 1986).
83. Simonetti, Lettera elo allegoria, 341-342, note 404; 354. See the analysis by M. Marin,
***Allegoria' in Agostino," in La terminologia esegetica nell'antichità ( Atti del Primo Seminario
di antichità cristiana, Bari, 25 ottobre 1985; - Quaderni di Vetera Christianorum 20 ) 135-161 ; G.
Ripani, “ L'allegoria o l'intellectus figuratusnel De doctrina christiana di Agostino , " Revue des
études augustiniennes 18 ( 1972) 219-220.
84. II, 42, 63.
85. Marrou, S. Agostino, 318.
86. II, 6, 7. There are difficulties in understanding this passage. Green's text in CSEL 80: ad
.. intellectum a fastidio renovandum , which the codices support, has been corrected and
apparently normalized by other editors:ad .... revocandum ( removendum ? ). For thereading of
the codices and Green, which I follow ,see Quintilian, Inst. 6, 3, 1 : risus animum . afatigatione
renovat.
87. III, 5, 9.
88. De Margerie, Introduzione 3 : 16-17.
89. III, 25, 25—27, 38. See De Margerie, Introduzione 3:68.
90. Urged by his pastoral sense Augustine does not offer Christians a training in criticism but
“ endeavors to arouse in them a spiritual yearning" (Pontet, L'exégèse de S. Augustin prédicateur,
148) .
91.3, 1 , 1 .
92. II, 4, 5 .
93. II, 10, 15 ; III, 10, 14.
94. See Alici, S. Agostino d'Ippona, 230-231 , note 1 .
95. See IV , 8, 22 .
96. De Margerie, Introduzione 3:33, 44, 178.
97. III, 15, 23 .
98. I, 36, 40—40, 44. See 1 Cor 13 : 8 and 13.
99. 1 Cor 13 : 8 .
100. I, 39, 43.
101. On the theme of the transitoriness of the scriptures as such see de Margerie, Introduzione
3:38, 42 , and 52 , with the implicit application of the uti-frui theory to the scriptures.
102. II, 7, 9-11 .
103. See Ps 110: 10; Sir 1:16.
104. The journey described is that of the purification of wisdom , an idea that goes back to Plato
( Phaedo 99c -d ). See Teaching Christianity I, 10, 10; Alici, S. Agostino d'Ippona, 112, note 1 ;
159, note 4.
105. II, 7, 9–41, 62 .
106. Eph 3 : 18-19.
107. II, 41 , 62. See H. Schlier, Lettera agli Efesini (Brescia, 1965) 208-212. The Pauline idea of
the cosmic significance of the cross had long inspired patristic soteriology. See Justin, Apol. 1, 55.
108. Sermon 56, 6, 10; 58, 4, 5 ; see de Margerie, Introduzione 3: 182-85.
109. De Margerie, Introduzione 3 : 139, 179.
110. Ibid ., 174-81 .
111. I, 1 , 1 ; IV, 1 , 1 .
112. IV, 2, 3.
113. IV , 5, 7–6, 10.
114. M. Marin, “ Retorica ed esegesi in Sant'Agostino," in L'umanesimo di Sant'Agostino
(Mari, 1988) 216.
115. IV, 18, 35 .
 Introduction 27

116. IV, 12 , 27-14, 31 .

117. Mt 28:19.
118. See The Instruction of Beginners III, 6, 4.
119. IV, 22 , 31—30, 63.
120. IV, 15, 32. See Letter 130. See The Teacher 7 for the connection between prayer and
teaching.
121. Alici, S. Agostino d'Ippona, 360, note 1