Buku Prose

UNDERSTANDING PROSE:
UNDERSTANDING An Introduction
PROSE:
Compiled by:
An Introduction
Amir Hamzah, S.S., M.Pd.
Compiled by: Amir Hamzah, S.S., M.P.d
2020
IPI GARUT PRESS
IPI GARUT PRESS

UNDERSTANDING PROSE: AN INTRODUCTION
Amir Hamzah
ISBN : 978-623-92921-9-5
Editor: Amir Hamzah
© IPI GARUT PRESS

Published by IPI GARUT PRESS
Institut Pendidikan Indonesia (IPI) Garut
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Cetakan pertama, Januari 2020
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tertulis dari Penerbit.
Preface ………………………………………………………. i
Preface Contents ……………………………………………………... ii
PROSE ………………………………………………………. 1
1. Introduction ……..……………………..……………….. 1
In the name of Allah, Most Compassionate, Most Merciful.
2. Definition of Prose ....………………..…………………. 2
All praises are due to Allah; we praise Him; we seek His help; we
3. Difference between prose and Poetry ………………….. 3
seek His forgiveness; and we seek His guidance. I bear witness
4. Varieties of Prose ………………………………………. 5
that there is none worthy of worship except Allah, for whom there
4.1. Descriptive Prose …………………………………. 5
is no partner. And I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant
4.2. Narrative Prose ……………………………………. 7
and Messenger.
4.3. Expository Prose ………………………………….. 9
I would like to take this opportunity to express praise and to 5. Genre and subgenre ……………………………………. 11
thank Allah for giving me the opportunity to write and/or compile 6. Similarity and difference ………………………………. 11
this book. The materials have been developed to introduce the 7. Structure ………………………………………………... 12
students to prose fiction which is a genre of literature. Students 8. Types of Prose …………………………………………. 14
will have to master and employ each of the prose mechanisms such 8.1. Nonfictional Prose …………………………………. 14
as thematic system, plot configuration, setting management, Essay ………………………………………………. 14
characterization, and language figuration in their academic/ Biography …………………………………………. 14
professional spheres. Autobiography …………………………………….. 15
I hope that this humble effort could be of some benefit to the Speech ……………………………………………... 15
students to improve their knowledge. Travelogue …………………………………………. 15
Diary ……………………………………………….. 16
Letter ………………………………………………. 16
8.2. Prose Fiction ………………………..……………… 16
8.3. Heroic Prose ……………………………………….. 17
8.4. Prose Poem ………………………………………… 17
Garut, 24 September 2019 9. Prose Fiction ………………………..………………….. 17
24 Muharram 1441 10. Prose Fiction and History ……………………………… 20
11. Types of Prose Fiction …………………………………. 21
11.1. Fable …………………………………………….. 21
11.2. Short Story ………………………………………. 23
11.3. Novella ………………...………………………... 25
11.4. Novel ………..…………………………………... 26
11.4.1. The Picaresque Novel ………………….. 27
11.4.2. Gothic Novel …………………………… 28
11.4.3. Epistolary Novel ………………………... 29
11.4.4. Historical Novel ………………………… 30
11.4.5. Social/Sociological Novel ……………… 31
i ii
11.4.6. Psychological Novel ……………………. 32
11.4.7. Political/Novel of Ideas ………………… 33
11.4.8. Magic/Magical Realism ………………… 33
11.4.9. Bildungsroman …………………………. 33
11.5. Science fiction …………………………………... 34
12. Elements of Fiction …………………………………….. 35
12.1. Theme …………………………………………… 36
12.2. Plot ………………………………………………. 38
12.3. Characters ……………………………………….. 43
12.3.1. Characterization ………………………… 45
12.3.2. Characterization Techniques …………… 47
12.4. Point of View ……………………………………. 51
12.5. Setting …………………………………………… 53
12.6. Style ……………………………………………... 56
12.7. Symbol …………………………………………... 56
12.8. Tone ……………………………………………... 57
12.9. Irony …………………………………………….. 58
13. Figures of Speech ……………………………………… 58
a. Personification …………………………………….. 59
b. Simile ……………………………………………… 59
c. Metaphor …………………………………………... 59
d. Hyperbole ………………………………………….. 60
e. Metonymy …………………………………………. 60
f. Synecdoche ………………………………………... 60
g. Understatement or Litotes …………………………. 61
h. Irony ……………………………………………….. 61
i. Alliteration ………………………………………… 61
14. Glossary ………………………………………………... 62
References ………………………………………………….. 74
iii
UNDERSTANDING PROSE: An Introduction UNDERSTANDING PROSE: An Introduction
PROSE 2. Definition of Prose

Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical
1. Introduction structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary
Literature is defined as:
grammatical structure rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the
‘Written works, e.g. fiction, poetry, drama, and criticism that are
case of traditional poetry.
recognized as having important or permanent artistic value are
referred to as literature.’ Prose is the written equivalent of the spoken language. It is
written in words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and chapters. It
Or
utilizes punctuation, grammar and vocabulary to develop its
‘The body of written works of a culture, language, people, or message. Prose is made up of fiction and nonfiction. Prose is the
period of time is called literature.’ way you speak everyday. If someone followed you around and
Literature perhaps started with man discovering his ability reported on your actions and conversations, the result would be
to create. When this happened, he realized that he could not only prose.
express his emotions in writing but in the process convey The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) defines prose as
messages of importance to society carefully hidden in beautiful ‘straightforward discourse’ or ‘the ordinary form of written or
words. spoken language’. The ordinariness of prose makes it different
Literature includes both written and spoken material. On a from poetic language, which, at its most characteristic, is
broader level, ‘Literature’ includes anything from creative writing recognisable from the presence of rhyme or metre. This
to more technical or scientific works, but most commonly the term ordinariness is a strength from the perspective of communicative
refers to works of the creative imagination, i.e. poetry, drama, efficiency and flexibility.
prose and novel. Prose is derived from the Latin word prosa which literally
Literature has two major aspects, one is of simple enjoyment means 'straight-forward.' It is like talking to someone in a straight-
and aesthetic appeal to the senses, and other is of analysis and forward manner and not in a sing-song or poetic way. This means
exact description of the prevailing condition of society in general that anything you say or write in prose is presented in a straight-
and man in particular. So, studying literature with these two forward manner. For instance, this course material is presented in
aspects provides us an opportunity to experience entirely new prose.
worlds. Like when a song appeals to the ear or a noble book to the There are many views on the construction of prose but the
heart, we discover a new world for the moment, at least, a summary of these views is that it has a simple and loosely defined
completely new world which is very different from our own world structure. There is usually no effort to present prose in any
and it seems that we are in a place of dreams and magic. particular or special structure. This lack of formal structure makes
Some of the major genres of English Literature are as under: it to be adopted as the general mode of communication in many
1. Poetry formal and informal presentations like the spoken dialogue,
2. Drama speeches, factual, topical and fictional writing. This means that
most of the books you read are presented in prose and that you also
3. Novel
talk in prose form.
4. Prose
[1] [2]
Prose is a form of language that exhibits a grammatical how ideas and emotions are communicated and how the style suits
structure and a natural flow of speech, rather than a rhythmic the content.
structure as in traditional poetry. Where the common unit
When you go to see a dance, you are not interested in
of verse is based on meter or rhyme, the common unit of prose is
seeking information. When you see a good dance, you enjoy it. In
purely grammatical, such as a sentence or paragraph.
other words, the objective is enjoyment and not mere information
Prose is made up of complete sentences which constitute
or instruction. When you like a particular dance, you go and see
paragraphs in a narrative form. Prose reflects the pattern of
that dance over and over again because every time you see it, you
everyday speech. If words are not presented in prose, they are
get a new aesthetic experience. In the case of poetry and literary
presented in poetry or verse form that adheres to a particular
prose, you have what you call your favourite poem or passage.
metric form and definite structure. Poetry has a more systematic
You read it several times and are not tired of it. If it is an ordinary
form of presentation than prose. However, in prose the writer does
prose passage, the moment you understand the meaning, you don't
not just present words whether they make sense or not. Words in
want to read it again. In literary prose as well as in poetry, it is not
prose are arranged in correct sentences and in a logical sequence
just the meaning that is important, but also the medium. It is often
for a meaningful understanding of the intended communication. In
difficult to say what is more important, the form or the content.
view of this, Samuel Taylor Coleridge insists in his definition of
There is, however, inseparability between the two, togetherness. It
prose and poetry that; “prose is —words in their best order;
is the togetherness of the sound and the sense; it is the togetherness
poetry,—the best words in their best order.” (Quoted in Hall 62).
of form and content. This is what is unique to great literature.
Even in everyday speech, we arrange words in a proper way for
the presentation to make sense in the language of communication. In dancing, every gesture is important for the position that it
In writing therefore, anything that is not presented in verse is occupies in that particular dance. No one posture is more important
presented in prose. or less important than another. Each gesture contributes to the total
effect of the dance. In the same way, in a good poem or a piece of
literary prose, every word is important for the position it occupies
3. Difference between prose and Poetry in it, and contributes to its total effect. Again, in a good dance,
when the dance is on, you cannot distinguish the dancer from the
A French poet and critic, Paul Valery, compared prose to
dance. In any great poem or passage of literary prose, it will be
walking and poetry to dancing. We walk in order to go from one
difficult to separate the effect of the medium from the effect of the
place to another. We do it for a particular purpose. When we walk
message. We do paraphrase a poem, but the paraphrase of a poem
for exercise, we do it for the improvement of our health. In other
is not the poem. A prose piece can be paraphrased, summarised but
words, walking is utilitarian, that is, it is something that we do
not a poem. The meaning of the poem is the meaning that you
with a purpose in view. We are talking about ordinary prose and
experience every time you read the poem and you cannot say of
not literary prose. Ordinary prose is like walking. We use words to
any poem that you've exhausted it. .The 'literariness' of a particular
give information, to get something done, to make someone do
poem or prose piece lies partly in this quality. A literary piece
what we want him/her to do, and so on. In ordinary prose, what is
usually has layers of meaning, for the writer works through
important is the message. But this is not the primary consideration
suggestion, allusion, imagery and other such devices. The use of
in literary prose. What is important also is how language is used,
literary devices alone does not make a piece "literary". What is
important is the way in which they contribute to the unity and
[3] [4]
thereby the final effect of the piece. Every time you go to it, you Mr. Squeers' appearance was not prepossessing. He
get a new meaning, a new aesthetic delight. This is mainly because had but one eye, and the popular prejudice runs in
of the connotation of the words in poetry. favour of two. The eye he had was unquestionably
useful, but decidedly not ornamental: being of a
greenish grey, and in shape resembling the fan-light of
4. Varieties of Prose a street door. The blank side of his face was much
wrinkled and puckered up, which gave him a very
In ordinary prose, the aim is to communicate one's thoughts
sinister appearance, especially when he smiled, at
and feelings. What is important then is (a) what one wants to say,
which times his expression bordered closely on the
and (b) how one chooses to say it. What is said is the topic or
villainous. His hair was very flat and shiny, save at the
subject of the composition. How it is said is the style or manner
ends, where it was brushed stiffly up from a low
in which the topic is expressed. The style, of course, greatly
protruding forehead, which assorted well with his
depends upon who we are writing for and what sort of personality
harsh voice and coarse manner. He was about two or
we have. There are different topics and different styles. Whatever
three and fifty, and a trifle below the middle size; he
the number of topics, they all come under one or another variety of
wore a white neckerchief with long ends, and a suit of
prose and each variety may have a distinct style of its own.
scholastic black; but his coat sleeves being a great
What then are the different varieties of prose? For purposes deal too long, and his trousers a great deal too short,
of analysis we have categorised them as (a) descriptive, (b) he appeared ill at ease in his clothes, and as if he were
narrative and (c) expository. But these three are not mutually in a perpetual state of astonishment at finding himself
exclusive. Sometimes you find more than one variety in a piece of so respectable.
work. It depends on the skill and intention of the writer. For
This is a graphic description of the appearance of Mr.
example, in a novel or short story, we are likely to find all these
Squeers. The details are so sharp that we can easily visualize the
varieties of prose worked together in interesting and innovative
person. We are told about his height, his eye, his face, hair,
combinations.
forehead and dress. A successful description, it enables us to
picture the person vividly. It is also a very enjoyable passage. Did
4.1. Descriptive Prose
you notice the irony in 'He had but one eye, and the popular
Descriptive writing describes things as they are or as they prejudice runs in favour of two'? The irony and subtle humour
appear to be. It can be the description of a person or a landscape or continue throughout the passage so that the reader cannot help
an event. In descriptive writing, we are able to see things as they smiling to her1 himself. The eye is further likened to 'the fan-light
are or were seen or heard or imagined by the describer. A good of a street door'- a very interesting and unusual analogy. You must
description translates the writer's observation into vivid details and also have noticed how carefully Dickens chooses his words so that
creates an atmosphere of its own. Through his/her description, the we can 'see' the hair that was 'very flat and shiny', 'hear' his 'harsh
author tries to recreate what she has seen or imagined. A fine voice' and so on. These then are some of the devices that you will
description is a painting in words. Here is a description of Mr. find used effectively in literary prose.
Squeers in Charles Dickens' Nicholas Nickleby (1838-39): Here is another descriptive passage:
[5] [6]
Ishtiaq Ali is a thin man of medium height. He looks Narration is concerned with action and actors, it may make use of
older than his age -- he is about 50.... Even after a long description but description is secondary. Action, characters and
service, his salary remains meager. An unlettered man, setting are the elements that are woven into a pattern to make the
his family expanded in a big way -- he has nine narrative interesting. Rudyard Kipling mentioned the ingredients
children. (Pushp K. Jain, 'On the Ofttrodden Tracks', of a narrative in the following verse:
The Times of India, April 27, 1989).
I keep six honest-serving men
Does this delight us in the same way that the previous They taught me all I know:
passage did? Perhaps not. Although it certainly does give us some Their names are What and Why and When
information about Ishtiaq Ali. Where is the difference? It is in the And How and Where and Who
use of language. Here the language is purely functional with bald
What happens? Why does it happen? When does it happen?
statements aimed at providing information rather than delight. In
How does it happen? Where does it happen and to whom does it
the earlier passage, it is a pleasure to read the sentences again and
happen? All these questions are answered satisfactorily in a
again savouring their suggestiveness.
narrative. What makes a narrative interesting is not just what is
As we have seen, successful description makes you visualize said but the way it is said. In short, what we wish to point out is
the scene or the person. Generally, description is not an that narrative writing makes use of narration as well as description.
independent form of writing, that is, a whole book will not consist In order to dramatize the situation, dialogues and conversations are
of descriptions alone. It is often used as an aid to narrative or introduced so that the writer is able to recreate the situation and
expository writing. Its main purpose is to describe a sense communicate the experience.
impression or a mood.
Sambo of the bandy legs slammed the carriage-door
on his young weeping mistress. He sprang up behind
4.2. Narrative Prose
the carriage. 'Stop!' cried Miss Jemima, rushing to the
A narrative tells us what happens or happened. It deals gate with a parcel. 'It's some sandwiches, my dear',
mainly with events. In other words a narrative is a description of said she to Amelia. 'You may be hungry, you know;
events. It may deal with external or internal events. By internal and Becky, Becky Sharp, here's a book for you that
events, we mean the thoughts, feelings and emotions of my sister - that is, I - Johnson's Dictionary, you know;
individuals. Narrative writing tries to recreate an actual experience you must not leave us without that. Good-bye. Drive
or an imaginary one in a way that we are able to experience it on, coachman God bless you.'
mentally. We lose ourselves in the characters and events of the
And the kind creature retreated into the garden,
narrative temporarily. Narratives can deal with the facts or fiction.
overcome with emotions. But, lo! and just as the
Autobiographies, biographies, letters, travelogues, diaries and
coach drove off, Miss Sharp put her pale face out of
speeches are narratives of fact. The short story and novel come
the window, and actually flung the book back into the
under the category of narrative fiction.
garden. W.M. Thackeray, Vanity Fair (1847-48)
In a narrative, we are carried along the stream of action.
When we narrate a story, we concentrate on the sequence of
events. It is the action that grips the attention of the reader.
[7] [8]
4.3. Expository Prose not praise it; they proclaim that no man is good enough
to be another man's master. The latest of the great
Expository writing deals in definition, explanation or
Jewish prophets, a gentleman named Marx, spent his
interpretation. It includes writing on science, law, philosophy,
life in proving that there is no extremity of selfish
technology, political science, history and literary criticism.
cruelty at which the slavery of man to man will stop if it
Exposition is a form of logical presentation. Its primary object is to
be not stopped 'by law. You can see for yourself that it
explain and clarify. It presents details concretely and exactly.
produces a state of continual civil war- called the class
Expository writing is writing that explains. But we are not
war-between the slaves and their masters, organized as
interested in writing that merely explains. We are interested in
Trade Unions on one side and Employers' Federations
expository writing that can be read as literature. The following is a
on the other. (G.B.S haw, 'Freedom'--one of a series of
piece of expository prose:
BBC Radio Talks-18 June, 1935 in Modern Prose,
In the leg there are two bones, the tibia and fibula. The Michael Thorpe, pp 147-48)
tibia or shin-bone is long and strong and bears the
There is a clear difference between the two passages. Shaw
weight of the body. The fibula or splint bone is an
puts across his argument logically and convincingly. He first talks
equally long but much slenderer bone, and is attached to
about the natural slavery of man to Nature by giving a series of
the tibia as a pin is to a brooch. (Leonard Hill, Manual
examples. He then contrasts this with the unnatural slavery of man
of Human Physiology)
to man. By use of contrast, this argument is further strengthened.
This piece clearly defines the two bones, the tibia and the The result is that difficult concepts like freedom and slavery are
fibula. But can this be read as literature? Now let us look at readily understood. What is, however, remarkable is that his use of
another piece of expository prose. simple language, tongue-in-cheek manner and conversational style
Now mark another big difference between the natural immediately strikes a sympathetic and receptive chord in the
slavery of man to Nature and the unnatural slavery of reader. These two passages must have given you some idea about
man to man. Nature is kind to her slaves. If she forces the difference between literary and non-literary expository writing.
you to eat and drink, she makes eating and drinking so The division of prose into three kinds - descriptive, narrative
pleasant that when we can afford it we eat and drink too and expository, is a rough one. You may find good description in
much. We must sleep or go mad: but then sleep is so narrative writing. When you explain, you may also describe and
pleasant that we have great difficulty in getting up in narrate to make your explanation effective. The three divisions are
the morning. And firesides and families seem so not rigid. A good writer may use a little description here, a little
pleasant to the young that they get married and join narration there, and a bit of exposition in another place. The
building societies to realize their dreams. Thus, instead knowledge of the three varieties is useful in that you can
of resenting our natural wants as slavery, we take the appreciate how the writer makes use of one or more of them
greatest pleasure in their satisfaction. We write effectively. You would realize that they are very often used in
sentimental songs in praise of them. A tramp can earn combination and they rarely exist alone.
his supper by singing Home, Sweet Home.
The slavery of man to man is the very opposite of this.
It is hateful to the body and to the spirit. Our poets do
[9] [10]
5. Genre and subgenre As soon as texts differ in one way or another, then they can be
categorised apart.
The term genre usually refers to one of the three classical
literary forms of epic, drama, or poetry. This categorization is It has already been noted that official criteria for what must
slightly confusing as the epic occurs in verse, too, but is not be studied at A Level includes the genres of prose, poetry and
classified as poetry. It is, in fact, a precursor of the modern novel drama. This alone is not enough; not just any old poetry, prose or
(i.e., prose fiction) because of its structural features such as plot, drama can be studied – further categories are needed. These
character presentation and narrative perspective. Although this old categories are concerned with ‘quality’, ‘substance’ and ‘merit’,
classification is still in use, the tendency today is to abandon the and it is here that the real problem arises. While some categories
term “epic” and introduce “prose,” “fiction” or “prose fiction” for are reasonably uncontentious, others are not so. If a small number
the relatively young literary forms of the novel and the short story. of people are able to decide what is and what is not ‘quality’,
‘substance’ and ‘merit’, they have a huge amount of power to
It was noted above that one use of the word genre refers to
shape our culture through what is read in school and college.
very broad definitions of types of text; poetry, prose and drama.
Essentially this use of the term defines the form of writing that has
been used. Actually defining these forms is problematic, not least
7. Structure
because they often overlap. Shakespeare writes plays which
include poetry and prose; some novelists’ prose is often described Prose lacks the more formal metrical structure of verse that
as poetic, and so on. can be found in traditional poetry. Prose comprises full
grammatical sentences, which then constitute paragraphs while
overlooking aesthetic appeal, whereas poetry typically involves
6. Similarity and difference a metrical and/or rhyming scheme. Some works of prose contain
traces of metrical structure or versification and a conscious blend
It is also obvious that these three categories have many
of the two literature formats known as prose poetry. Verse is
subcategories within them. Radio drama is very different from
considered to be more systematic or formulaic, whereas prose is
television drama, which is different again from film drama, which
the most reflective of ordinary (often conversational) speech. On
is different from stage drama. The latter subcategory, stage drama,
this point, Samuel Taylor Coleridge jokingly requested that novice
tends to have higher status than the others, presumably because it
poets should know the "definitions of prose and poetry; that is,
is the older form.
prose—words in their best order; poetry—the best words in their
You will notice that the way the genres of drama were best order."
separated in the previous paragraph was through difference. It
Monsieur Jourdain asked for something to be written in
would seem therefore that the two key factors which determine the
neither verse nor prose. A philosophy master replied there is no
way we categorize texts is through difference and similarity. If one
other way to express oneself than with prose or verse, for the
text differs from another, then they do not belong in the same
simple reason being that everything that is not prose is verse, and
category. If, on the other hand, they are similar, then they can be
everything that is not verse is prose. Molière, Le Bourgeois
put in the same category. In reality, of course, it is never this easy.
Gentilhomme.
If two texts are the same in every way, then they will be identical.
[11] [12]
PROSE POETRY 8. Types of Prose

 Most everyday writing is in  Poetry is typically reserved Many forms of creative or literary writing use prose. Some
prose form. for expressing something common types of prose include nonfictional prose, heroic
special in an artistic way. prose, prose poem, prose fiction.
 The language of prose is  The language of poetry
typically straightforward tends to be more 8.1. Nonfictional Prose
without much decoration. expressive or decorated, A literary work that is mainly based on fact although it may
with comparisons, rhyme, contain fictional elements in certain cases. Examples are
and rhythm contributing to biographies and essays. Nonfiction prose includes: Essay,
a different sound and feel. Biography, Autobiography, Speech, travelogue, Diary,
Letter.
 Ideas are contained in  Ideas are contained in lines
sentences that are arranged that may or may not be Essay: An essay is a piece of prose composition usually of
into paragraphs. sentences. Lines are moderate length. The word 'essay' derives from the French
arranged in stanzas. word essai or attempt. It "attempts" to throw some light on
the subject under discussion. From the 16th Century down
 There are no line breaks.  Poetry uses line breaks for to the present, essays have been undergoing tremendous
Sentences run to the right various reasons—to follow changes. The essayists are also quite different in form, style
margin. a formatted rhythm or to and subject matter. The same essayist may write different
emphasize an idea. Lines essays, different not only in subject matter, but also in style.
can run extremely long or The characteristics of an essay are: fairly short composition
be as short as one word or prose; focus on a topical issue; It is an expression of
letter. thoughts on a single subject; not limited to a few subjects,
 The first word of each  Traditionally, the first diverse in topics; and use different rhetoric forms: narration,
sentence is capitalized. letter of every line is description, exposition; essays are written primarily to
capitalized, but many inform, reform, instruct or merely to entertain; essays create
modern poets choose not pleasant surprises, can be frank, intimate and usually reveal
to follow this rule strictly. the personality of the essayists.
 Prose looks like large blocks  The shape of poetry can Biography: A biography is the story of the life of an
of words. vary depending on line individual. Our concern here is with biography as a piece of
length and the intent of the literature. A good biography usually tries to project an
poet. objective picture of the life of a particular person. It avoids
the temptation either to praise too much or to be too severe
and critical. In this kind of writing, the writer selects the
salient features of a particular life and gives them a shape. It
tries to make the reader share the hopes, the fears, the
[13] [14]
interests and aspirations of that person. The biographer adventure are straightforward narration combined with
presents the facts of the person's life as he uncovers them descriptions, expository surveys, etc. Emphasis is not only
through research, interviews and visits. But it is possible for on the facts presented, but on the manner of presentation.
the biographer to insert his own imaginative thought, stories They are full of brave deeds, descriptions of people of great
and appreciative comments, to bring out the life of that explorations and real or imagined scenes of various kinds.
person. Thus unlike a scientific or technical text, a
biography may consists of imagery, figures of speech, Diary: A diary belongs to the autobiographical genre of
narration, description, argumentation and exposition. writing. It is a literary form in which the writer maintains a
regularly kept record of his or her own life and thoughts. As
Autobiography: In an autobiography, the writer attempts to a genre it has been practiced for over five hundred years.
reveal selected experiences of his/her own life in retrospect. The diary is also a valuable historical document of an
Here the picture presented is necessarily subjective. It individual life and gives us written evidence of the
presents the events and impressions of the past as historical, social and political circumstances of a particular
recollected by the writer at the time s/he is writing the period.
autobiography. It cannot be a complete account of one's life,
as the future has still to be lived. Modern biographies and Letter: Another form of non-fictional prose is the letter. On
autobiographies show the tendency of adopting forms used a personal level, a letter is a spontaneous expression of one's
in writing a novel. self and on a social level, letters hold up a mirror to the age
in which they are written. Letter writing came to be
Speech: A speech is a spoken communication or expression recognized as a literary form in England during the
of thought in prose addressed to an audience. It presents the Renascence when critics came in touch with the works of
personal viewpoint of the speaker in a convincing manner, Seneca, Cicero and Guevara. A good public letter is a
on a subject that is of universal importance. A good speech literary piece of work that explores an issue, idea,
is not delivered with the aim to excite or rouse the audience. impression or interpretation. It has a focused point and has
Rather it is made to inspire and persuade the hearers to think both informative value and aesthetic appeal.
along the lines the speaker wishes them to. A power-packed
speech is one that is charged with the sturdy conviction the 8.2. Prose Fiction
speaker has in his/her beliefs. Prose fiction is distinguished from other forms of prose
because of its artistic merit, fictional base, and its design to
Travelogue: It is a piece of writing about travel. It is written create an epic totality of life, based on history, contemporary
in a style that is both interesting and informative. The issues and the individual. The portrayal of life in prose
passion for knowledge and about other countries has always fiction is done at different levels by different authors using
driven men to embark upon land travels and sea-voyages to different styles giving rise to different types of fiction. The
distant lands, the accounts of which have been left by them basic types of prose fiction include novels, novelettes, short
for posterity. Hence the history of travelogues is as old as stories, novella, [fables, fairy tales].
the history of man's travels. These accounts serve as
important documents about the life, culture and history of
the places they are written about. Books on travel and
[15] [16]
8.3. Heroic Prose Apart from the general meaning of fiction as non-factual
A literary work that may be written down or recited and accounts, it is also used to denote a major branch of literature
employs many of the formulaic expressions found in oral especially the novel and also drama/other theatrical presentations
tradition. Examples are legends and tales. in the cinematic and musical mode. The important factor here is
that the story or presentation is not factual or real.
8.4. Prose Poem
We have learnt the meaning of the words “prose” and
A literary work which exhibits poetic quality using
“fiction” as separate words. Now let us try to merge the two words
emotional effects and heightened imagery but are written in
to get the meaning in our present context, that is, as a genre of
prose instead of verse.
literature. What then is prose fiction? It is fictional work that is
presented in a narrative form. Fiction and narrative are words that
9. Prose Fiction
distinguish prose fiction from any other form of narrative or
We will start our definition of prose fiction with the fictional work. For instance, drama is fiction but it is presented in
definition of the two key words, “prose” and “fiction”. Thereafter, dialogue and not narrative. Prose fiction as a literary genre is made
we will try to explain prose fiction as it relates to this course, up of the short story, the novella and the novel. Prose fiction tells a
which is as a literary genre. story and the fact that the story is not factual distinguishes it from
history.
Prose is the medium used, as stated earlier, in most written
and oral communications. This is because of the advantage it has Prose fiction is an artistic work that “has a personal
over verse which is in musical form. The dissemination of written narrative, a hero to identify with fictional inventions, style, and
information in text books, magazines in commerce dates back to suspense – in short anything that might be handled with the rather
the 15th century when Monasteries sold edifying collections of personal ventures of creativity and artistic freedom” (Kermode
saints' and virgins' lives composed in prose. Prose became in this 23). It may exaggerate or distort facts or the story may be
environment the medium of silent and private reading (Whiteman completely an invention of the writer. It depends on the style of the
16). Prose then, had an additional advantage for translators, who writer and or what the writer wants to achieve. The story in prose
could go directly for meaning, where verse had to be translated by fiction is invented by the writer but is presented in a realistic
people skilled as poets in the target language. manner.
Fiction is derived from the Latin word fictum which means Prose fiction treats essentially personal subject matter which
“created”. Fiction is a term used to denote anything, mainly stories is open to various interpretations by the reader. What we read in
or accounts that are not real. Can you recall the fairy tale or other prose fiction are events, incidents, and experiences that affect
stories that your mother or grandmother used to tell you about human beings. It relays human experience from the writer’s
animals, monsters, or even human beings that existed in faraway imagination and is seen as a field of “cultural significance to be
countries or in the primordial times. These are fictional narratives. explored with a critical and didactic interest in the subjective
Fiction is therefore any form of narrative which deals, in part or in perceptions both of artists and their readers” (Whiteman 12).
whole, with events that are not factual, but rather, are imaginary
The earliest form of literary presentation was in verse but as
and invented by its author.
time went on there was a shift from verse to prose and this dates
from the early 13th century. The Prose Lancelot or Vulgate Cycle,
[17] [18]
collection of passages of that period, is believed to be the earliest 10. Prose Fiction and History
form of literary presentation in prose. This collection indirectly led
Sometimes, we feel that prose fiction and historical
to Thomas Malory’s Le Morted’Arthur compilation of the early
narratives are the same or are similar since both present human
1470s. The collections were said to be from historical sources for
experience. It is important for us to show the relationship between
the sole purpose of instruction and national edification
the two. Both are narrative projects but history is based on actual
(Wikipedia). Prose fiction in the contemporary period is expected
events and real names of the participants, actual dates and places
to serve the same purpose. The novel has become the dominant
are mentioned. History is therefore an empirical social experience
form of prose fiction followed by the short story.
because the historian is concerned with empirical data, operating
The development of modern prose fiction in its present form as much as possible at the level of facts in pursuit of specific
particularly the novelist traced to the development of belles-lettres truths. It is a factual documentation with the sole aim of education
(beautiful letters) which is associated with elegance and style. and preservation for posterity. Early historians could include
They included an amalgam of genres that included history and inventions in the factual account as long as they were rooted in
science in vernaculars, personal memoirs, political discourse, traditional knowledge or in order to orchestrate a certain passage.
fiction and poetry. Gradually, prose fiction in this wider spectrum Historians thus invented and composed speeches for didactic
soon became a prominent medium for the creation of a distinct purposes (Whiteman 22).
style of writing and communication. The style gave the artist an
On the other hand, the literary artist is concerned with
opportunity for artistic experimentation and originality needed to
historical data as long as they provide him with the experiences he
exhibit and market his or her style. The reading of prose fiction
intends to present in his art. However, the language of the literary
later became fashionable and it remained close to everyday
artist does not subsist on hard facts. He mediates facts in pursuit of
language, “…to the private letter, to the art of "gallant"
both specific and universal truths while trying to please in the
conversation, to the personal memoir and travelogue” (Maynard
process. The literary artist is therefore “…faced with the problem
22).
of disciplining history to obey his artistic purpose”
To sum up, prose fiction is a combination of two distinct
However, novelists depict the social, political, and personal
words, “prose” and “fiction”. The former means a presentation of
realities of a place and period with clarity and details more than
spoken or written words in a narrative manner while the latter
historians. History is factual documentation while prose fiction is a
means a nonrealistic account. Prose fiction is therefore an
work of art. Prose fiction could be based on history but the author
imaginary work that is presented in a narrative form. It is a literary
uses vivid and graphic representations of characters and incidents
genre that presents human experience to educate and entertain the
to present an entertaining story.
readers. It tells a story that deals with cultural, social and political
issues in the world but the characters are not real (known) human Writers of prose fiction like Historians could document and
beings but bear human traits and dispositions. Although the story present facts but not as accurately as the historians because
in prose fiction is fictitious, it contains identifiable characters, whereas historians present real names of the people involved,
locations and incidents and these add to make the story that is places, and dates, in prose fiction real names are not used though
presented as realistic as possible. Prose fiction is different from known places and dates could be mentioned. This means that a
history which is a documentation of past realistic events. historical event could be presented in prose fiction but the writer
manipulates the story in an artistically satisfying manner. The
[19] [20]
writer here uses fictitious names to avoid litigation. In many works This does not however totally exclude human characters in some
of prose fiction, the author/publisher indicates that the names are cases. Examples are Aesop's Fables and Orwell's Animal Farm.
fictitious and regrets resemblance of any known person.
The construction of a fable involves a minute attention to (1)
Prose fiction could use informal language for particular the narration itself; (2) the deduction of the moral; and (3) a careful
effect but historical language is expected to be formal and correct maintenance of the individual characteristics of the fictitious
at all times. The language of prose fiction language is distinct and personages introduced into it. The narration should relate to one
this enables the author to manipulate language to suit his or her simple action, consistent with itself, and neither be overladen with
purpose/style and for the readers’ appreciation. a multiplicity of details, nor distracted by a variety of
circumstances. The moral or lesson should be so plain, and so
intimately interwoven with, and so necessarily dependent on, the
11. Types of Prose Fiction narration, that every reader should be compelled to give to it the
Prose fiction is distinguished from other forms of prose same undeniable interpretation. The introduction of the animals or
because of its artistic merit, fictional base, and its design to create fictitious characters should be marked with an unexceptionable
an epic totality of life, based on history, contemporary issues and care and attention to their natural attributes, and to the qualities
the individual. The portrayal of life in prose fiction is done at attributed to them by universal popular consent. The Fox should be
different levels by different authors using different styles giving always cunning, the Hare timid, the Lion bold, the Wolf cruel, the
rise to different types of fiction. Bull strong, the Horse proud, and the Ass patient. Many of these
fables are characterized by the strictest observance of these rules.
Novel, short story and novella are the main genres of prose They are occupied with one short narrative, from which the moral
fiction. The novel is the most popular and there are many types of naturally flows, and with which it is intimately associated.
novel. Basically, all these types are the same in terms of the
presentation of an aspect of life but they differ in terms of style. The Wolf and the Lamb
The author’s intent, to a large extent affects the work. A writer of a Once upon a time a Wolf was lapping at a spring on a hillside, when,
historical novel would embark on a research to be able to situate looking up, what should he see but a Lamb just beginning to drink a little
lower down. ‘There’s my supper,’ thought he, ‘if only I can find some
the work appropriately in its historical period. On the other hand, a excuse to seize it.’ Then he called out to the Lamb, ‘How dare you
picaresque novelist needs only to tell an interesting adventurous muddle the water from which I am drinking?’
story which could be from his/her imagination or based on events
or experiences. ‘Nay, master, nay,’ said Lambikin; ‘if the water be muddy up there, I
cannot be the cause of it, for it runs down from you to me.’
11.1. Fable ‘Well, then,’ said the Wolf, ‘why did you call me bad names this time last
year?’
This is usually a very brief story. Its concern is to explain a
problem in very simple terms, or to point out a moral truth in an ‘That cannot be,’ said the Lamb; ‘I am only six months old.’
inoffensive manner. This is why it usually carries a deeper ‘I don’t care,’ snarled the Wolf; ‘if it was not you it was your father;’ and
meaning, through a surface story. More often than not, the with that he rushed upon the poor little Lamb and ate her all up. But
characters are mostly animals who act as surrogate human beings. before she died she gasped out, ‘Any excuse will serve a tyrant.’
[21] [22]
11.2. Short Story  Epiphany: Typically, something has to change in the course
The short story is a genre of prose fiction that is usually of the story - either the character(s) learn something or their
written in prose, often in narrative format. This format tends to be lives change decisively, or we (the reader) learn something or
more pointed than longer works of fiction, such as novellas and have our perceptions challenged in some way. This moment
novels or books. A short story is defined based on the length but of "showing" is what the great short story writer James Joyce
this differs somewhat even among professional writers. Since the called epiphany. A similar idea is the "twist in the tale."
short story format includes a wide range of genres and styles, the  Ending: A good short story needs to give the reader a feeling
actual length is determined by the individual author's preference. of closure, or at least a sense of having read something
Edgar Allan Poe, in his essay "The Philosophy of complete. Otherwise it's just a sketch.
Composition," said that “a short story should be read in one sitting,
Short stories tend to be less complex than novels. Usually a
anywhere from a half hour to two hours.” In contemporary fiction,
short story focuses on one incident, has a single plot, a single
a short story can range from 1,000 to 20,000 words.
setting, a small number of characters, and covers a short period of
Short Story has been defined in different ways such as: time. A typical pattern in a short story could be presented with
 A piece of fictional writing usually less than 5000 words that exposition, complication, climax and resolution as in longer forms
contains these basic elements: characters, setting, plot, of fiction. However, some short stories may not follow this pattern
conflict, resolution, climax, dialogue, protagonist, and while some do not follow any patterns at all. For example, modern
antagonist. short stories only occasionally have an exposition. More typical,
 A short story is a brief work of fiction. The short story though, is an abrupt beginning, with the story starting in the
resembles the longer novel but generally has a simpler plot middle of the action (in medias res). As with longer stories, plots
and setting. In addition, the short story tends to reveal of short stories also have a climax, crisis, or turning point.
character at a crucial moment rather than to develop it through However, the endings of many short stories are abrupt and open.
many incidents. As with any art form, the exact characteristics of a short story vary
 This is a form of prose fiction, a creative non-poetic kind of by its creator.
composition. A Short Story is based on the following components:
A short story may have all the elements of a short novel -  Setting  Character
complete plot and developed characters – but, because of the lack  Plot  Point of View
of space, they tend to be structured quite differently from novels.  Conflict  Theme.
Some of the key components of a successful short story are:
 Integrity: It should form a coherent whole. This means that There are many types of prose fiction. The genre evolved
everything language, dialogue, etc should contribute to the from storytelling traditions of various societies in the world, epic
overall effect. A novel may ramble, but a short story can’t. narratives, and romance to the present form. In modern prose
fiction, the novel, the novella and the short story are the most
 Economy: There cannot be a long introduction. The reader popular genres. The novel stands out among the rest but for any
has to get involved quickly; the story's themes and mood need prose fiction to be classified as a novel, it must present an element
to be established. of verisimilitude. This explains why thriller and some other
[23] [24]
melodramatic prose fictions are not classified as novel. The short A novella has generally fewer conflicts than novels, yet
story and the novella share the same characteristics with the novel more complicated ones than short stories. The conflicts also have
but they are shorter in length. The length also differentiates the more time to develop and their endings are usually located at the
novella from the short story as the latter is shorter than the former. brink of change. Sometimes, they are not divided into chapters but
in such cases, white space is often used to demarcate the sections
(Barnet 312). Novellas are often intended to be read at a single
11.3. Novella sitting, just like the short story since they maintain a single effect.
The English word “novella” is derived from the Italian word In most cases, there are no subplots or multiple points of view.
“novella”, feminine of “novello” which means new. For the Most often it is concerned with personal and emotional
Germans it is “Novelle”; plural: “Novellen”. (Wikipedia) The development rather than with the larger social sphere. The novella
novella is a common literary genre in several European languages “generally retains something of the unity of impression that is a
and the idea of the novellas dates back to the 10th century prose hallmark of the short story, but it also contains more highly
narrative, Arabian Night but as a literary genre its origin is traced developed characterization and more luxuriant description”
to the early renaissance literary work like Giovanni Boccaccio’s (Obstfeld 40). The Germans were the most active writers of the
The Decameron. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth Novelle (in their language) and for them it is a fictional narrative of
centuries the novella was fashioned into a literary genre structured indeterminate length—a few pages to hundreds—restricted to a
by precepts and rules (McKeon 24). single, suspenseful event, situation, or conflict leading to an
unexpected turning point, provoking a logical, but surprising end.
Novella is simply a term used for a miniature or short novel.
It shares all the characteristics of the novel and can fall into any of
the categories of the novel. However it is not as popular as the 11.4. Novel
novel and sometimes, readers cannot differentiate between a novel The novel can be defined as an extended work of prose
and a novella. It is a written fictional prose narrative longer than a fiction. The Oxford Twentieth Century Dictionary defines the
novelette but shorter than a novel. The Science Fiction and Fantasy novel as a fictional prose narrative or tale presenting the picture of
Writers of America Nebula Awards for science fiction defines the real life, especially the emotional crises in the life history of the
novella as having a word count of between 17,500 and 40,000. men and women portrayed. In Dictionary of Literary Term, the
Other definitions start as low as 10,000 words and run as high as novel is defined as “a fictitious prose narrative of considerable
70,000 words (Wikipedia). length, portraying characters, actions, or scenes representative of
real life in a plot of more or less intricacy” (Harmsworth 78).
The novella is regarded as one of the richest and most
rewarding of literary forms because it allows for more extended A novel "dramatizes" life. This means the details, the
development of theme and character than does the short story, situations and the characters are like real-life people. They act,
without making the elaborate structural demands of the full- react, struggle, suffer and triumph as we do in life. A novel is great
length” book – the novel. It therefore provides an intense and or successful when it engrosses the reader and inspires him to
detailed exploration of its subject by providing to some degree identify with it. The author achieves this by giving a coherent and
both the concentrated focus of the short story and the broad scope sincere picture of life, human relationships and human strengths
of the novel. and weaknesses.
[25] [26]
We may say that a novel is a "long" story but it is difficult to Examples are: Cervantes, Don Quixote; and in the English
determine its length. The accepted length is usually more than tradition: Thomas Nash, The Unfortunate Traveler; Mark Twain,
50,000 words. Anything shorter than that is called a "novella". The Adventures of Hucklebery Finn, Daniel Defoe, Moll Flanders.
Again, a novel may run into a thousand or so pages and some may
It is a popular sub-genre of prose fiction which is usually
be in several volumes. But, these are exceptions.
satirical and depicts, in realistic and often humorous details, the
In most European literature the word "roman" is used for the adventures of a roguish hero of low social class who lives by his
novel. "Roman" means "romance." The earlier narratives were wits in a corrupt society. The hero is often a rascal, often
associated with the romantic adventures of the heroes and the mischievous, shrewd wicked and roguish, but charming and
heroines. The novel now has achieved a wider scope and is no somehow likable in a way as he or she gets involved in a long
longer a "romance", though the term "roman" stays on. The succession of adventures and escapades.
English name "novel" is derived from the Italian "novella"
meaning "a little new thing". The novel has developed various sub- 11.4.2. Gothic Novel
genres but we will illustrate with the major ones.
The term “Gothic” originally referred to a prominent
Before we proceed further, we must also know that the Germanic or Teutonic tribe in medieval Europe called Goths. The
novel is an extended narrative and distinct from the short story. gothic novel became very popular from the second half of the
The short story is more concentrated and does not have much eighteenth century onwards. With the aim to evoke chilling terror
scope to develop characters and situations, but a novel has this by exploiting mystery and a variety of horrors, the gothic novel is
scope because of its length. A "novelette" or a "novella" is a usually set in desolate landscapes, ruined abbeys, or medieval
narrative between the short story and the novel in length. castles with dungeons, winding staircases and sliding panels.
Heroes and heroines find themselves in gloomy atmospheres
11.4.1. The Picaresque Novel where they are confronted with supernatural forces, demonic
powers and wicked tyrants.
The picaresque novel is taken from the Spanish word
"picaresca", from "pícaro", which means "rougue" or "rascal". English Gothic writers often associated medieval buildings
However in the English-speaking world, the term "picaresque" with a dark and terrifying period, characterized by harsh laws
refers more to a literary technique or a model than to the precise enforced by torture, with mysterious, fantastic, and superstitious
genre that the Spanish call picaresco (Mckeon 20). The English- rituals. The Gothic novel is believed to have been invented by the
language term refers to an episodic recounting of the adventures of English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel, The Castle of
the central character. A picaresque novel is an early form of the Otranto. Gothic literature emerged as a “rejection of the clarity
novel, some call it a precursor of the novel. It presents the and rationalism of the neoclassical style of the Enlightened
adventures of a lighthearted rascal (pícaro=rogue). It is usually Establishment” (Bloom 68).This novel is linked to the ruins of
episodic in structure, the episodes often arranged as a journey. The gothic buildings which are believed to be a representation of the
narrative focuses on one character that has to deal with tyrannical inevitable decay and collapse of human creations. It is also
masters and unlucky fates but who usually manages to escape identified with the development of sentimentality as well as with
these miserable situations by using her/his wit. The form of the the cult of the mysterious, the abominable, and the absolute
picaresque narrative emerged in sixteenth-century Spain. atrocities of the dark ages. If the element of verisimilitude is
[27] [28]
fundamental in the classification of a prose work as novel, then o Polylogic: This has three or more letter-writing characters as
one may be tempted to exclude the gothic novel because some of we have in novels like Clarissa, and Dangerous Liaisons.
the incidents and characters are not realistic. One unique feature of this type is the “dramatic device of
'discrepant awareness' which is the simultaneous but separate
Melodrama and parody (including self-parody) are some of
correspondences of the heroines and the villains creating
the features of the gothic novel. It represents an appreciation of the
dramatic tension” (McKeon 52).
joys of extreme emotion, the thrills of fearfulness and awe inherent
in the sublime. It contains such atrocious crimes as horror, There are two schools of thought on the genesis of the
fantasies, kidnapping, rape, sodomy, terror, and murder. Prominent epistolary novel. The first claims that the genre originated from
features of Gothic fiction include the portrayal of terror (both novels with inserted letters, in which the portion containing the
psychological and physical) and mysterious situations and third person narrative in between the letters was gradually reduced.
incidents. The gothic novel which is sometimes referred to as (Doody 76) The other view claims that the epistolary novel arose
gothic horror is a genre of literature that combines elements of from miscellanies of letters and poetry in which some of the letters
horror and romance. It is seen as a presentation of a pleasing sort were tied together into a (mostly amorous) plot. (McKeon 65) The
of terror, an extension of Romantic literary pleasures and was first truly epistolary novel is the Spanish "Prison of Love" (Cárcel
popular in the 18th century. de amor) (c.1485) by Diego de San Pedro in which a large number
of inserted letters dominated the narrative. The origin of the genre
11.4.3. Epistolary Novel in English novel is traced to James Howell (1594–1666) with
"Familiar Letters". He writes of prison, foreign adventure, and the
An epistolary novel is a novel written as a series of
love of women.
documents. The usual form is letters, although diary entries,
newspaper clippings and other documents are sometimes used. The epistolary novel as a genre became popular in the 18th
Recently, electronic "documents" such as recordings and radio, century in the works of such authors as Samuel Richardson, with
blogs, and e-mails have also come into use. The word epistolary his immensely successful novels Pamela (1740) and Clarissa
comes from the Latin word epistola, meaning a letter. The (1749). In France, there was LettresPersanes (1721) by Montesqui,
epistolary form can add greater realism to a story, because it followed by Julie ou la Nouvelle Heloise (1761) by Jean-Jacques
mimics the workings of real life. It is thus able to demonstrate Rousseau. These writers used the epistolary form to great dramatic
differing points of view without recourse to the device of an effect, because the sequence of events was not always related
omniscient narrator. directly or explicitly. In Germany, there was Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe’s Die Leiden des JungenWerther (1774) (The Sorrows of
There are three types of epistolary novel: the monologic,
young Werther) and Friedrich Holderlin’sHyperion. The first
dialogic and polylogic.
North American novel, The History of Emily Montague (1769) by
o Monologic: In this style, the letter is given to only one
Frances Brooke was written in the epistolary form.
character, like in Mariama Ba’s So Long a Letter.
o Dialogic: In this case the narrative, in form of letters are
presented by two characters, like in Mme Marie Jeanne 11.4.4. Historical Novel
Riccoboni’s Letters of FanniButlerd (1757). Historical novel as the name implies is based on some
historical events. In this type of novel, the characters and events
[29] [30]
are taken from history. It is a genre in which the plot is set amidst conditions in factories and mines, the plight of child labour and
historical events, or more generally, in which the author uses real endangered women, and the constant threat of rising criminality,
events but adds one or more fictional characters or events, or epidemics due to overcrowding and poor sanitation. The moral
changes the sequence of historical events. Historical fiction may novels presented a moral or supernatural element that linked
centre on historical or on fictional characters, but usually “reform to Christianity and played on the perception that the
represents an honest attempt based on considerable research (or at middle class were more economically sound and also more
least serious reading) to tell a story set in the historical past as devoted to their religion, therefore more prone to assist the lower
understood by the author's contemporaries (e.g. Walter Scott, classes before the aristocracy”(Davis 66). An example of this was
Ivanhoe; Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities based on the Charles Dicken’s Christmas Carol where the lead character
French Revolution). Scrooge is instructed by several ghosts to live a Christian life and
help his less fortunate neighbours and employees.
11.4.5. Social/Sociological Novel
11.4.6. Psychological Novel
The social novel, also called industrial novel or Condition of
England novel, became particularly popular between 1830 and The psychological novel, which is also referred to as
1850 and is associated with the development of nineteenth- psychological realism, is a work of prose fiction which places
century realism. As its name indicates, the social novel gives a emphasis on the motives, circumstances, and internal action which
portrait of society, especially of lower parts of society, dealing springs from the interior of the character, and manifests in the
with and criticizing the living conditions created by industrial external action. The psychological novel states what happens and
development or by a particular legal situation (the poor laws for in addition explains the motives behind this action.
instance). The social problem novels were not confined to
In this type of writing character and characterization are
England but were written throughout Europe and the United
very important, and the novelists often delve deeper into the mind
States.
of a character than in other types of novels. The psychological
The social novel deals mostly with the impact of economic novel can be called a novel of the "inner man," as it explores the
and social conditions of a period on characters and events around minds of characters rather than the physical aspects or the external
him. It is also concerned with the culture of a people and their way reality in which the characters operate. In some cases, the stream
of life. In Victorian England, for instance, the social novel became of consciousness, flashbacks and interior monologues are some of
an instrument of protest and for creating awareness on abuses of the techniques that may be employed for better illustration of the
government, industry and other repercussions suffered by the inner workings of the human mind. The stream of consciousness
working class in England. The novel presented sensational technique has been adopted by modern authors as they describe in
accounts and stories of the working class poor with the intention of details what goes on in their character’s mind. This is presented in
eliciting the sympathy of the middle class who may help to an “unbroken flow of thoughts, feelings, and perceptions of the
advocate legal and moral changes in the society. unconscious minds of characters in the novel” (Ezeigbo 10).
There are two major types of the social novel: the industrial
and the moral types. The industrial novel focused on the country’s
working class in the rural and urban towns. It relayed deplorable
[31] [32]
11.4.7. Political/Novel of Ideas The genre is characterized by a number of formal, topical

and thematic features. It tells a story about the growing up or
As the name implies, political novel deals with politics or
coming of age of a sensitive person who is looking for answers
the science and art of government. It presents “the art of the
and experience. The aim of the novel is to present maturity, so
possible, the strategies and tactics of governance, and the whole
change is important. The protagonist achieves maturity gradually
business of organizational intrigue: the maneuvering for power and
and with difficulty and there is usually a main conflict between
advantage and the interplay of Machiavellian forces and
him and society. Typically, the values of society are gradually
characters” (Ezeigbo). These novels deal with issues of good and
accepted by the protagonist and he is ultimately accepted into
evil, justice and injustice, hate and love as the characters scheme
society. This acceptance ends the protagonist's mistakes and
and seek political positions. The novelists believe in Aristotle’s
disappointments. In some works, the protagonist is able to reach
dictum that man is a ‘political animal’ so could not be excluded
out and help others once the maturity is achieved. Examples are
from the game of politics, with its carefully orchestrated power-
J.W. Goethe, Wilhelm Meister; Henry Fielding, Tom Jones;
play. Characters and the setting are given prominence in this type
Charles Dickens, David Copperfield; James Joyce, A Portrait of
of novel.
the Artist as a Young Man.
11.4.8. Magic/Magical Realism Usually, the plot follows a certain pattern in which the
protagonist grows from child to adult in the novel. At an early
This term is used to describe the prose fiction of some Latin
stage, a loss or some sort of discontent pushes him or her away
American writers and now also used to describe the works of other
from home or the family setting, providing an impetus to embark
Third World writers who exhibit the same artistic/ novelistic
on a journey. This main character often develops through "self-
idiosyncrasies. The novels under this label contain a mixture of
actualization". The process of maturation is “long, strenuous and
realism and fantasy. In other words, they are graphic
gradual, involving repeated clashes between the protagonist's
representations of ordinary events and experiences presented in
needs and desires and the views and judgments enforced by an
detailed descriptions, with elements of fantasy and surrealism.
unbending social order”. (Minden) There are some novels whose
Other features of this type of fiction are dreamlike states, mythic
plots are similar to the bildungsroman. For instance, a military
elements and supernatural forces, as well as fairy-tales.
story might show a new recruit undergoing a baptism by fire and
becoming a battle-hardened soldier, while a fantasy quest story
11.4.9. Bildungsroman
may show a transformation from an adolescent protagonist into an
The bildungsroman (novel of education) is a type of novel adult who becomes aware of his or her lineage or powers.
originating in Germany which presents the development of a However neither of these story types corresponds exactly to the
character mostly from childhood to maturity. This process bildungsroman (Jeffers 16).
typically contains conflicts and struggles, which are ideally
overcome in the end so that the protagonist can become a valid and
valuable member of society. Usually in the beginning of the story 11.5. Science fiction
there is an emotional loss which makes the protagonist decide to
Science fiction is a type of prose narrative of varying length,
undertake his journey.
from short-story to novel. Its topics include quests for other
worlds, the influence of alien beings on Earth or alternate realities;
[33] [34]
they can be utopian, dystopian or set in the past. Common to all car accidents; ‘action’ more specifically refers to wilful acts by
types of science fiction is the interest in scientific change and characters.” (Jahn 2002: N1, for further references see Pfister
development and concern for social, climatic, geological or 1988)
ecological change (e.g. Mary Shelley, Frankenstein; H.G. Wells,
Forster’s examples to illustrate the difference between story
The Time Machine; Aldous Huxley, Brave New World; George
and plot are:
Orwell, 1984; Anthony Burgess, A Clockwork Orange).
The king died and then the queen died (story).
The king died and then the queen died of grief (plot).
12. Elements of Fiction There are no doubt countless novels, plays and romances
Just as a painter uses color and line to create a painting, an which develop this basic story. Just two examples would be
author uses the elements of fiction to create a story. The elements George Eliot’s Middlemarch and Anne Brontë’s The Tenant of
of fiction are: character, plot, setting, theme, and style. Of these Wildfell Hall. Despite the similarities of the basic story, the causal
five elements, character is the who, plot is the what, setting is the and logical connections between events, i.e. the plots of those two
where and when, theme is the why, and style is the how of a story. novels, are quite different. In Middlemarch Dorothea Brooke
marries the ugly, elderly and dry scholar Casaubon because she
Forster defines story as the chronological sequence of events
hopes to share in his intellectual pursuits. Dorothea is unhappy
and plot as the causal and logical structure which connects events
because Casaubon neither shares his scholarly interests with her
(1927: 93). These definitions need some further clarification: A
nor does he treat her with any affection. Casaubon dies of a weak
story is only a story if at least one event takes place that is
heart and out of a sense of intellectual failure. Dorothea, despite
something changes from state A to state B. Consider the following
protests from her friends, marries the pennyless Will Ladislaw
minimal stories:
because he responds to her emotional and intellectual needs. In
 The crocodile eats breakfast. contrast, Helen in The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, marries Arthur
 Fred jumped out of bed. Huntingdon because she is attracted by his charm and good looks.
 The king died. Helen is unhappy because her husband turns out to be a vulgar
drunkard who ill-treats her. She leaves him in order to protect their
Compare to this: son from his influence and only returns to him in his final illness.
 The house has blue shutters. Huntingdon dies of his excesses. Helen marries the farmer
Markham with the approval of her friends because she feels she
This last example is a description rather than a story can rely on his virtue and good sense.
precisely because no event takes place.
12.1. Theme
Notice also that events in a story involve an animate
creature of some sort, i.e. characters (the crocodile, Fred, the king). The theme in a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its
Most stories involve a sequence of events rather than just one central insight. It is the author's underlying meaning or main idea
event. Manfred Jahn thus gives the following definition of story: that he is trying to convey. The theme may be the author's thoughts
“A sequence of events and actions involving characters. ‘Events’ about a topic or view of human nature. The title of the short story
generally include natural and nonnatural happenings like floods or usually points to what the writer is saying and he may use various
[35] [36]
figures of speech to emphasize his theme, such as: symbol, the topic on which an author has chosen to write. The theme,
allusion, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony. however, makes some statement about or expresses some opinion
on that topic. For example, the subject of a story might be war
Some simple examples of common themes from literature,
while the theme might be the idea that war is useless.
TV, and film are:
- Things are not always as they appear to be
- Love is blind
- Believe in yourself 12.2. Plot
- People are afraid of change The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his
- Don't judge a book by its cover basic idea; it is the sequence of events in a story or play. The plot
The theme is an argument or an issue on which the story is a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle,
revolves. It is not plot, nor is it the story. It germinates like a seed, and end. The short story usually has one plot so it can be read in
and a story with plot and characters is woven around it. It provides one sitting. There are five essential parts of plot:
a unifying point around which the plot, characters, setting, point of 1) Introduction - The beginning of the story where the
view, symbols, and other elements of a story are organized. Be characters and the setting is revealed.
careful to distinguish theme from plot – the story’s sequence of 2) Rising Action - This is where the events in the story
actions – and from subject – what the story is generally about. become complicated and the conflict in the story is
revealed (events between the introduction and climax).
In most cases, the story is woven around a particular idea
3) Climax - This is the highest point of interest and the
which the writer wants to communicate to his/her readers. This
idea is what we refer to as the theme. It is not enough to just write
turning point of the story. The reader wonders what will
the idea down that would not be a creative writing but just a word happen next; will the conflict be resolved or not?
or group of words on a page. It would not make sense. The writer 4) Falling action - The events and complications begin to
decides on an idea and builds a story around it. Characters and resolve themselves. The reader knows what has happened
actions are created to dramatize this idea. The way this is treated is next and if the conflict was resolved or not (events between
the subject matter which sometimes is reflected in the title. climax and denouement).
5) Denouement - This is the final outcome or untangling of
Theme is usually seen as an abstract concept like love, events in the story.
marriage, corruption, bad leadership, crime, justice, and many
other issues that reflect human experiences. This means that the In prose fiction, the author tells a story by dramatizing
theme is not written down anywhere in the work so you have to human conditions and human relationships. In doing this he/she
read the novel, novella or short story very well to decipher the uses characters to live out the experiences presented in the work as
theme. If you have read Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, for they engage in certain actions and involve themselves in series of
instance, the central idea there is marriage. There are different events and incidents which are arranged in a particular sequence.
forms of marriage and couples marry for various reasons. You will This is plot. A story that is well arranged is presented in an
see also, how pride and prejudice affect a particular marriage. artistically satisfying manner. Plot is one of the elements of prose
fiction. An author who deploys these elements effectively will
It is important to recognize the difference between the theme produce an effective work.
of a literary work and the subject of a literary work. The subject is
[37] [38]
Plot, the action element in fiction, is the arrangement of be only one central struggle, or there may be one dominant
events that make up a story. Many fictional plots turn on a conflict, struggle with many minor ones.
or struggle between opposing forces, that is usually resolved by the
There are two types of conflict:
end of the story. Typical fictional plots begin with an exposition
1) External - A struggle with a force outside one's self.
that provides background information needed to make sense of the
2) Internal - A struggle within one's self; a person must make
action, describes the setting, and introduces the major characters;
some decision, overcome pain, quiet his/her temper, resist an
these plots develop a series of complications or intensifications of
urge, etc.
the conflict that lead to a crisis or moment of great tension. The
conflict may reach a climax or turning point, a moment of greatest There are four dimensions of conflict:
tension that fixes the outcome; then, the action falls off as the 1. Man versus Man/the Individual versus another Individual
plot’s complications are sorted out and resolved (the resolution or 2. Human versus Nature/the Individual versus the Physical
dénouement). World
3. Human versus Society/the Individual versus the
A diagram of plot structure first created by the German
Civilization or “Order”
novelist and critic Gustav Freytag (1816–1895). Gustav Freytag
4. Human versus Herself/Himself // The Individual versus
was a Nineteenth Century German novelist who saw common
the Self (human nature)
patterns in the plots of stories and novels and developed a diagram
 Climax: the main character is having conflict (conflict/
to analyze them. He diagrammed a story's plot using a pyramid
mentally). Most exciting or suspenseful moment when
like the one shown here:
something happens to determine the outcome of the conflict.
 Falling Action: the main character is getting more conflict and
almost at the end of the story. The conflict is in the process of
being resolved or “unraveled”
 Denouement (Resolution): the end of the story and the
solution to the problem
o Types of Conclusion/Ending (Resolution):
1. Happy ending – everything ends well and all is
resolved.
 Exposition: the beginning of the story that tells the audience 2. Tragic or Unhappy ending – many events in life do not
who the characters are and introduces the conflict end pleasantly, so literary fiction that emulates life is
 Rising Action: conflict is starting to show in the story. more apt to have an unhappy conclusion, forcing the
Conflict is essential to plot. Without conflict there is no plot. reader to contemplate the complexities of life.
It is the opposition of forces which ties one incident to 3. Open-ended/Lack of Resolution/Partial Resolution/
another and makes the plot move. Conflict is not merely Indeterminate – no definitive ending or resolution
limited to open arguments; rather it is any form of opposition occurs, leaving the reader to ponder the issued raised
that faces the main character. Within a short story there may by the story
[39] [40]
The exposition or presentation of the initial situation is A narrative can have one or more plot-lines, that is, events
disturbed by a complication or conflict which produces suspense can centre around one or more groups of characters. There can be a
and eventually leads to a climax, crisis, or turning point. The main plot-line and one or more subplot-lines. Such sub-plots can
climax is followed by a resolution of the complication (French serve as a contrast to the main plot when, for instance, there is the
denouement), with which the text usually ends. Most traditional same constellation of events in a higher and a lower social sphere.
fiction, drama, and film employ this basic plot structure, which is In Dickens’ Bleak House for instance, there is the plot-line which
also called linear plot since its different elements follow a centers around Lady Dedlock and the discovery of her guilty past
chronological order. In many cases—even in linear plots— and there is the plot-line which centres around Esther Summerson
flashback, flash-forward and foreshadowing introduce information and her growth to maturity. At certain points these two plot lines
concerning the past or future into the narrative. merge, as it is discovered that Esther is Lady Dedlock’s
 Flashback: A plot-structuring device inserting a scene from illegitimate daughter.
the fictional past into the fictional present. Some narratives are very tightly plotted, everything
 Flash-forward: A plot-structuring device inserting a scene happens for a reason or a purpose and one event is the
from the fictional future into the fictional present. consequence of another. Quest-stories or fairy tales are usually
tightly plotted. When each plot-line is brought to a satisfactory
 Foreshadowing: A hint or clue about what will happen at a ending one also talks of a closed structure (for example the death
later moment in the plot. or marriage of the protagonist or the final defeat of an evil force).
This is often the case in Victorian novels where there is frequently
an entire chapter at the end, tying up all the loose ends of the plot
and giving a short glimpse of the characters’ future (see for
example George Eliot, Middlemarch or Charles Dickens, Hard
Times). In a closed plot structure earthly rewards and punishments
are often distributed in proportion to the virtue or vice of the
various characters at the end. This is called poetic justice.
A tight plot generally contributes to an increase in
suspense. Conversely, lack of suspense or tension in a narrative
can in part be explained by the absence of a tight plot. There is
very little tension, for instance, in Virginia Woolf’s short story
Kew Gardens, mostly because practically nothing happens: A
person sits down on a park bench, watches people go by, gets up
again. There is a similar lack of events in Samuel Beckett’s
Waiting for Godot. Many modern and postmodern writers
deliberately try to eschew event-dominated stories and tight plots
because they feel it is not an accurate rendering of reality and they
claim to be more interested in character than in plot. Plot and
character depend on each other of course. No plot or story can
[41] [42]
develop without characters and characters are frequently, though The minor or supporting characters are involved in fewer actions
not always, developed through plots. or incidents in the work. Their roles are just to support the major
characters in propelling the plot of the story. Characters are
Some narratives place less emphasis on the causal
developed through appearance, words, feelings, and reaction of
connection between events, though there are still plenty of events
others.
and action. Instead, episodes might be linked by a common
character, such as Moll Flanders in Daniel Defoe’s novel Moll Characters in fiction can be conveniently classified as major
Flanders or Sam Pickwick in Charles Dickens’ Pickwick Papers, and minor, static and dynamic. A major character is an important
or a common theme. Such narratives are described as loosely figure at the center of the story’s action or theme. The major
plotted or episodic. Plots that are not brought to a final or character is sometimes called a protagonist whose conflict with an
preliminary conclusion are called open-ended plots or just open antagonist may spark the story’s conflict. Supporting the major
plots. J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire for character are one or more secondary or minor characters whose
instance is much more open-ended than the previous Harry Potter function is partly to illuminate the major characters. Minor
volumes. characters are often static or unchanging: they remain the same
from the beginning of a work to the end. Dynamic characters, on
Key terms: the other hand, exhibit some kind of change – of attitude, purpose,
 story  poetic justice behavior, as the story progresses.
 plot  loose/episodic plot
There are two meanings for the word character:
 single plot  open-ended plot
1) The person in a work of fiction.
 multiple plot  Flashback
Persons in a work of fiction - Antagonist and Protagonist:
 tight plot  Flash-forward
Short stories use few characters. One character is clearly
 closed structure  Foreshadowing
central to the story with all major events having some
importance to this character - he/she is the PROTAGONIST.
12.3. Character The opposer of the main character is called the
ANTAGONIST.
A character is any person, personal, identity, or entity whose
existence originates from a fictional work or performance. The 2) The characteristics of a person.
people in a narrative are called characters. The author creates The Characteristics of a Person:
characters and presents his or her story through the actions and In order for a story to seem real to the reader, its characters
words of these characters. The author’s characterization, or means must seem real. Characterization is the information the author
of developing a character so that they seem real, greatly affects gives the reader about the characters. The author may reveal a
one’s attitude toward individual characters and toward the story as character in several ways:
a whole. Characters may simply be described, or they may reveal a) his/her physical appearance
themselves through dialogue and action. b) what he/she says, thinks, feels and dreams
c) what he/she does or does not do
Basically in a prose fictional narrative, there are two major d) what others say about him/her and how others react to
characters, the protagonist and the antagonist. There are other him/her
characters too. They include the minor or supporting characters.
[43] [44]
12.3.1. Characterization Characters can be described, implicitly as well as explicitly,

either by the narrator (sometimes, somewhat misleadingly, called
Characterization is the process of revealing the personality
authorial characterization) or by another character in the
of a character in a story or a means by which writers present and
narrative (also called figural characterization) or even by the
reveal characters – by direct description, by showing the character
characters themselves (self-characterization).
in action, or by the presentation of other characters who help to
define each other. How these characters act, react, learn from their The following gives an example for a characterization by
life-situations and how they change, constitutes the art of narrator combined with the narrator’s representation of other
characterization. If a character moves us and remains in our characters’ views (see also section 2.6.4. on narrator comment for
memory, we say that the characterization is powerful. A character evaluative language). Explicitly, Mr. Snagsby is characterized as a
grows slowly with the story and as we read on we start shy, retiring man. It is also implied that his wife is neither shy nor
understanding him or her. We even become one with them and retiring and that he is rather tyrannized by Mrs. Snagsby:
participate at an emotional level with the ups and downs of their Mr and Mrs Snagsby are not only one bone and one flesh but,
fortunes. Herein lies the success of the art of characterization. to the neighbours’ thinking, one voice too. That voice,
Techniques of characterization are used in texts to enable appearing to proceed from Mrs Snagsby alone, is heard in
readers to form a mental construct of a character. There are six Cook’s Court very often. Mr Snagsby, otherwise than as he
main aspects to be considered: How is the character described, by finds expression through these dulcet tones, is rarely heard.
whom is the character described, how is the characterization He is a mild, bald, timid man, with a shining head, and a
distributed throughout the text, how reliable is the source of scrubby clump of black hair sticking out at the back. He tends
information, what do we learn about a character’s inner life and in to meekness and obesity. [...] He is emphatically a retiring and
which arrangements of contrasts and correspondences is the unassuming man. (Dickens, Bleak House, ch. 10).
character depicted. A further example: Miss Clack, the poor, religious cousin in The
The most obvious technique of characterization is when Moonstone introduces herself (self-characterisation) to the reader
someone (in the following excerpt: the narrator) tells us explicitly in the following terms:
what a character is like: I am indebted to my dear parents (both now in heaven) for
Emma Woodhouse, handsome, clever, rich, with a having had habits of order and regularity instilled into me at
comfortable home and happy disposition, seemed to unite a very early age. In that happy bygone time, I was taught to
some of the best blessings of existence; and had lived nearly keep my hair tidy at all hours of the day and night, and to
twenty-one years in the world with very little to distress or fold up every article of my clothing carefully, in the same
vex her. (Austen, Emma, ch.1) order, on the same chair, in the same place at the foot of the
bed, before retiring to rest. An entry of the day’s events in
A character is sometimes also characterized explicitly my little diary invariably preceeded the folding up. The
through a telling name, as for instance Squire Allworthy, who is a ‘Evening Hymn’ (repeated in bed) invariably followed the
worthy gentleman in all respects, in Fielding’s Tom Jones. But we folding up. And the sweet sleep of childhood invariably
also deduce character-traits that are given implicitly through the followed the ‘Evening Hymn’. (Collins, Moonstone, Second
character’s actions, other characters’ attitudes to him or her, etc. Period, First narrative, ch. 1)
[45] [46]
12.3.2. Characterization Techniques For the purposes of analysis it is essential not simply to
describe a character but above all to look at a character’s function
in the narrative and that usually means considering a character in
by the narrator relation to other characters.
Characterization Plot- or character-oriented narratives usually have one or

more major (also main) characters and any number of minor
Techniques
characters. The main character, especially when there is only one,
is also called protagonist. The term protagonist has the advantage
by a character that it implies no value-judgement and can include heroes or
heroines (i.e. positive main characters) as well as anti-heroes and
anti-heroines (i.e. negative main characters). The protagonist is the
character who dominates the narrative. In some narratives the
protagonist has an influential opponent, the antagonist, such as
Voldemort in the Harry Potter novels, Sauron in The Lord of the
by another self- Rings or Moriarty in Sherlock Holmes.
character characterization
Supporting the major character are one or more secondary or
minor characters whose function is partly to illuminate the major
characters. Minor characters are often static or unchanging: they
explicit: character description or comment remain the same from the beginning of a work to the end.
implicit: report of character’s actions and/or Dynamic characters, on the other hand, exhibit some kind of
by the narrator thought, description of outward appearance and change – of attitude, purpose, behavior, as the story progresses.
circumstances, contrasts and correspondences
Minor characters can serve as witnesses, i.e. someone
explicit: description or com- reporting on the events though not directly involved thus achieving
ment; simultaneously implicit something of an objective report. This would be the case for Nick
self-characterization in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, where the protagonists
by another implicit: as implied by choice
by a character are Gatsby and Daisy, but Nick observes the developments and
character of expression and description acts as I-as-witness narrator.
of appearance and
circumstances An important function of minor characters is to serve as foil-
characters. A foil is a piece of shiny metal put under gemstones to
explicit: description or increase their brightness. A foil-character thus provides a contrast
comment to highlight the features of the main character. Maybe the most
self- implicit: use of language or famous example of a foil character is Watson in the Sherlock
characterization gesture, expression, attitudes Holmes stories, whose ordinary perceptiveness serves to highlight
unconsciously expressed, Holmes’ genius. Another example would be the sensible and
characteristic props restrained Elinor and her emotional sister Marianne in Jane
[47] [48]
Austen’s Sense and Sensibility. The sisters serve as a foils for each characters often undergo a development throughout the narrative
other. (dynamic). Louisa Gradgrind in Dickens’ Hard Times, for
example, is both multi-dimensional and dynamic. The cold,
Another function of a minor character can be that of
ungraceful daughter of the fact-loving Thomas Gradgrind arouses
confidant, i.e. a close friend of the protagonist to whom he or she
the reader’s compassion despite these unattractive features because
can confide in and thus disclose his or her innermost thoughts. The
she evidently struggles to suppress her more affectionate and
housekeeper in Henry James’ The Turn of the Screw for instance
imaginative qualities. Luckily for her, her struggles prove
functions as confidant for the governess. This way the reader is
unsuccessful and the reader witnesses her breakdown under the
always confronted with the contrast between the governess’
fact-system and her eventual breakthrough to a more balanced
perceptions and visions and the housekeeper’s slightly helpless
emotional life. The development of characters is particularly
and unimaginative common sense.
pronounced in the bildungsroman tradition (see ch. 2.9.). Classic
Minor characters, not surprisingly, often remain mono- examples are Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre or Dickens’ David
dimensional and/or static. This means that the narrative text Copperfield.
presents only few or even just one characteristic of such characters
(mono-dimensional) and that there is little or no development The flat characters are those characters who remain the same
throughout the narrative (static). Such mono-dimensional in the course of the story from the beginning to the end. Some
characters can often be reduced to types, representatives of a scholars refer to them as static characters. They do not undergo
single and stereotyped character category: the wicked step-mother, significant changes during the course of a story. In the real sense
faithful servant, miserly old man, profligate youth, etc. Allegorical they are not affected by circumstances around them and are usually
characters might be classed in this category as well (i.e. Hopeful very rigid in their belief. Many of them are usually tragic
in Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress or Despair in Spenser’s The characters because they are prepared to pursue any goal they
Faerie Queene) since the function of such characters is precisely to believe in to its (perceived) logical conclusion even at the risk of
represent this one characteristic. E.M. Forster’s term flat losing their lives.
comprises both the aspect of mono-dimensional and static. In A good example of a flat character is Okonkwo in Chinua
consequence the term has been criticised as too reductive Achebe’s Things Fall Apart. If you have read the novel, you will
(Rimmon-Kenan 1983: 40f) since it is quite possible for a notice that he is a very strict and hardworking person who has no
character to be multi-dimensional yet entirely static, as for patience with the poor and the weak. He believes in action and not
example Heathcliff in Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights, who words. He is a strong adherent of his tradition and is prepared to
remains obsessed by his love for Cathy and his hatred for everyone uphold it and fight anybody or institution that threatens the
else from early childhood to his death. existence of that tradition. He therefore opposes the colonialists,
Major characters are more frequently multi-dimensional refuses to see any progressive aspect of the Whiteman’s
and dynamic, though not as a rule. One might argue, for instance, civilization and remains rigid in this belief even when others are
that Oliver in Oliver Twist is decidedly mono-dimensional (i.e. bending to the wind of change. In the end, he takes his own life.
‘good’) as well as static. A multi-dimensional (or round, as The flat characters are very predictable because there seems not to
Forster calls it) character, as the word suggests, has a number of be any change in their growth and activities.
defining characteristics, sometimes conflicting ones and such
[49] [50]
Round characters are those characters that grow in the The third person point of view can be omniscient or
course of the narration. Most of the time, they grow from limited. In omniscient point of view, the narrator knows
innocence to maturity and adapt to situations accordingly. They everything; in limited point of view, the author tells the story in the
respond to changes in their environment and react differently to third person but limits himself to what is experienced or felt by a
different situations. Meka in FerdinandOyono’sOld Man and the single character.
Medal is an example of round character.
o Third-Person Narrator (uses pronouns he, she, or they):
Key terms: 1. Omniscient: Omni means 'all' and the second part of the
word means knowledge as in 'science'; thus omniscient
 character  protagonist means knowing everything. The narrator is all-knowing
 explicit characterisation  antagonist
and takes the reader inside the characters’ thoughts,
 implicit characterisation  self-characterisation
feelings, and motives, as well as shows what the
 major character  witness
characters say and do. It is when the author/narrator is
 minor character  foil
outside the story but still tells what the characters are
 characterisation by the  confidant
narrator / authorial  mono-dimensional character
thinking. He can move from character to character, event
characterisation  static character to event, having free access to the thoughts, feelings and
 characterisation by another  flat character motivations of his characters and he introduces
character / figural  multi-dimensional character information where and when he chooses.
characterisation  dynamic character 2. Limited omniscient: The narrator takes the reader inside
 round character one (or at most very few characters) but neither the
reader nor the character(s) has access to the inner lives of
any of the other characters in the story. Third Person
12.4. Point of View Limited narrator is outside the story and gives the
Point of view refers to who tells the story and how it is told. feelings of a single character—direct. Other characters
It is the perspective through which the author presents his/her are viewed objectively—indirect. The narrator/author
characters, controls their action and the events. There are many tells the story in third person (using pronouns they, she,
different ways of narrating the story. A character may tell his tale he, it, etc). We know only what the character knows and
in the first person. This is called first person narration. We must what the author allows him/her to tell us. We can see the
keep in mind here that he/she is the fictional persona through thoughts and feelings of characters if the author chooses
whom the story is told. It is not the author who is speaking; he/she to reveal them to us.
is believed to be speaking. The first person narrator recounts his 3. Objective: The narrator does not see into the mind of any
experiences placing himself as "I". He is the main witness to the character; rather he or she reports the action and dialogue
events of his life. On the other hand, the third person narrator without telling the reader directly what the characters
provides an omniscient point of view. He knows everything that is feel and think. We surmise by their actions, comments,
to take place in the story and he is the agent who describes and and how others react. This is “eye of the camera”
controls actions, motives and thoughts. technique, as if it were a movie or TV. It is indirect.
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“Buddy stole the money form his mother's purse just however, the setting is more important, giving the reader the feel
before he left for school. His mother was in the kitchen of the people who move through it. Setting can be used to evoke a
clearing up the breakfast things and his father was still mood or atmosphere that will prepare the reader for what is to
in bed. He tiptoed into the front room and slipped the come.
purse out of her handbag. He clicked it open and took
Time means two things: clock-time and psychological
out a £5 note. A wave of disgust swept through him. Only
time. Clock-time is a measure to determine time in terms of
two weeks ago he'd vowed to himself that he was going
duration-hours, days, weeks and years. Psychological time has no
to stop shoplifting and here he was stealing from his own
relation to clock-time; it is experienced by the individual and is
mother. He hadn't done that since he was a little kid and
subjective. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the novelists
had sometimes nicked the odd ten-pence. He was turning
preferred to set the story within a chronologically determined time.
into a real thief.” Buddy by Nigel Hinton
For example, the novel started with the childhood or the
o First-Person Narrator (uses pronoun I): The narrator presents girlhood/boyhood of a character and ended at some particular stage
the point of view of only one character’s consciousness, in her/his life. The time-sense was simple. But, with the emergence
which limits the narrative to what the first-person narrator of the stream-of consciousness novel, the novelists started using
knows, experiences, infers, or can find out by talking to other psychological time. Psychological time shifts constantly from the
characters. First person narrator is when the author/narrator is past to the present and to the future. Novelists who make use of
inside the story, telling the story as a major or minor character the psychological time to narrate their story take the help of
who says “I.” Most first person stories are direct techniques such as flashback, dreams and fantasies.
characterization because the author tells what he or she is
Setting can be divided into three main elements:
thinking. The story is told by the protagonist or one of the
a. Setting places, referring to the location of the events
characters who interacts closely with the protagonist or other
recounted in a work of fiction.
characters (using pronouns I, me, we, etc). The reader sees the
b. Setting of time, dealing with the problem of 'when' the
story through this person's eyes as he/she experiences it and
occurrence of the events recounted in a work of fiction.
only knows what he/she knows or feels.
c. Social setting, refer to matters relating to social behavior in a
o Second Person Narrator, telling the story with “you” is very place that is told in a work of fiction. Social background could
rare. include living habits, customs, traditions, beliefs, outlook on
life, ways of thinking and being, and social status.
Events in an assumed story take place in a certain order, for
12.5. Setting
instance a child is born, grows up, marries, leads a contented life,
Setting is the physical and social context in which the action dies. This order of events might be abbreviated as ABCDE.
of a story occurs. The major elements of setting are the time, the
A narrative can tell about these events chronologically in the
place, and the social environment that frames the characters.
order in which they occurred: ABCDE. But it could just as well
These elements establish the world in which the characters act.
start with the character’s death, then recall the birth, childhood,
Sometimes the setting is lightly sketched, presented only because
marriage, married life. The order of discourse would then look like
the story has to take place somewhere and at some time. Often,
this: EABCD. Discourse could deviate from chronology more
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radically and present events in orders such as CABED or ACDEB 12.6. Style
and so on. In such cases events are not told in chronological order,
A popular saying is "style is the man". It means, each writer
they are anachronological.
has his/her own style. What do we mean by style and how do we
When the chronological order of events is changed in analyze the style of a particular author? Style means the manner in
discourse, certain techniques are employed to reveal the whole which the author tells his/her story in terms of language and
story nonetheless. The most common of these techniques are expression. Thus, style is determined by diction, or choice of
flashforward (prolepsis) and flashback (analepsis). In a words, sentence structure, syntax and the use of figurative
discourse order of BCDAE the section ‘A’ (the birth in our language. The characters, situations and events are revealed
example) would represent a flashback; in the order AEBCD, the through the use of language. An author has to be careful in his/her
section ‘E’ (death in our example) would represent a flashforward. choice of language because it must suit the character. Style is
A prolepsis is often merely a short remark as in this example: the verbal identity of a writer, as unmistakable as his or her face
Ada called to me to let her in; but I said, ‘Not now, or voice. Reflecting their individuality, writers’ styles convey
my dearest. Go away. There’s nothing the matter; I their unique ways of seeing the world.
will come to you presently.’ Ah! It was a long, long
Style includes the multitude of choices fiction writers make,
time, before my darling girl and I were companions
consciously or subconsciously, as they create a story. They
again. (Dickens, Bleak House, ch. 31)
encompass the big-picture, strategic choices such as point of view
In narrative, unlike in drama, film or picture stories, space and narrator, but they also include the nitty-gritty, tactical choices
has to be presented verbally. It thus exists, ultimately, only in the of grammar, punctuation, word usage, sentence and paragraph
reader’s imagination. On the other hand, the description of space length and structure, tone, the use of imagery, chapter selection,
in narrative tends to be more detailed than it is possible in a titles, and on and on. In the process of writing a story, these
drama’s primary text. Readers create their notions of fictional choices meld to become the writer's voice, his or her own unique
space from their own experience in the real world (see Fielitz style.
2001: 115). That is to say, a person’s ideas of how houses,
gardens, parks, streets, etc. look, is dependent on that person’s
actual experience of houses, gardens, parks and streets. In turn, 12.7. Symbol
convincing descriptions of spatial dimensions in a narrative serve Symbols are concrete objects/images that stand for abstract
to increase the narrative’s authenticity, it provides a link to the subjects. The objects and images have meanings of their own but
reader’s reality. Readers tend to imagine the characters moving may be ascribed subjective connotations such as heart = love, skull
through ‘real’ space, as they do themselves. & crossbones = poison, color green = envy; light bulb = idea,
Setting can provide a certain atmosphere. Darkness and seasons = times in a lifespan. Symbols may be either of two types:
narrow spaces, for instance, are commonly associated with 1. Established (General): the meaning of an established symbol
threatening or restrictive atmospheres. Wide open or sunlit spaces is derived from outside the context of the story, from
create an atmosphere of freedom. Such atmospheres can then be “received association,” i.e., symbolism is agreed upon
used to provide a characteristic background for a character. “universally” (artificially) by culture, religion, tribe, kinship,
[55] [56]
etc. For example, a journey = life; water = rebirth/new 12.9. Irony

beginning; lion = courage
Irony is a term with a range of meanings, all of them
2. Private (Personal): definable only within the context of the
involving some sort of discrepancy or incongruity. It should not be
story in which it appears. For example, early in T. S. Eliot’s
confused with sarcasm which is simply language designed to insult
long poem The Waste Land, the narrative voice issues, “Come
or to cause emotional pain. Irony is used to suggest the difference
in under the shadow of the rock.” In Eliot’s poem, the red
between appearance and reality, between expectation and
rock is symbolic of the spiritual shelter of the Anglican
fulfillment, the complexity of experience, to furnish indirectly an
Church, although this is not a “received” symbol traditional to
evaluation of the author's material, and at the same time to achieve
any particular culture.
compression.
A person, place or object which has a meaning in itself but
Three kinds of irony:
suggests other meanings as well. Things, characters and actions
1. Verbal irony – what is said is actually the opposite of what is
can be symbols. Anything that suggests a meaning beyond the
meant / intended. Verbal irony occurs when a narrator or
obvious. Some symbols are conventional, generally meaning the
character says one thing and means something else
same thing to all readers. For example: bright sunshine symbolizes
2. Dramatic irony occurs when a reader perceives something that
goodness and water is a symbolic cleanser.
a character or narrator in a work of literature does not know.
It is also the contrast between what a character or narrator
says and what a reader knows to be true
12.8. Tone 3. Situational irony is the discrepancy between appearance and
Tone is the author’s implicit attitude toward the reader, reality, or between expectation and fulfillment, or between
subject, and/or the people, places, and events in a work as revealed what is and what would seem appropriate
by the elements of the author’s style. Tone may be characterized as
serious or ironic, sad or happy, private of public, angry or
affectionate, bitter or nostalgic, or any other attitudes and feelings 13. Figures of Speech
that human beings experience.
Why do writers use figurative language? In order to draw
While related to atmosphere, tone is distinct from it. Tone is attention to the language and to communicate the experience more
the narrator’s attitude toward his subject and audience effectively. For example, deeply in love, a young man tells his
 Narrator’s tone may show, for example, admiration for the friend: 'My girlfriend is very beautiful'. It is clearly a
subject or a character straightforward statement. On the other hand, Robert Bums (1759-
 Or the narrative tone can suggest pity or hostility; on the other 96), a Scottish poet, says the same thing but in more poetic words:
hand, the narrator may be condescending or “folksy” with the 'My love is like a red red rose'. This is what we would call
audience figurative use of language.
 Sometimes the narrative tone is ironic By comparing the above sentences, we must have got an
 The narrative tone may be demonstrated by direct comment, idea about what a figure of speech is. The first statement gives us
by characterization, or by choice of words, symbols, or other the literal meaning whereas in the second, words are used in a way
literary devices. that is different from their literal meaning. When we read 'My love
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is like a red red rose', the sentence evokes images of a beautiful red 'The road snaked its way up the mountain'. Here the word 'snaked'
rose and a very young rosy-cheeked girl who is as beautiful as this is used metaphorically. The word snaked suggests a winding path.
exquisite flower. Do poets alone use figures of speech? No. You must have noticed that there is no direct comparison between
Figures of speech are used in all types of writing: prose, poetry, the snake and the course of the road. The comparison with the
drama. In fact, we too use figurative language in our daily snake is indirect and implied.
conversation. When we say, 'He drinks like a fish' or 'It's raining
d. Hyperbole
cats and dogs', we are using figurative language.
Hyperbole is often seen as an exaggeration for the sake of effect
We shall now briefly discuss some of the more common that adds a bit of humor to a story. For example, we often say 'I
figures of speech: nearly died of laughing'. We often use hyperbolic expressions
without realizing it.
a. Personification
This involves giving human characteristics, powers or feelings to  My grandmother is as old as the hills.
objects or to abstract qualities. The purpose is to make the  Your suitcase weighs a ton!
description more vivid and concrete. The writer speaks of  She is heavy as an elephant!
something which is non-human as it were human. For example,  I am dying of shame
'The sun traced his footsteps across the sky' is a more poetic way  I am trying to solve a million issues these days
of expressing the passing of a day. Personification can sometimes e. Metonymy
be used to invoke an emotional response to something by making In this figure of speech, one word that has a very similar meaning
it more personable, friendly and relatable. can be used for another. Using the word “crown” for “royalty” or
b. Simile “lab coats” for “scientists” are two examples. In some ways it can
A simile is a comparison between different terms belonging to be seen as a nickname for something else; for instance, “The White
different classes for the purpose of describing one of them. The House said” doesn’t actually mean the White House said it (a
comparison is usually made by the use of connectives such as 'like' house can’t speak!) but that the President said it. However, we all
or 'as'. For example, when we say 'as sweet as honey' or 'white like understand the meaning, and so the words are interchangeable. Let
snow', we are using similes. But if we say 'Ujang is like Ajang', is us look again at this sentence; 'I enjoy listening to Iwan Fals'.
this a simile? No. Because Ujang and Ajang belong to the same What does this mean? Iwan Fals is the name of a great musician
class, i.e., male human beings. This is often used to make an and when we say 'I enjoy listening to Iwan Fals ', we mean that we
emotional point about something. The difference between simile enjoy listening to his music. Here the person's name is substituted
and metaphor is that you can obviously see words "like" in the for that of his music. In short, metonymy means 'change of name'.
sentence. f. Synecdoche
c. Metaphor This is a figure of speech in which one thing is meant to represent
The use of metaphor compares two things that are not alike and the whole. A few good examples include “ABCs” for alphabet,
finds something about them to make them alike. But here there is “new set of wheels” for car, or “9/11” to demonstrate the whole of
no direct comparison as in a simile. Nor are any connectives such the tragedy that happened in the United States on September 11,
as 'like' and 'as' used. The writer uses an' expression which 2001. This is often used in journalism as a type of
describes one thing by stating another. For example, we can say shorthand. Synecdoche then is a figure of speech in which we use
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a word referring only to a part of something instead of the whole Glossary

('wheels' instead of a vehicle). You may have heard the expressing
Action: Any event or series of events depicted in a literary work;
'Doctor on wheels'. What does this mean? Wheels here stand for
an event may be verbal as well as physical, so that speaking or
transport and the doctor in question certainly has this facility.
telling a story within the story may be an event.
g. Understatement or Litotes Allusion: A brief, often implicit and indirect reference within a
This is the opposite of hyperbole. Instead of exaggeration, the
literary text to something outside the text, whether another text
author expresses him/herself with restraint. The British are known
(e.g. the Bible, a myth, another literary work, a painting, or a piece
for their habit of understatement. If someone is looking extremely
of music) or any imaginary or historical person, place, or thing.
ill, the Englishman may just say 'You do look a bit under the
weather!' Or for a person who died of a bullet shot 'He stopped a Ambiguity: When we are involved in interpretation—figuring out
bullet last night, poor chap'. what different elements in a story “mean”—we are responding to a
work’s ambiguity. This means that the work is open to several
h. Irony simultaneous interpretations. Language, especially when
This figure of speech tries to use a word in a literal sense that
manipulated artistically, can communicate more than one meaning,
debunks what has just been said. “Gentlemen, you can’t fight in
encouraging our interpretations.
here! This is the War Room!” from Dr. Strangelove is a great
example. It is often used to poke fun at a situation that everyone Antagonist: A character or a nonhuman force that opposes, or is
else sees as a very serious matter. This is one of the most in conflict with, the protagonist.
important figures of speech in English. Irony is saying one thing Anticlimax: An event or series of events usually at the end of a
while meaning another. In short irony occurs when a word or narrative that contrast with the tension building up before.
phrase has one surface meaning and another different meaning
beneath this surface. The reader must be able to understand the Antihero: A protagonist who is in one way or another the very
hidden meaning. Charles Dickens describes Mr. Squeers in his opposite of a traditional hero. Instead of being courageous and
novel Nicholas Nickleby: 'He had but one eye, and the popular determined, for instance, an antihero might be timid,
prejudice runs in favour of two. The eye he had was hypersensitive, and indecisive to the point of paralysis. Antiheroes
unquestionably' useful, but decidedly not ornamental.. . .' Irony are especially common in modern literary works.
usually gives pleasure or relief and must not be confused with Archetype: A character, ritual, symbol, or plot pattern that recurs
sarcasm which deliberately inflicts pain. in the myth and literature of many cultures; examples include the
scapegoat or trickster (character type), the rite of passage (ritual),
i. Alliteration and the quest or descent into the underworld (plot pattern). The
This is a very common figure of speech that involves using words term and our contemporary understanding of it derive from the
that begin with the same sound. For instance, “Sally sells sea shells work of psychologist Carl Jung (1875– 1961), who argued that
by the seashore” is alliteration – and try saying it fast to see how archetypes emerge from—and give us a clue to the workings of—
difficult it is! It is often used in advertising slogans to create the “collective unconscious,” a reservoir of memories and
something catchy that more people will remember. "Around the impulses that all humans share but aren’t consciously aware of.
rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran" is an example of alliteration,
where the consonant r is used repeatedly.
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Author: The real author who actually wrote a narrative, not to be  Static characters do not change while dynamic characters
confused with the implied author, or authorial persona adopting an do.
outlook implied by the work as a whole (and that may differ
drastically from that of the real author). The author should not be Characterization: The presentation or delineation of a fictional
confused with the narrator who tells the story. When a narrator personage.
tells a story in the first person, it does not mean that the author is  Direct characterization or direct definition occurs when the
telling his/her own experiences. narrator explicitly tells what a character is like.
 Indirect characterization or indirect presentation occurs
Bildungsroman (German for “education novel”): A novel that when the narrative reveals a character’s trait/s implicitly,
depicts the intellectual, emotional, and moral development of its through his or her speech, behavior, thoughts, appearance, and
protagonist from childhood into adulthood; also sometimes called so on.
an apprenticeship novel. This type of novel tends to envision
character as the product of environment, experience, nurture, and Climax: The third part of plot (see Freytag’s pyramid), the point
education (in the widest sense) rather than of nature, fate, and so at which the action stops rising and begins falling or reversing;
on. also called turning point.
Biography: A work of nonfiction that recounts the life of a real Coming-of-Age Story: A narrative in which a character—often a
person. If the person depicted in a biography is also its author, then child or young person—first learns a significant, usually life-
we use the term autobiography. An autobiography that focuses changing truth about the universe, society, people, or himself or
only on a specific aspect of, or episode in, its author’s life is a herself; also called an initiation or rites-of-passage story.
memoir. Complication: In plot, an action or event that introduces a new
Canon: The range of works that a consensus of scholars, teachers, conflict or intensifies the existing one, especially during the rising
and readers of a particular time and culture consider “great” or action phase of plot.
“major.” Conclusion: Also called resolution, the fifth and last phase or part
Character: An imaginary person who acts, appears, or is referred of plot, the point at which the conflictive or destabilized situation
to in a literary work. at the beginning becomes stable once more and the conflict is
 Major or main character: central character that receives most resolved.
attention.
Conflict: A struggle between opposing forces that sets the action
 Minor character: marginal or secondary character that
in motion.
receives less attention.
 An external conflict pits a character against something or
 Flat character: relatively simple and two-dimensional someone outside himself or herself—another character or
character with few traits and predictable behavior or characters or something in nature or society.
responses.  An internal conflict happens when the opposing forces are
 Round character: complex, multifaceted character capable two drives, impulses, or parts of a single character.
of surprising the readers.
Crisis: In plot, the moment when the conflict comes to a head,
often requiring the character to make a decision; sometimes the
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crisis is equated with the climax or turning point and sometimes it establishing the situation at the beginning of a story. Additional
is treated as a distinct moment that precedes, and prepares for, the information is often scattered throughout the work.
climax.
Fable: An ancient type of short fiction, in verse or prose,
Dénouement (French for “untying” as of a knot): A plot-related illustrating a moral or satirizing human beings. The characters in a
term used in three ways: (1) as a synonym for falling action, (2) as fable are often animals that talk and act like human beings. The
a synonym for conclusion or resolution, and (3) as the label for a fable is sometimes treated as a specific type of folktale and
phase following the conclusion in which any loose ends are tied sometimes as a fictional subgenre in its own right.
up. See Freytag’s pyramid.
Falling Action: The fourth of the five phases or parts of plot (see
Dialogue: Usually, the representation of an oral exchange Freytag’s pyramid), in which the conflict or conflicts move toward
involving two or more characters. More rarely, a literary work that resolution.
consists mainly or entirely of the speech of two or more characters.
Fantasy: A genre of literary work featuring strange settings and
Diction: Choice of words that largely determines the tone of a characters and often involving magic or the supernatural; though
narrative and influences the style of the creative piece of fiction. closely related to horror and science fiction, fantasy is typically
Informal or colloquial diction resembles everyday speech less concerned with the macabre or with science and technology.
Formal diction: lofty, impersonal, and dignified language
Fiction: Any narrative, especially in prose, about invented or
Discriminated Occasion: A specific, discrete moment portrayed
imagined characters and action. Today, fiction falls into three
in a fictional work, often signaled by phrases such as “At 5:05 in
major subgenres based on length—the short story, novella, and
the morning . . . ,” “It was about dusk, one evening during the
novel. Older, originally oral forms of short fiction include the
supreme madness of the carnival season . . . ,” or “the day before
fable, legend, parable, and tale. Fictional works may also be
Maggie fell down. . . .”
categorized not by their length but by their handling of particular
elements such as plot and character. Detective and science fiction,
Epilogue: In fiction, a short section or chapter that comes after the
for example, are subgenres. Others fictions include gothic,
conclusion, tying up loose ends and often describing what happens
romance, historical and nonfiction.
to the characters after the resolution of the conflict.
Figurative language: Language that uses figures of speech or
Epiphany: A sudden moment of illumination or revelation of
literary devices to express ideas.
truth, often inspired by a seemingly simple or commonplace event.
The term, originally from Christian theology, was first popularized Flashback: A plot-structuring device inserting a scene from the
by the Irish fiction writer James Joyce, who evoked the epiphanic fictional past into the fictional present.
realizations of his characters in his collected short stories entitled
Flash-forward: A plot-structuring device inserting a scene from
Dubliners.
the fictional future into the fictional present.
Episode: A distinct action or series of actions within a plot.
Focalization: The perspective from which the narrated situations
Exposition: The first phase or part of plot (see Freytag’s pyramid), and events are presented.
which sets the scene, introduces and identifies characters, while Internal focalization: perspective locatable in one character
because it highlights the feelings and thoughts of that character.
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External focalization: a perspective located outside the characters, which sense it primarily appeals to—hearing, touch, vision, or
merely reporting events and actions from the outside, that is, smell. An image is a particular instance of imagery.
without access to feelings and thoughts.
Inciting incident: An action that sets a plot in motion by creating
Other equivalent terms are internal narration and external
conflict. In medias res (Latin for “in the midst of things”) Opening
narration.
of the plot in the middle of the action, and then filling in past
Foil: A character with behavior and/or values that contrast those of details by means of flashback.
another character in order to highlight the distinctive temperament
Irony: A situation or statement characterized by a significant
of that character.
difference between what is expected and what actually happens, or
between what is understood and what is meant.
Foreshadowing: A hint or clue about what will happen at a later Verbal irony occurs when a word or expression in context means
moment in the plot. something different from, and usually the opposite of, what it
appears to mean; when the intended meaning is harshly critical or
Freytag’s Pyramid: A diagram of plot structure first created by
satiric, verbal irony becomes sarcasm.
the German novelist and critic Gustav Freytag (1816–1895).
Situational irony occurs when the character’s actions have an
opposite effect from what was intended, or lead to a reversal of
expectation or unexpected.
Dramatic irony occurs when there is a gap between what an
audience knows and what a character believes or expects; when
this occurs in a tragedy, dramatic irony is sometimes called tragic
irony.
Cosmic irony and irony of fate are sometimes used to refer to
situations in which situational irony is the result of fate, chance,
the gods, or some other superhuman force or entity.
Genre: A type or category of works sharing particular formal or
textual features and conventions; especially used to refer to the Metaphor: A general term for almost any figure of speech
largest categories for classifying literature—fiction, poetry, drama, involving comparison; more commonly, a particular figure of
and nonfiction. A smaller division within a genre is usually known speech in which two unlike things are compared implicitly—that
as a subgenre, such as gothic fiction or epic poetry. is, without the use of a signal such as the word like or as—as in
“Love is a rose, but you better not pick it”.
Hero/Heroine: A character in a literary work, especially the
leading male/female character, who is especially virtuous, usually Monologue: 1) A speech of more than a few sentences, usually in
larger than life, sometimes almost godlike. a play but also in other genres, spoken by one person and
uninterrupted by the speech of anyone else. 2) An entire work
Image/imagery: Broadly defined, imagery is any sensory detail or
consisting of this sort of speech. In fiction, an interior monologue
evocation in a work; more narrowly, the use of figurative language
takes place entirely within the mind of a character rather than
to evoke a feeling, to call to mind an idea, or to describe an object.
being spoken aloud.
Imagery may be auditory, tactile, visual, or olfactory depending on
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Mood: The feelings evoked while reading a literary text. Limited narrators relate the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions
of only one character (the central consciousness).
Narration: 1) Broadly, the act of telling a story or recounting a
narrative. 2) More narrowly, the portions of a narrative attributable Objective or detached narrators (acting as “camera eye”)
to the narrator rather than words spoken by characters (that is, reveal nothing of characters’ thoughts and feelings, but report
dialogue). 3) Term used in conjunction with qualifiers that only actions, dialogue and behavior.
determine the sort of perspective taken in the narrative (first-
An unreliable narrator causes the reader to view the account
person narration, second-person narration, third-person
of events with suspicion, as opposed to a reliable narrator,
narration, internal narration and external narration).
whose judgment and narration the readers may trust.
Narrative: A story, whether fictional or true, in prose or verse,
An intrusive narrator is a third-person narrator who
related by a narrator or narrators (rather than acted out onstage, as
occasionally disrupts his or her narrative to speak directly to the
in drama). At times a frame recounts the telling of another
reader or audience in direct address.
narrative or story that thus “frames” the inner or framed
narrative. Novel: A fictitious prose narrative of book length.
Narrator: Someone who recounts a narrative or tells a story. An Novella: A piece of fiction shorter than a book-length novel but
internal narrator is a character within the work telling the story to longer than a short story.
an equally fictional auditor or listener; internal narrators are Persona: The voice or figure of the author who tells and structures
usually first- or second-person narrators (see below). An external the story and who may or may not share the values of the actual
narrator is not a character. When applied to the actual narration, author; also called implied author.
one talks of either internal narration or external narration.
Plot: The arrangement of the action. The five main parts or phases
A first-person narrator: an internal narrator who consistently of plot are exposition, rising action, climax or turning point,
refers to himself or herself using the first-person pronoun I (or, falling action, and conclusion or resolution.
infrequently, we). The first-person narrator should not be
confused with the author. When a narrator tells a story in the Point of View: The perspective from which people, events, and
first person, it does not mean that the author is telling his/her other details in a work of fiction are viewed; also called focus,
own experiences. though the term point of view is sometimes used to include both
focus and voice. The narrator conveys the point of view.
A second-person narrator consistently uses the second-person A limited point of view reveals only the perspective of one
pronoun you (not a common technique). character.
A third-person narrator uses third-person pronouns such as An omniscient or unlimited point of view reveals the
she, he, they, it, and so on; almost always external narrators, perspective of multiple characters.
third-person narrators include omniscient, limited and objective Prose: The regular form of spoken and written language, measured
narrators. in sentences rather than lines, as in poetry.
Omniscient narrators (literally, “all-knowing”) describe the Protagonist: The main character in a work, whether male or
inner thoughts and feelings of multiple characters. female, heroic or non-heroic.
[69] [70]
Rising Action: The second of the five phases or parts of plot (see William James (brother of novelist Henry James) to describe the
Freytag’s pyramid), in which events complicate the situation workings of the human mind and only later adopted to describe the
existing at the beginning of a work by intensifying the initial type of narration that seeks to replicate this process. The technique
conflict or introducing a new one. is closely associated with early twentieth-century fiction writers
influenced by early psychologists such as William James and
Scene: A section or subdivision of narrative that presents
Sigmund Freud.
continuous action in one specific setting.
Style: A distinctive manner of expression; an author’s style results
Sequence. The ordering of events in a fictional plot.
from a combination of aspects, such as diction, rhythm, imagery,
Setting: The time and place of the action in a work of fiction. and so on.
The spatial setting refers to the place or places in which action
Symbol: A person, place, thing, or event that figuratively
unfolds.
represents or stands for something else. Often the thing or idea
Temporal setting: the period in time in which action unfolds
represented is more abstract and general, and the symbol is more
(temporal setting is thus the same as plot time.)
concrete and particular.
General setting: the general time and place in which all the A traditional symbol recurs frequently in (and beyond) literature,
action unfolds. making it immediately recognizable to those who belong to a
Particular settings: the times and places in which individual given culture. In Western literature and culture, for example, the
episodes or scenes take place. Both general and specific rose and snake traditionally symbolize love and evil respectively.
settings include the cultural, economic, manufactured, natural, Some symbols may accumulate their complex meanings only
political, religious, social and temporal environment of a text, within a particular literary work.
including everything that the characters know and own. Tale: A brief narrative with a simple plot and characters, an
Short Story: A relatively short work of prose fiction ancient and originally oral form of storytelling. Unlike fables, tales
(approximately 500 to 10,000 words) that, according to Edgar typically do not convey or state a simple or single moral.
Allan Poe, can be read in a single sitting of two hours or less and Folktale: especially common type of tale that follows
works to create “a single effect.” Two types of short story are the conventions such as formulaic beginning and ending (“Once
initiation story and the short short story. upon a time . . . ” “. . . they lived happily ever after”), a setting
not highly particularized in terms of time or place, flat and
Short Short Story: Especially brief short story, as its name often stock characters, animal or human, and fairly simple
suggests, also sometimes called microfiction. plots.
Simile: A figure of speech involving a direct, explicit comparison Fairy tale: often used as a synonym for folktale, but more
of one thing to another, usually using the words like or as to draw properly designating a specific type of folktale featuring fairies
the connection, as in “My love is like a red, red rose.” or other fantastic creatures, such as pixies or ogres.
Stream of Consciousness: A type of third- or first-person Theme: 1) Broadly and commonly, an idea explored in a literary
narration that replicates the thought processes of a character work (e.g. “the value of all life”). 2) More narrowly, the insight
without much or any intervention by a narrator. The term was about a topic communicated in a work (e.g. “All living things are
originally coined by the nineteenth-century American psychologist equally precious”). Most literary works have multiple themes,
[71] [72]
though some people reserve the term theme for the central or main REFERENCES
insight and refer to others as subthemes. Usually, a narrative
illustrates a given theme rather than explicitly stating in it. Many
narratives may illustrate the same theme, such as war and peace, Amigoni, David. 2000. The English Novel and Prose Narrative.
generational gap, gain of maturity, and more, but the particulars Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh
will differ. Barnet, Sylvan et el. 2008. An introduction to literature: fiction,
Time: Fiction includes at least four potentially quite different time poetry, and drama - Fifteenth ed. Pearson: United States of
frames: America.
1) author time: time when the author has originally created or Beard, Adrian. 2001. Texts and Contexts: Introducing literature
published a literary text and Language Study. Routledge: London (http://www.
2) narrator time: time when the narrator in a work of fiction routledge.com/ textbooks/textsandcontexts.html)
supposedly narrates the story Kennedy, X. J., Dorothy M. Kennedy, and Dana Gioia. 2013.
3) plot time: time when the action depicted in the work Instructor’s Manual to Accompany Literature: An
supposedly takes place (in other words, the work’s temporal Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing,
setting) Twelfth Edition. Pearson: United States of America.
4) reader (or audience) time: time when an actual reader reads
the work Klarer, Mario. 1999. An Introduction to Literary Studies.
In some cases, author, narrator, plot, and reader time will be Routledge: London
roughly the same. But in other cases, some or all of these time https://id.scribd.com/document/60317308/Unit1-Understanding-
frames might differ. Prose
Tone: The attitude a literary work takes toward its subject, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_of_speech
especially the way diction reveals it. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/prose
Verisimilitude (from Latin verisimilitudo or “likeness to truth”) http://literarydevices.net/prose/
The internal truthfulness, lifelikeness, and consistency of the world
created within any literary work. Verisimilitude suggests judging http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/p-as_docs/
that world on its own terms rather than in terms of its PoetryandProse. pdf
correspondence to the real world. Thus even a work that contains http://www.nou.edu.ng/uploads/NOUN_OCL/pdf/SASS/ENG%20
utterly fantastic or supernatural characters or actions (and does not 181%20Introduction%20to%20Prose%20Fiction.pdf
aim at realism) may very well achieve a high degree of http://www.unm.edu/~hookster/Elements%20of%20Fiction.pdf
verisimilitude.
http://www2.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/intranet/englishbasics/PDF/
Voice: The narrating instance, the verbal aspect of point of view, Prose.pdf
the acknowledged or unacknowledged source of a story’s words;
the speaker; the “person” telling the story and that person’s http://www.oranim.ac.il/sites/heb/SiteCollectionImages/pictures/engl
particular qualities of insight, attitude, and verbal style. ish/expression/Glossary_of_Literary_Terms_prose.pdf
http://literarydevices.net/prose/
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Compiled by: Amir Hamzah, S.S., M.P.d

IPI GARUT PRESS

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Cetakan pertama, Januari 2020

Hak cipta dilindungi oleh undang-undang. Dilarang mengutip atau

PROSE 2. Definition of Prose

PROSE POETRY 8. Types of Prose

11.4.7. Political/Novel of Ideas The genre is characterized by a number of formal, topical

12.3.1. Characterization Characters can be described, implicitly as well as explicitly,

Characterization Plot- or character-oriented narratives usually have one or

etc. For example, a journey = life; water = rebirth/new 12.9. Irony

a word referring only to a part of something instead of the whole Glossary

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