Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Art and Culture Notes Rahul Sir
Art and Culture Notes Rahul Sir
West India
South India
South West India
7. Indian Theatre Classical Sanskrit Theatre Features and reasons of decline
Folk Theatre Ritual Theatre
Entertainment theatre
South Indian Theatre
8. Indian Puppetry String Puppet
Shadow Puppet
Glove Puppet
Rod Puppet
MODULE 3: MISCELLANEOUS
9. Indian Orthodox School Samkhya
Philosophy Yoga
Nyaya
Vaisheshika
Mimansa
Vedanta
Shankaracharya
Ramanuja
Madhwacharya
Nibarkacharya
Vallabhacharya
Unorthodox School Chrvaka/Lokayata
Ajivika
10. Indian Language Classical languages
& Scripts Scripts: Indus, Brhami, Kharoshthi, Gupta, Sharda, Modi etc.
11. Coinage of India Iron Age
Greek Coins
Kushan Coins
Satvahana
Western khtrapas
Gupta Period
Post Gupta Period
Akbar
South India
12. Indian Calendar Vikrm Samvat
Shaka Samvat
Hijri Calendar
Gregorian
13. Ancient Ports
14. Traditional Sarees
15. Handicrafts
16. Marital Arts
17. Bronze Crafts
18. Metal Embroidery
19. Important Books and Foreign Travelers
20. Literature
All Modules will be followed by discussion of Previous Year Prelims and Mains Questions.
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
• Etymology: Latin word ‘tekton’ → Builder.
• Earlier Example: Bhimbetka Caves.
CIVILIZATION
‘Civilization’ means having better ways of living and
sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs. HARAPPAN ARCHITECTURE
• Time Period: 2nd half of 3rd
Difference between Art and Culture
millennium BCE.
Art Culture
• Main Place: Harappa and
Art is one aspect of Culture is the ensemble of social
Mohenjo-Daro.
culture. forms, material traits, customary
beliefs, and other human • Characteristics:
phenomena that cannot be • Rectangular grid
directly attributed to a genetic pattern → roads ran
inheritance of a religious, racial, in N- S and E-W direction and cut each other at right
or social group. angles.
Art is the creative The unique manners in which • Big roads → divided the city into a number of blocks.
expression of one’s different people live and the • Smaller lanes → connect the individual houses and
experiences, emotions manner in which they represent, apartments to the main roads.
and other qualities. classify their experiences
• 3 Types of buildings: Dwelling houses, public buildings
creatively.
and public baths.
• Srama means “one who strives” or “Laborer” in Sanskrit and • Lion: The Lion shows the attainment of enlightenment.
Pali. • Satyameva Jayate (Mundaka Upanishad).
• Applied to those who whole heartedly practiced • Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra) → first sermon by
enlightenment (Monks). Buddha or the Dhamma chakra parivartana.
• Shraman tradition is best kept in term parivrajaka,
meaning a homeless wanderer.
• Shraman tradition gave rise to Unorthodox school like
Jainism and Buddhism and some of Hinduism such as
Carvaka and Ajivika.
MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE
Court Art
• Palaces: The capital at Pataliputra
and the palaces at Kumrahar
were created to reflect the Difference between Ashokan Pillars and Achaemenian
splendour of the Mauryan Pillars
Empire. Chandragupta Maurya Basis Ashokan Pillars Achaemenian
was inspired by the Achaemenes Pillars
palaces at Persepolis in Iran. Composition Shaft: monolithic, Shaft: Various
Chunar sandstones. pieces of sandstone
• Building material: Wood cemented together.
• Megasthenes described the palace as one of the greatest Location Independently Generally attached
creations of mankind erected by royal to state buildings
diction
Pillars
IMPORTANT ANCIENT INSCRIPTIONS AND EDICTS
• Inscription of pillars – as a symbol of
• Sohgaura Copper Plate: The earliest known copper-
the state or to commemorate battle
plate, known as the Sohgaura copper-plate, is a Mauryan
victories – assumed a great significance.
record that mentions famine relief efforts. It is one of the
• He also used pillars to propagate very few preAshoka Brahmi inscriptions in India.
imperial sermons as well.
• Ashokan Edicts: 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka
• Material: Chunar sandstone as well as boulders and cave walls made by the Emperor
• Composition: Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire during his reign from 269
• A long Shaft formed the base and was made up of a BCE to 232 BCE. → inscriptions were dispersed throughout
single piece of stone or monolith. the country and it represents the first tangible evidence of
Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the Ashoka’s view
• Capital: lotus shaped or bell shaped (bell shaped
about dharma+social and moral precepts rather than
capitals were influenced by the Iranian pillars).
specific religious practices or the philosophical dimension
• Abacus: Circular or rectangular base known as the of Buddhism .Ashoka refers to himself as “Beloved servant
abacus on which an animal figure was placed. of the God” (Devanampiyadasi).
• Ex: Lauria Nandangarh pillar in Champaran, Sarnath • Rummindei Pillar Edicts (Lumbini): These inscriptions
pillar near Varanasi, etc. come under the Minor Pillar Inscriptions. These contain
National Emblem inscriptions recording their dedication. The inscriptions
mentions Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini (Rummindei),
• 4 animals
Rupandehi district, Nepal, the birthplace of Lord Buddha.
• Horse: Kanthaka, which Buddha is said to
Ashoka exempted Lumbini from paying tax, and fixed its
have used for going away from princely
contribution of grain at one – eighth. The inscriptions are
life.
written in Brahmi script.
• Bull: Zodiac sign of Taurus, the month in
• Prayag-Prashasti: The Allahabad Prasasti was originally
which Buddha was born.
engraved on the Ashokan Pillar in Kausambhi near
• Elephant: Dream of Queen Maya a white elephant
Allahabad. Later it was moved to the Allahabad fort. 4
entering her womb.
different inscriptions I.
• The usual Ashokan inscriptions in Brahmi script as in all • Nanaghat inscription was issued by Naganika.
pillars. (satvahana).
• The Queen’s edict regaling the charitable deeds of • Uttarmerur Inscription (TN): Parnatuk Chola Local Self
Ashoka’s wife Kaurwaki. Government.
• Samudragupta’s (335AD – 375 AD) inscriptions written • Mand Saur Inscription (MP)/Dashapur silk weiver
by Harisena in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. Reign of Kumargupta .
• Jahangir’s inscriptions in Persian. • Bhatihari Inscription (Skandagupta).
• Mehrauli Inscription: by Chandragupta-II of Gupta
STUPAS
dynasty as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu
• Kalsi Inscription(between Chakrata and Dehradun ): Triratna
• on the banks of Yamuna river. only place in North India Buddha: Enlightenment
• Monastery 51
• Main structure of the Stupa is a hemispherical dome that
has a simple design.(brick+stone)
• Scenes from Jataka stories, events of Buddha’s life, scenes
from early Buddhism period, and several auspicious
symbols are carved on these ceremonial gateways.
• Some other stupas also present supposed to hold the
relics of Sariputta and Mahamougalayana.
• The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of POPULAR ART: INDIVIDUAL EFFORT
the Buddha, and the stupa was meant to represent the Cave Architecture:
mahaparinibbana. Another frequently used symbol was
the wheel. This stood for the first sermon of the Buddha,
delivered at Sarnath.
• Shalabhanjika : Other sculptures at Sanchi were perhaps
not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas. According to
popular belief, this was a woman whose touch caused
trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that this was
regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the
decoration of the stupa. The shalabhanjika motif suggests
that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched
it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist Lomash Rishi
beliefs, practices and ideas.
AMARAVATHI STUPA
• 2nd or 1st century BC. NAGARJUNAKONDA (NAGARJUNA HILL)
• Later – transformed from hinayana to mahayana shrine. • Nagarjuna Sagar, Andhra
• South India – no survival of stupas. Pradesh.
• Final shape in 2nd century AD- larger than sanchi stupa. • Known in the ancient
• Sculpture – extension of amaravathi school of art. times as Sri Parvata.
GUPTA AGE
• 4th century A.D.
• “Golden period of Indian Architecture
• Earlier Gupta rulers → Buddhists
• Temple architecture came to the fore front under the
patronage of the Hindu rulers of the later Gupta phase.
• Temple architecture reached its climax during this period.
• Similarly, Buddhist and Jain art also reached its peak
during the Gupta Age → secularism
Stupas A hemispherical dome, a solid structure • Verandaha has wooden reliefs showing royal women
into which one cannot enter A glorified, driving chariots over a demon.
beautified, enlarged funerary mound. PANDAVLENI CAVES, NASIK
Resting place of the bones and ashes of a • 24 Buddhist caves belonging
holy man to Hinayana Period of
Kutagarashala Literally, a hut with a pointed roof – or Buddhist architecture.
in groves where travelling mendicants
• Dating back to the 1st Century
halted.
CE.
KARLE CAVE – LONAVALA (PUNE)– 200 BC • Called as Pandu leni meaning
• Carved from the living rock. group of caves.
• Columns are strong and bulky, surmounted by sculptured • Has nothing to do with the characters of Mahabharata
capitals. (the Pandavas).
• A stupa with a wooden umbrella on top unharmed to this • Inscriptions mention Gautamiputra Satakarni’s mother
date. Gautami Balasri had financed the construction of 3rd cave.
• Largest Chaitya-griha among all Buddhist monuments in • Contains a panel depicting Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana.
India. • River: Gomai
• Has a huge lion pillars in front of Chaitya-griha (only two
AJANTA CAVES (BETWEEN 200 B.C. TO 650 A.D.)
caves have this design- Karle and Kanheri).
• Rock-cut caves in the Sahyadri
ranges on Waghora river near
Aurangabad.
• 29 caves (25 Viharas + 4
Chaitya.
• Ajanta caves were inscribed
by the Buddhist monks,
under the patronage of the Vakataka kings – Harishena
being a prominent one.
• The outlines of the paintings were done in red colour and
then the inside was painted.
KANHERI CAVES, MUMBAI • One of the striking features is the absence of blue colour
• Second largest Chaitya griha in the paintings.
in India, after Karle caves. • Paintings are generally themed around Buddhism – the
• Lion Pillars at the Entrance. life of Buddha and Jataka stories.
(Just like Karle caves) • Hinayana Phase (5) + Mahayana Phase (24).
• Podhis: water cisterns for • Reference: Fa Hein and Heian Tsang.
rainwater harvesting
• Some prominent sculptures of Ajanta Caves are:
• Images of both Standing Buddha and sitting Buddha Mahaparinirvana of Buddha in Cave. no 26., Naga king and
flanked by Bodhisattvas his consort in Cave. no 19.
• Famous Satvahan king Gautamiputra Satakarni’s name
mentioned in the inscriptions here FRESCO PAINTINGS IN AJANTA
• Vihara for resting monks with rock cut seats and benches
• Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment Amoghsiddhi, Vajrasatva and Vajraraja.
• With the setting of the plaster; the painting becomes an • Sites in Andhra Pradesh : Jagayyapetta
integral part of the wall
Indra Sabha
ELLORA CAVES –AURANGABAD
• Patronage : Rashtrakuta,
Chalukya and Early Kalchuris
• 5th century CE onwards to
11th century CE.
• Caves: 12 Buddhist (1-12) Jagarnath
+17 Hindu (13-29) + 5 Jaina Sabha
(30-34).
ELEPHANTA CAVES –MUMBAI
• Buddhist caves having many images belonging to
Vajrayana Buddhism.
• Ajanta also has the excavated double storey caves but at
Ellora, the triple storey is a unique achievement.
• Ellora cave temples were carved out on the sloping side of
the hill. Hence most of the temples have courtyards.
• Cave no 16 is a rock cut temple, known as Kailash leni -
carved out of a single rock – built by Rashtrakutas.
Raavan Ki Khai
STUPAS
• A decline in the development of stupas.
• Dhamek stupa at Sarnath (first sermon of Buddha)
near Varanasi is a fine example of stupa developed during
• Bramhanical caves → converted into a Christian shrine. this period.
Chaukhandi Stupa
• Chaukhandi Stupa is the place where Lord Buddha met his
5 disciples first in Sarnath.
• It was built of brick like octagonal tower during 4th to 6th
century in the Gupta period
• After Gupta’s the stupa’s architecture was altered by
Govardhan, son of Raja Todarmal, who modified stupa
• Around 6th century CE (Gupta Period).
to its present shape by building an octagonal tower in
• 9 sandstone Buddhist Caves with beautiful Frescos and commemoration of Humayun (Mughal ruler) visit.
sculptured work.
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
First Stage
• The temples had flat roof.
• The temples were square in
shape.
• The portico was developed on shallow pillars.
• The entire structure was built on low platforms.
• Example: Temple No. 17 at Sanchi
Second Stage
• Continued most of the
features of the earlier phase.
• Platforms: Higher or
upraised.
• Two-storied temples have
also been found.
• Important Addition of this phase was a covered Fifth Stage
ambulatory passageway around the sanctum sanctorum
• In this stage, there was the
or garbhagriha.
introduction of circular temples
• The passageway was used as a pradakshinapath. with shallow rectangular
• Example: Parvati temple at Nachna kuthara in Madhya projections. Rest of the features of
Pradesh the previous stage continued.
Khajuraho School
• Chandela rulers
• Both the interior and exterior walls were lavishly
decorated with carvings.
• Sculptures: Generally erotic (Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra).
• Material: Made of sandstone.
• Direction: Generally north or east facing.
• Panchayatan style of temple making was followed.
• Even the subsidiary shrines had rekhaprasad shikharas.
This created an impression of a mountain range.
• Relatively high platform and belong to Hindu as well as Solanki School/ Maru- Gurjara style
Jain religion+Tantricism. • Patronage: Solanki rulers (later Chalukya)
• Hindu Temples: Kandariya Mahadeva temple, Lakshman • No carvings on temple’s wall.
temple (grandest temple of Khajuraho built by Dhanga),
• Garbhagriha: Connected with the mandapa both
chaturbhuja temple (Lacks erotic sculpture, faces west),
internally as well as externally.
chausatha yogini temple etc.
• Porticos: Decorative arched gateways known as torans.
• A unique feature → presence
of step-tank, known as surya-
kund. The steps of the tank are
full of small temples → wooden
carvings present in these
temples.
• Material: Sandstone, black
basalt and soft marble.
• Direction: East-facing and designed such that every year,
during the equinoxes, the sun rays fall directly into the
central shrine.
• Example: Modhera Sun temple, Gujarat (built in 1026–27
by Bhima-I).
Dance class sculpture in Laxman Temple
ARCHITECTURE AT MAHABALIPURAM/
MAMMLLAPURAM/SEVEN PAGODAS
• The ancient port city of Mamallapuram (derives from DRAVIDIAN STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
Mamallan, or “great warrior”, a title by which the Pallava • Decline of Pallava dynasty → a new style under the Chola
King Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD) was known.) in Tamil kingdom
Nadu, Declared as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984
• Unlike the Nagara temples, the Dravidian temples were
by the name “Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram”. surrounded by high boundary walls
They include.
• Gopuram: high entrance gateway
• Ratha temples or Pancha Ratha: Rock cut temples in
• Panchayatan style with a principal temple and 4 subsidiary
India, comprising of Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha, shrines.
Arjuna Ratha, Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi
• Vimana: spire is in the form of a stepped pyramid that
Ratha, dated around 7th century AD. Dharmaraja Ratha is rises up line.
the largest structure .
• Shikhara: crowning element is shaped in the form of an
• Rock-cut caves: Varaha Cave Temple, Krishna Cave Temple, octagon → similar to the kalash of the Nagara temple, but
Panchapandava Cave Temple, and the Mahishasuramardini not spherical.
Mandapa (Goddess Durga killing Mahishasura). • There is only one vimana in the Dravidian architecture on
• Open Air Rock Reliefs: Descent of the Ganges which is top of the main temple. No Vimana in subsidiary shrine,
also known as Arjuna’s Penance or Bhagiratha’s Penance unlike in Nagara architecture.
carved on two huge boulders. It narrates the story of • Antarala: Connected Assembly hall to garbhagriha by a
descent of River Ganga on earth from heaven by the vestibular tunnel.
efforts of Bhagiratha. • The entrance of the garbhagriha had sculptures of
• Shore Temple complex: Which includes which has two Dwaarpal, mithun and yakshas.
small and one large temple enclosed within a two tier • The presence of a water tank.
compound wall studded with images of Nandi, the vahana • Example: Brihadesvara temple at Tanjore
of Shiva. The temple is predominantly dedicated to Lord Gangaikondacholapuram temple.
Shiva with a sculpture of Anantashayana Vishnu in one of
DIFFERENT SHAPES OF DRAVIDA TEMPLE
the three temples within the complex.
1. Kuta / caturasra – Square
2. Shala / ayatasra – rectangular
3. Gaja-prishta / vrittayata (elephant backed) –elliptic:
Deriving from wagon vaulted shapes of apsidal chaityas
with a horse-shoe shaped entrance facade usually called a
nasi.
, 4. Vritta – circular
5. Ashtasra – octagonal
considered auspicious.
Airavatesvara temple
at Tanjavur: Built by the Airavatesvara temple
Chola king Rajaraja II
LIVING CHOLA TEMPLES (1143-1173 CE.) It is much
Brihadesvara Temple: smaller in size as compared
Known in the inscriptions to the Brihadisvara
as Dakshina Meru, the temple at Tanjavur and
construction of this temple Gangaikondacholapuram.
was inaugurated by the The temple consists of a sanctum without a circumambulatory
Chola King, Rajaraja I (985- Brihadeswara temple path and axial mandapas. The front mandapa known in the
1012 CE) possibly in the inscriptions as Rajagambhiran tirumandapam, is unique as
19th regal year (1003-1004 CE). Outside the temple enclosure it was conceptualized as a chariot with wheels. The labelled
are the fort walls of the Sivaganga Little Fort surrounded by miniature friezes extolling the events that happened to the
a moat, and the Sivaganga Tank, constructed by the Nayaks 63 nayanmars (Saiva saints) are noteworthy and reflect the
of Tanjore of the 16th century who succeeded the imperial deep roots of Saivism in this region.
Cholas.
VIJAY NAGAR LEGACY
• Vithala temple Ranga Mantapa 56 musical Pillars • Nagara style: Curvilinear Shikhara and square base of
(SAREGAMA pillars), indicating the musical notes emitted Vesara temples
by them. • Dravida style: Intricate carvings and sculptures, design of
Vimana and Step or terraced Shikara of Vesara temples.
Lotus temple
KAILASHNATH TEMPLE
• The large tank set slightly off the axis to the main temple is • Patronage: Rashtrakuta King Krishna-I
another impressive feature of the temple. • Carved out of a monolith, and even has a courtyard.
• Surrounded by steps and a pillared portico, the tank was • In cave. no 16, → Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha. It is
used for ritual bathing. considered as one of the masterpieces of Indian sculpture
• EX: Meenakshi- Sundareswara temple at Madurai. → two HOYSALA ART(KARNATAKA)
shrines (Shiva as Sundareswara +his wife Meenakshi)
• Period from 1050-1300 A.D with the prominent seats
VESARA SCHOOL/KARNATAKA SCHOOL being Belur, Halebid and Sringeri.
• Patronage: Chalukya rulers (mid-7th cen A.D.) • Multiple shrines were built around a central pillared hall.
• Shrines led out in the shape of an intricately designed star. Unique Features:
→ Stellate plan (Differs from Crucified Plan of Panchayatan 1-The roof (garbhalayam) of the temple is built with
Style) bricks which are so light that they can float on water.
• Hoysala temples are sometimes called hybrid or vesara as 2-Use of sand box technology :the earth was dug three
their unique style seems neither completely dravida nor meters deep for the foundation. It was then filled with
nagara, but somewhere in between. sand and for the sand mixture to become strong, it was
mixed with granite, jaggery and Karakkaya (Chebula)--
• Material: Soft soap stone (Chlorite schist) was the main
Earthquake proof
building.
3-the temple is known for its intricate carvings, the
• Temples Built on Jagati (an upraised platform).
most famous one being the flute at the entrance of the
• Decoration of the temple through sculptures. All the sanctum sanctorum, which when hit makes the sound of
chambers had Shikhar which were interconnected by an sa-ri-ga-ma
arrangement of horizontal lines and moulding. 4-Carved with dolomite rocks even a hair can pass
• Walls and stairs of the temple → zigzag pattern. through it.
• Example: Hoyasaleswara temple at Halebid, 5-The ‘Nagini’ and other eleven devanarthakis are
Vijayanarayana temple at Belur. arranged as supporting beams on both sides of each
Central pillared entrance.
hall The pillars have 13 significant carvings, probably
indicating the thirteenth century during which the
Subsidiary temple was built
shrines
Stellate plan
Region: Bengal
• Period between 8th and 12th century A.D.
• Patronage of Pala dynasty and Sena dynasty.
Main Feature:
• A curved or sloping roof, as in bamboo huts. This became
popularly known as “Bangla roof” and was later adopted
by the Mughal architects.
• Material: Burnt bricks and clay.
• The temples of this region had a tall, curving shikhara
crowned by a large amalaka, similar to the Odisha School.
Virupaksha Temple • For the sculptures of this region, both stone as well as
metal was used. Stone was the major component. The
figures were unique in their highly lustrous finish.
• Pala Kings built lots of Viharas, Chaityas and Stupas.
• Monuments under Pala rulers Universities of Nalanda,
Jagaddala, Odantapuri and Vikramshila were developed
under Pala rulers. Somapura Mahavihara is a magnificent
monastery in Bangladesh developed by them.
• The Senas were Hindus and built temples of Hindu gods,
and also sustained Buddhist architectures.
• Monuments under Sena rulers are: Dhakeshwari temple
in Bangladesh.
• Kamakhya, also mentioned as Kubjika Pitha is the place of wooden architecture. Sometimes, the temple itself takes
where the Yoni- Mudra (the female Genitalia or the on a pagoda shape.
Vulva) of Sati fell. Here Kamadeva regained his charm • Example – Pandrethan temple (Metal Sculpture,
again. Moderate ornamentation, Tradition of Water Tank Built by
• Built in: Believed to be in Reign of King and later Naraka Meruverman in 7th Century)
A.D. 1565 by utilising ruins of a stone temple of 11th-12th
century A.D. There is role of Koch king Naranarayan (A.D.
1540-1585) and last chamber was added to the temple INDO ISLAMIC / INDO SARACENIC STYLE
complex by the Ahom king Rajeswar Singha (A.D. 1751-
69) in A.D. 1759.
• Hill : Nilachala or Blue Hill.
Architectue:
• Main temple contains a modified saracenic dome
• the antarala carries a two-roofed design similar to the
traditional thatched cottages
• the bhogmandir (also called pancharatna) with five domes
similar in appearance to the main temple
• the natmandir having a shell-roof with apsidal end similar • With the advent of Islam in the Indian sub-continent
to some of the imparmanent namghars or prayer halls around the 7th century, Indo-Islamic architecture → a
found in Assam. mixture of Indian, Persian, Arab and Turkish also made
roots in India.
Bengal : While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of many
Buddhist monastic sites, the temples from that region are • The early buildings of the Slave dynasty consisted of false
known to express the local Vanga style. The ninth century domes and false arches
Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan • Introduction of true arches and true domes started to
District, for example, shows a tall curving shikhara crowned appear with construction of Alai Darwaza by the side of
by a large amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style. Qutub Minar (By Allaudin Khilji)
It is similar to contemporaneous temples of Odisha. Most
• As human worship and its representation is not allowed
prominent of these was the shape of the curving or sloping
in Islam, the buildings and other edifices are generally
side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut. This feature was
decorated richly in geometrical and arabesque designs
eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings, and is known
• These designs were carved on stone in low relief, cut on
across North India as the Bangla roof. In the Mughal period
and later, scores of terracotta brick temples were built across plaster, painted or inlaid. The use of lime as mortar was
Bengal and Bangladesh in a unique style that had elements also a major element distinct from the traditional building
of local building techniques seen in bamboo huts which were style.
combined with older forms reminiscent of the Pala period • The tomb architecture is another striking feature of the
and with the forms of arches and domes that were taken from Islamic Architecture → Practice of the burial of the dead
Islamic architecture. These can be widely found in and around
Distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic architecture
Vishnupur, Bankura, Burdwan and Birbhum and are dated
mostly to the seventeenth century.
• Use of arch and domes gained prominence It was known as ‘arcuade’ style replaced the traditional Trabeate style of
architecture.
• Introduced the use of minars.
• Mortar was used as a cementing agent.
• Avoided the use of human and animal figures.
• Introduced spaciousness, massiveness and breadth to it.
• Previous structures used sculptures as means of decoration, the Indo-Islamic architecture used calligraphy as means of
decoration.
• Arabesque method: Use of geometrical vegetal ornamentation and was characterised by a continuous stem which split
regularly, producing a series of counterpoised, leafy, secondary stems.
• Heavily used the principles of geometry - from decorative pattern to imbibing a sense of symmetry.
• Intricate Jaali works, which signifies the importance of light in Islamic religion.
• Use of water in the premises of the constructions → Religious purpose, Cooling the premises, Decorative purpose, mirror
image.
• Charbagh style of gardening, in which a square block was divided into four adjacent identical gardens.
• Pietra-dura technique for the inlay of precious stones and gems into the stonewalls.
• Foreshortening technique in the buildings, such that the inscriptions appear to be closer than it really is.
QUWWAT-UL-ISLAM MOSQUE
• Sponsored by Qutb-ud-
din Aibak, founder of the
Slave dynasty.
LAL-KOT /QUILA RAI PITHORA (FIRST CITY OF DELHI) • Passing thro’ the main
gateway, you find
• Qila Rai Pithora was created by Prithviraj Chauhan.
yourself standing under
• Prithviraj’s ancestors captured Delhi from the Tomar an intricately carved
Rajputs who have been credited with founding Delhi. temple ceiling with richly
Anangpal, a Tomar ruler possibly created the first known ornamented pillars on
regular defense - work in Delhi called Lal Kot. both sides. These were
• The remains of Rai Pithora can still be seen in the present taken from 27 Hindu and
Saket, Mehrauli, Kishangarh and Vasant Kunj area. Jain temples of Qila Rai Pithora (1st of 7 historical cities of
Delhi)., a fact recorded by Qutubddin Aiabak on the main
IMPERIAL STYLE/DELHI SULTANATE
eastern entrance.
PERIOD (1206-1526)
IRON PILLAR
• Built in the Gupta Period
around 4-5th century.
• Qutb built around it when
he constructed the mosque.
• Although made of iron, this
7 meters high pillar has resisted rust for over 1,500 years,
evidence of superb knowledge of metallurgy.
QUTB MINAR
• In 1200 AD, Qutb-ud-Din Aibak,
Slave dynasty/ILBARI DYNASTY (1206 to 1290 A.D)
the founder of the Delhi Sultanate
• Remodelling of the existing Hindu structures. started construction of the Qutb
• Example: Quwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutub Minar Minar.
Premises, which was converted from a Jain temple, • In 1220, Aibak’s successor and
• Arhai-din-ka-Jhopra, Ajmer son-in-law Iltutmish added three
storeys to the tower.
QUTUB COMPLEX
• In 1369, lightning struck the top
storey, destroying it completely.
• So, Firoz Shah Tughlaq carried out restoration work
replacing the damaged storey with two new storeys every
year, made of red sandstone and white marble.
ALAI DARWAZA
• The northern arch is semi circular , while all other three
are shaped in the classical Islamic style like pointed
horseshoes. The gateway also displays other Muslim
architectural elements like the central knob on the dome
and lotus buds that fringe each arch.
• Material: Red sandstone + white marble; a UNESCO World • The use of red sand stone and white marble which was to
Heritage Site. become a favorite device of Mughal builders appears for
the first time in Alai Darwaja.
Art & Culture 24
Art & Culture Indian Architecture
• This makes the Alai Darwaza, the earliest example of first • The octagonal tomb of Imam Mohammed Ali,
true arches and true domes in India. It is considered to • A Turkish holy man who came to India in the reign of
be one of the most important buildings built in the Delhi Sikandar Lodi and was revered as Imam Zamin.
Sultanate period.
KHILJI DYNASTY (1290 A.D. TO 1320 A.D)
ALAIMINAR
• Allauddin Khilji had
planned to rival the
Qutb Minar when he
returned in triumph
from his Deccan
campaign.
• However Sultan • Allauddin Khilji also established the 3rd city of Delhi at
died before even Siri and dug a vast reservoir at Hauz Khas (Hydraulically
one storey was finished and the project was abandoned. structured) around 1311AD.
ILTUTMISH’S TOMB • The Style developed by them is called as Seljuk style.
• Prominent features:
• the true arch in the form of a pointed horseshoe
• broad dome, recessed arches under the squinch
• perforated windows, inscriptional bands
• use of red sandstone relieved by marble
• Example: Alai Darwaza by Ala-ud-din Khilji, Siri fort,etc.
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320 A.D-1412 A.D)
• Just to the west of the expanded mosque, Iltutmish
built his own tomb, the first to be erected for the Delhi
Sultanate.
• The tomb itself is rather plain on the outside, but the
interior is covered with inscriptions from Koran which
have been so delicately carved that they seem like lace
work in stone.
• Crisis period of architecture’ because focus was on strength • Ex: Tombs of Mubarak Sayyid (1434 AD), Muhammad
rather than beauty. Sayyid (1444 AD) and Sikander Lodi (1517 AD) are all of
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD) built Tughlaqabad, the octagonal type.
the 4th historical city of Delhi. LODI DYNASTY (1451 A.D-1526 A.D)
• Material: red +grey sandstone, is an irregular pentagon • Enamel tile decoration tended to be richer and more
in its exterior plan is of the pointed or “Tartar” shape, lavish.
crowned by a finial.
• The tomb architecture of this period is of two types,
• Introduced the concept of slopping walls known as though both have grey granite walls.
“Battar”, combining the principles of arch and the lintel as
• One is octagonal in design having a verandah; the other is
shown in fig. square in plan, having no verandah
• Jahanpanah was built by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq in mid- • Introduction of double domes
14th century.
• A spacious somewhat ornamental walled garden encloses
• He is also credited with founding the fortified cities of the tombs, which gives the whole ensemble elegance.
Jaunpur, Fathehbad and Hissar.
• Sikander Lodhi established the city of Agra and made it his
FIROZABAD OR FIROZ SHAH KOTLA capital.
• 5th City. Firoz Shah Kotla ground is the only remnant of its
past glory.
• Firozshah tughlaq brought two Sandstone pillar bearing
ashokan inscription from Meerut and Ambala and placed
one at Kotla Ferozshah and One at Delhi ridge.
• Fieozshah also built Kirki Maszid, tomb and Madarasa at
Hauz Khas.
• Haunting Lodge at Ridge Forest : Bhooli bhatiyari ka
mahala,Pir Galib and Malcha mahal.
• Arch of this period is heavy, massive, rugged and simple.
• Used grey sandstone and employed minimum decoration.
SAYYID PERIOD (1414 A.D-1451 A.D) PROVINCIAL STYLE DURING ISLAMIC ERA IN INDIA
Rohtas fort
• A town planned as an administrative unit consisting • Pachisi Court in the courtyard where Akbar is said to have
of public buildings as well as private residence in close played chess.
proximity.
Pachisi Court
• Almost all the structures are based on trabeate
construction
• Prominent Structures → Buland Darwaza (red sandstone
+ white marble), Panch Mahal , Dargah of Saleem Chisti,
Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Am, Jodha Bai Palace, Jama Masjid,
Ibadat Khana
PANCH MAHAL
• The highest and the most • Hiran Minar was built in memory of Akbar’s favourite
impressive structure, elephant, named Hiran. It also served as lighthouse for
called the palace of five travelers. It is uniquely designed and its exterior wall
stories with open terraces contains tusk like spikes.
on each story
Hiran Minar
• Based on the Hindu
system of trabeate
structure, consisting of pillared verandas, architrave, and
brackets
• Build on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara is the topmost
domed pavilion, purposefully thrown out of the centre
that crowns the entire building.
• The tower was perhaps used for recreation by the emperor
and members of the royal household.
JAHANGIR
Ibadat Khana:
• Religious leaders used to have discussion over various Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra
issues on Akbar’s invitation.
• Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri → gather spiritual leaders of
different religious grounds so as to conduct a discussion
on the teachings of the respective religious leaders
TOMB OF ITMAD-UD-DAULAH
• Father of Noor Jahan
• White marble became main building material + partial use
of red sandstone.
• First Mughal work made completely of white marble.
• It also has some of the finest pietra-dura works
• In 1638 Shahjahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi
and laid the foundation of Shahjanabad, the Seventh
City of Delhi, containing his famous citadel, the Red-Fort,
which was begun in 1639 and completed after 9 years.
• Red Fort is an irregular octagon with its walls, gates, and
a few other structures constructed in red sandstone, and
marble used for the palaces.
• It consists of a Diwan-i-Aam, containing the marble
SHAH JAHAN: MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE REACHED ITS
canopy ornamented with beautiful panels of pietra dura
CLIMAX
work showing a few paintings.
Bibi Ka Maqbara
KASHMIR STYLE
• The main features of Kashmir style of architecture are:
• Trefoil arches (Gandhara influence) Cellular layout and
Enclosed courtyard
• Straight-edged Pyramidal roof
• Column walls (Greek influence)
• Triangular pediments (Greek influence)
• Relatively more number of steps.
• Typified by use of wood work.
• Wooden bridges called kadals or the wooden shrines
called ziarats
• Mosque of Shah Hamdan in Srinagar and the Jami • Most spectacular of all Jain temples are found at Ranakpur
Masjid at Srinagar built by Sikandar Butshikan (1400AD) and Mount Abu in Rajasthan
• Fort of Hari Parbat, the Pattar Masjid (1623) and the • Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), Ellora, Badami and Aihole also
Akhun Mulla Shah’s mosque (1649) are illustrations of have some of the important specimens of Jain Art
art of stone building in Kashmir.
TEMPLES OF PARSI COMMUNITY IN INDIA
• Martand Sun Temple: Under the aegis of Karkota Dynasty
ruler Lalitaditya Muktapida • 3 major types of fire
temples of the Parsi faith
• First → Atash Behram,
(“Fire of Victory”),
• Second → Adarian
• Third → Atash Dadgah or
Dar-e-Mehr
• Mostly located in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Gujrat: Iranshah Atash Behram, Udvada. Desai Atash
Behram in Navsari, Modi and Vakil Atash Behram
• Dadiseth, Wadia, Banaji and Anjuman Atash Behram in
Mumbai
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
• French also developed coastal towns of Mahe (Kerala), • Anonymous and without any interesting features.
Karaikal (Tamil Nadu) and Yanam (Andhra Pradesh). • Confluence of all styles of
• Example: Church architecture → style congested
of Sacred Heart of and cramped the space of
Jesusin Puducherry, artistic expression → Simplicity,
the Sacred modernity and utility were
Heart Church of highly compromised
Chandannagar • Focus on circular buildings.
• Overuse of oriental motifs
BRITISH INFLUENCE:
• Concept of upturned dome, as can be seen in the top of
• Gothic style of architecture.
Supreme Court and Rashtrapati Bhavan, was introduced
• It merged with the Indian architecture and resulted in the during this phase.
Indo-Gothic style of architecture.
• Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker
• Post-1911, a new style of architecture known as the Neo-
Roman architecture emerged.
• After 1947, two schools of architecture emerged – the BUDDHIST PILGRIMAGE SITES IN INDIA
Revivalist and the Modernist → Colonial Hangover • The Mahaviharas of Nalanda, Vikramshila, Sompura,
continued → decline in architectural standard Odantapuri, Pushpagiri and Jagaddala Sirpur in
• Le Corbusier, a French architect of poor → Mass housing Chhattisgarh.
concept in Kerala • Lalitagiri, Udaygiri and Ratnagiri in Odisha (Diamond
Features Triangle).
• Environment-friendly buildings → locally available • Sarnath, near Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh). Site of first sermon
material. of Buddha. Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh Piprahwa, (UP) on
the Nepal border.
• Introduced the concept of filler slab construction →
reduce the consumption of steel and cement. • Sanchi and Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh
• Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu
• Emphasis on ventilation and thermal comfort
arrangements. • Bhaja & Karla caves, Pune(Maharashtra) Ajanta, Ellora and
Pithalkora caves, Aurangabad (Maharashtra)
CHARLES CORREA • Kanheri caves, Mumbai
• He is known for his work in urban architecture and spatial • Pandavleni caves, Nashik in Maharashtra.
planning. He adopted modern architectural principles to
• West Bengal
local sensibilities and need. He has designed buildings
• Ghum monastery,
like Madhya Pradesh Assembly building, Mahatma
Gandhi Memorial Museum in Ahmedabad, LIC building, in • Sikkim
Delhi, etc. • Rumtek, Pemayangtse and Enchay Monastery
• Ladakh
SUN TEMPLES IN INDIA
• Alchi Monastery, Spituk Monastery, Shey Monastery,
1. Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat. It was built in 11th century Rangdum Monastery
2. Konark Sun temple, Odisha: made by Narasimhadeva I, • Himachal Pardesh
the Eastern Ganga king in 13th century. It is in a shape of
• Dhankar Monastery, Nako Monastery(Kinnaur, HP)
“Rath” (Chariot) with mandapa on a raised platform.
• Kye Monastery, Tabo Monastery(Spiti valley)
3. Brahmanya Dev Temple, Unao (Madhya Pradesh)
• Arunachal Pardesh
4. Suryanaar Kovil, Kumbakonam (Tamil Nadu) was built
• Tawang Monastery (largest monastery in India,second
in 11th century in Dravidian style. It also has shrines of in world ), Potala Palace in Tibet is lasrgest in world
eight celestial bodies, together called ‘Navagraha’. It has
• Bomdila Monastery Arunachal Pradesh
beautiful five layered Gopuram.
• Karnataka
5. Suryanarayana Swamy temple, Arasavalli (Andhra
• Namdroling Monastery,
Pradesh). It is said to be made by a Kalinga king in 7th
century. The idol is made of granite and holds alotus. • Kashmir
PRELIMS QUESTIONS
1. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider Select the correct answer using the code given below.
the following pairs : (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
1. Parivrajaka - Renunciant and Wanderer (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Shramana - Priest with a high status 8. With reference to Buddhist history, tradition and culture
3. Upasaka - Lay follower of Buddhism in India, which of the following pairs is/are correctly
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched ? matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only Famous Shrine Location
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (i) Tabo monastery and Spiti valley
temple complex
2. Which one of the following is not a Harappan Site?
(ii) Lhotsava Lakhang Zanskar valley
(a) Chanhudaro (b) Kot Diji
temple, Nako
(c) Sohagaura (d) Desalpur
(iii) Alchi temple complex Ladakh
3. In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the
stone portrait of Ashoka? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) Shahbazgarhi (d) Sohgaura 9. With reference to the cultural history of India, the term
Panchayatan refers to?
4. Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in
(a) An assembly of village elders
the temple construction in the kingdom of:
(b) A religious sect
(a) Chalukya (b) Chandela
(c) A style of temple construction
(c) Rashtrakuta (d) Vijayanagara
(d) An administrative functionary
5. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider
the following statements : 10. With reference to the Indian history of art and culture,
which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?)
1. White marble was used in making Buland Darwaza
and Khankah at Fatehpur Sikri. Famous Work of Sculpture Site
1. A grand image of Buddha’s Ajanta
2. Red sandstone and marble were used in making Ilara
Mahapariniravana with numerous
Imambara and Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow.
celestial musicians above and the
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ? sorrowful figures of his followers
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only below
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 2. A huge of Varaha avatar (Boar Mt. Abu
incarnation) of Vishnu as he
6. Which of the following is/are famous for Sun temples?
rescues goddess earth from the
1. Arasavalli deep and chaotic waters, sculpted
2. Amarakantak on rock
3. Omkareshwar 3. Arjuna’s penance/Descent of Mamallapuram
Ganga sculpted on the surface of
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
huge boulders
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Select the correct answer using the code given below
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
7. What is/are common to the two historical places known (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
as:
11. Ibadat Khana of Fatehpur Sikri was:
1. Ajanta and Mahabalipuram?
(a) The mosque for the use of royal family
2. Both were built in the same period.
(b) Akbar’s private chamber for prayer
3. Both belong to the same religious denomination.
(c) The hall in which Akbar held discussions with
4. Both have rock-cut monuments.
scholars of various religions
(d) The room in which the nobles belonging to different Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
religions gathered to discuss religious affairs. (a) Only1 (b) Only 2
12. With reference to history of Indian rock-cut architecture, (c) Both1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
consider the following statements:
17. There are only 2 known examples of cave painting of the
1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock- Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings
cut caves in India. of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example?
2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for (a) Bagh caves (b) Ellora caves
Ajivikas by the emperor Chandragupta Maury a. (c) Lomash rishi caves (d) Nasik caves
3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths.
18. Where is the famous Virupaksha temple located?
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) Bhadrachalam
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (b) Chidambaram
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Hampi
13. Which of the following characterise(s) the people of (d) Shrikalahasti
Indus civilisation? 19. Where is the famous Vijaya-Vittala temple having its 56
1. They possessed great palaces and temples. carved pillars emitting musical notes located?
2. They worshipped both male and female deities. (a) Belur
3. They employed horse-drawn chariot for warfares. (b) Bhadrachalam
Select The correct answer using the code given below (c) Hampi
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 only 20. The Allahabad pillar inscription is associated with which
one of the following?
14. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas while
(a) Mahapadmananda
the others are called Viharas. What is the difference
between the two? (b) Chandragupta Maurya
(c) Dashrath
(a) Vihar is a place of worship while Chaitya is the
dwelling place of the monks. (c) Samudragupta
(b) Chaitya is a place of worship while Vihara is the 21. Which of the following pairs is correctly matched?
dwelling place of monks. (a) Vikramshila University - Uttar Pradesh
(c) Chaitya is a stupa at the far end of the cave while (b) Hemkund Gurudwara - Himachal Pradesh
Vihar is the hall axial to it. (c) Udaigiri Caves - Maharashtra
(d) There is no material difference between the two. (d) Amaravati Buddhist Stupa - Andhra Pradesh
15. The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the: 22. Which one the following pairs is not correctly matched?
(a) Three main racial groups of the Indian sub-continent Monastery State
(b) Three main linguistic divisions into which the (a) Dhankar monastery Himachal Pradesh
languages of India can be classified (b) Rumtek monastery Sikkim
(c) Three main styles of Indian temple architecture (c) Tabo monastery Himachal Pradesh
(d) Three main musical gharanas prevalent in India (d) Kye Monastry Arunachala Pradesh
16. Regarding the Indus Valley civilisation, consider the 23. Which of the following statements is not correct?
following statements: (a) The statute of Gomateswara at Shravana-Belagola
represents the last tirthankar of the Jains.
1. It was predominantly a secular civilisation and the
religious element, though present, did not dominate (b) India’s largest Buddhist monastery is in Arunachal
Pradesh.
the scene.
(c) Khajuraho temples were built under Chandela kings.
2. During this period cotton was used for manufacturing
textiles in India. (d) Hoysaleswara temple is dedicated to Shiva
24. Hoysala monuments are found in 2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
(a) Hampi and Hospet 3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the
(b) Halebid and Belur region.
(c) Mysore and Bangalore 4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it
was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament
(d) Sringeri and Dharwar
building.
25. In which of the following cities is the Lingaraja temple
Which of the statements given above are correct?
located?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only
(a) Bhubaneswar (b) Bijapur
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
(c) Kolkata (d) Shravana-Belgola
29. Which one of the following ancient towns is well-
26. Consider the following pairs:
known for its elaborate system of water harvesting
Site of Ashoka’s Location in the and management by building a series of dams and
major rock edicts state of channelizing water into connected reservoirs?
1. Dhauli Odisha (a) Dholavira (b) Kalibangan
2. Erragudi Andhra Pradesh (c) Rakhigarhi (d) Ropar
3. Jaugada Madhya Pradesh
30. Consider the following pairs:
4. Kalsi Karnataka
(Historical Place) : (Well-known for)
How many pairs are given above are correctly matched?
1. Burzahom : Rock-cut shrines
(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pair
2. Chandraketugarh : Terracotta art
(c) Only three pair (d) All four pairs
3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts
27. The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new Circuit Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which of the
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2
following statements are correct regarding Somnath
(c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3
Temple?
1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines. 31. With reference to the history of ancient India, Bhavabhuti,
Hastimalla and Kshemeshvara were famous
2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by Al-
Biruni. (a) Jain monks (b) playwrights
3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of (c) temple architects (d) philosophers
the present day temple) was done by President S. 32. Which one of the following statements is correct?
Radhakrishnan.
(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 river.
28. With reference to Chausath Yogini Temple situated near (d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river.
Morena, consider the following statements:
1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of
Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
MAINS QUESTIONS
1. Write about Nagara style of architecture. 1989 12. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the
evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. 2013
2. Write about Chandela school of architecture. 1991
13. Gandhara sculpture owed as much to the Romans as to
3. Write about Mathura school of art. 1993
the Greeks. Explain. 2014
4. Write about Mughal architecture at Fatehpur Sikri.1993
14. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the
5. Write about Dravidian architecture. 1995 Indus Valley civilisation provided inputs to the present
6. Write about the chief features of the town planning in day urbanisation? 2014
Indus Valley Civilisation 1996 15. The ancient civilization in Indian sub-continent differed
7. Write about Chola architecture. 1999 from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece in that
its culture and traditions have been preserved without a
8. Write about Gandhara school of art. 2000 breakdown to the present day. Comment 2015
9. Write about Sarnath pillar. 2003 16. The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most
10. Write about Gandhara art. 2007 important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art
and history. Discuss. 2020
11. What are the major different styles of unglazed pottery
making in India? 2011 17. Pala period is the most significant phase in the history
of Buddhism in India. Enumerate. (Answer in 150 words).
2020
nnnn
• Made using “lost wax technique” or “Cire Perdue” → Wax necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings.
Figure → Clay Coating → Tiny hole → Melted Wax out → • Girdles, earrings and anklets were worn only by women.
Liquid Metal In → cooled down → Clay is removed. • Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, quartz, steatite, →
• Even now, the same technique is practiced in many parts quite popular +produced on a large scale → evident from
of the country. the factories discovered in Chanhu- daro and Lothal.
• Example: • Fabric: Cotton and Wool → Both poor and rich.
Bronze dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro, bronze bull of • Conscious of fashion → inferred from the different styles
Kalibangan, etc. of hair and beard.
Metal cast figures were found at Daimabad.
BUST OF THE BEARDED PRIEST
BRONZE DANCING GIRL • Excellent examples of stone figures
• World’s oldest bronze sculpture. found in the Indus Valley civilization.
ORNAMENTS
• Material: Precious
metals and gemstones
POST MAURYAN ART
to bones and even
baked clay. Sculpture Three prominent schools of sculpture developed
in this period at three different regions of India – centred at
• Both men and women
Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati.
wore ornaments like
VARIOUS MUDRAS RELATED TO BUDDHA setting into motion the wheel of Dharma This Mudra
involves both hands.
1. Bhumisparsha Mudra
• This gesture was exhibited by Lord Buddha while he
• One of the most common
preached the first sermon to a companion after his
Mudras found in statues
enlightenment in the Deer Park of Sarnath.
of Buddha.
• This mudra is commonly 6. Anjali Mudra
associated with the • Greetings, devotion, and
blue Buddha known as adoration. Both hands close to
Akshobya. the chest, palms and fingers
• Significance: ‘Calling the Earth to Witness the Truth’ joined against each other
Mudra, and it represents the moment of Buddha’s attaining vertically.
enlightenment. • Common gesture used in India to greet people (Namaste).
It signifies adoration of the superior and considered a sign
2. Dhyana Mudra
of regards with deep respect
• Indicates Meditation and
• It is believed that true Buddhas (those who are enlightened)
is also called ‘Samadhi’ or
do not make this hand gesture and this gesture should
‘Yoga’ Mudra.
not be shown in Buddha statues. This is for Bodhisattvas
• In many statues the
(who aim and prepare to attain perfect knowledge).
thumbs of both hands
are shown touching at 7. Uttarabodhi Mudra
the tips, thus forming a mystic triangle. •
It means supreme
• It signifies attainment of spiritual perfection. This Mudra enlightenment.
was used by Buddha during the final meditation under the • This Mudra is known for
bodhi tree. charging one with energy. It
symbolises perfection.
3. Vitarka Mudra
• Shakyamuni Buddha, the liberator of Nagas, presents this
• It indicates teaching and
Mudra.
discussion or intellectual
debate. 8. Varada Mudra
• It signifies the teaching • It indicates charity, compassion
phase of preaching in or granting wishes.
Buddhism. The circle • Can be a left-hand gesture as
formed by the thumb and index finger maintains the well.
constant flow of energy, as there is no beginning or end,
•
Mudra signifies five
only perfection.
perfections: Generosity, Morality, Patience, Effort and
4. Abhaya Mudra Meditative Concentration, through the five extended
fingers.
• It indicates fearlessness.
• This gesture was shown 9. Karana Mudra
by Buddha immediately • It indicates warding off
after attaining evil. Hand is stretched
enlightenment bent. out, either horizontally
• It symbolizes strength or vertically, with the
and inner security. It is a gesture which instills a sense of palm forward.
fearlessness to others as well. • It signifies expelling
demons and negative energy.
5. Dharmachakra Mudra
• The energy created by this Mudra helps remove obstacles
• It means ‘Turning the Wheel
such as sickness or negative thoughts.
of the Dharma or Law’, i.e.,
10. Vajra Mudra immaculately dressed and lacked any form of nakedness.
The halo around the head of Buddha was intricately decorated.
Example: Sultanganj Buddha.
CHOLA SCULPTURE
Nataraja
• The earliest known Nataraja sculpture, which has been
excavated at Ravana phadi cave at Aihole, was made
• It indicates knowledge. This mudra is better known in during the early Chalukya rule, the sculpture reached its
Korea and Japan. peak under the Cholas.
• In this mudra, the erect forefinger of the left hand is held Features of the Nataraja sculpture
in the fist of the right hand. It is seen in the mirror- inverted • Upper right hand holds the drum → the sound of creation.
form also. All creations spring from the great sound of the damru.
• This mudra signifies the importance of knowledge or • Upper left hand holds the eternal fire→ destruction.
supreme wisdom. Knowledge is represented by the Destruction is the precursor and inevitable counterpart of
forefinger and the fist of the right hand protects it. creation
• Lower right hand → abhay mudra → devotee to not be
GUPTA AGE
afraid.
Sculpture: • Lower left hand points towards the upraised foot → path
A new school of sculpture developed of salvation.
around Sarnath. • A small dwarf → ignorance and the ego of an individual.
It was characterised by the use of cream • Matted and flowing locks of Shiva→ flow of river Ganges→
coloured sandstone and the use of metal. Ignorance
The sculptures of this school were
• In ornamentation, one ear of Shiva has a male earring from place to place → style spread to different parts of India
while the other has female → ardhanarishwar. and to Asian countries overseas.
• A snake is twisted around the arm of Shiva → kundalini Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir
power, which resides in the human spine in dormant regions (8th, 9th, 10th century)
stage. If aroused, one can attain true consciousness. → Famous Examples: Four-
• The Nataraja is surrounded by a nimbus of glowing headed Vishnu ( also known as
lights→ Past ,present and Future→ vast unending cycles Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu)
of time. was worshipped in these regions.
While the central face represents
UNAKOTI BAS-RELIEFS, TRIPURA
Vasudeva the other two faces are
• Bas-relief or low relief → type of sculpture in which an that of Narasimha and Varaha.
image is projected at a shallow depth. This technique
The Narasimha avatar and
is often used in the art of ancient Egypt and other Near
Mahishasuramardini Durga images of Himachal Pradesh .
Eastern cultures.
• 11th and 12th centuries A.D Kurkihar near Nalanda (9th Century) → the rule of the Pala
Dynasty → able to revive the classical style of the Gupta
• Unakoti means ‘one less than a crore.
period.
• Artist not known, → Debatable.
Notable Example: A four-armed Avalokitesvara (a male
• Related to Hindu Deities.
figure in graceful tribhanga posture). Worship of female
• Most famous → a figure of the face of Shiva known as the
goddesses was adopted which is part of the growth of the
‘Unokotiswara Kal Bhairava’.
Vajrayana phase (Buddhism).
• Stories Linked: Shiva, Ramayana.
Nalanda Sculpture: Mahayana pantheon such as
standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas such as Manjusri Kumara,
Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus and Naga-Nagarjuna. During
the late eleventh and twelveth centuries, when Nalanda
emerged as an important tantric centre, the repertoire came
to be dominated by Vajrayana deities such as Vajrasharada
(a form of Saraswati) Khasarpana, Avalokiteshvara, etc.
Depictions of crowned Buddhas occur commonly only after
the tenth century. Interestingly, various brahmanical images
not conforming to the Sarnath style have also been found at
Nalanda, many of which are still worshipped in small temples
in villages around the site
Images of Tara
2. Black-on-red ware
Jorwe ware is painted black-on-red and has a matt surface
treated with a wash.
III. HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION cultures (1900BC – 1200BC) were primarily chalcolithic. Some
• Polished Ware Pottery specific chalcolithic sites show the elements of late Harappan
with rough surface (like use of burnt bricks, etc). These sites have OCP.
• Both polished and Black-grey burnished ware produced on slow wheel – Found
unpolished type of in Swat Valley. This resembles the pottery from north Iranian
pottery existed plateau.
• Red surface and is
wheel thrown although
handmade ones too
exist
• Polished wares were well
fired.
• Polychrome → (rare)
more than two colours are Black-on-red painted and wheel turned pottery – Also found
used to colour the pottery. in Swat Valley. This shows a connection that Swat Valley was
• Purpose: Utilitarian. associated with Harappa.
Such potteries usually Grey-ware and Painted Grey Ware, generally associated with
have flat bases Vedic people have been found in conjunction with some late
• Geometrical design +flora and fauna are observed Harappan pottery. It has less intricate designs as compared
• Perforated pottery was also found → used for straining to the early and mature periods suggesting a dilution of the
liquor. rich culture.
2. LATE HARAPPA
Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) – As we know the late Harappan
• Characterized by a style of and bluish black and 10% have colours like pink, golden,
fine, grey pottery painted with brown among others.
geometric patterns in black. • Bichrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features
• Are confined to few geographical of monochrome except that it shows combination of two
locations, namely – Punjab, colours.
Haryana and upper Ganga A Bichrome pottery with two colours
Valley. This culture is associated with village and town
settlements (but without large cities) VI. MEGALITHIC ERA
This culture is placed
V. LATER VEDIC ERA – NBPW
between- 3rd Century BC to
The later Vedic people were acquainted with 4 types of 1st Century AD. Megaliths
pottery – Black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted refers to monuments
grey ware and red ware. constructed of big (mega)
stones (lith). This culture is
VI. END OF LATER VEDIC ERA – NBPW
particularly known for its large stone graves. In the South this
age is characterized by the use of iron.
Megalithic Pottery found in Kerala
• Well baked and durable
• Wheel thrown
• Bulk of these are plain however, a sherd from Koldihawa
reveals black painting on the surface.
• It has been excavated throughout India but majorly from
the South. Mostly in Vindhyas.
• They were used as grave goods revealing belief in life after
death
ROULETTE POTTERY
Towards the very end of Later Vedic Age around 6th century • Characteristics: The clay is fine and well levitated and the
BC, we see the emergence of 2nd phase of urbanization (1st dishes are made on the wheel.
being Indus Valley Civilization). This era marked the beginning
• Shapes Found: The dish with a curved-in and beaked rim,
of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
usually with a faceted edge.
Map showing areas where NBPW pottery was found
• Glossy, shining type pottery.
• Made of fine fabric and served
as tableware for richer class.
Considered deluxe pottery
only found with the elites
revealing societal stratification
which was a result of Brahmanical hegemony.
• This pottery continued to exist during the Mahajanapada
era.
• Found in Ahichatra, Hastinapur (both in UP), Navdatoli
(Madhya Pradesh)
• Classified into two groups –
bichrome and monochrome
• Monochrome pottery has a
fine and thin fabric. Potted on
fast wheel and have a strikingly BEGINNING OF GUPTA PERIOD
lustrous surface. 90% of this • Newer decorative techniques like embellishments,
type is jet black, brownish black painting, stamping and molding. With the coming of,
Theme:
• Generally portray every-day life of pre-historic men often
in stick-like human figures.
• Animals like elephant, bison, deer, peacock and snake are
depicted.
• Hunting scenes +war scenes with men carrying weapons
like bows, arrows, spears, shields and swords.
Lakhudiyar Cave,Uttarkhand
CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD
• Colour : More use of green and yellow.
• Theme: Battle scenes,men riding horses and elephants.
Some of them even carry bow and arrow. • Simple geometric designs and symbols.
• Paintings to show skins of spotted deer left for drying • Other themes :dancing, playing music, animal fighting,
→ the art of tanning skins was perfected by man for honey collection, etc.
providing shelter and clothing.
• Children playing, women making food, community
• Paintings have complex geometrical shapes like the spiral, dancing → Social Life.
rhomboid and circle.
• Colours like red ochre, purple, brown, white, yellow and
green are used.
Matri-Poshaka Jataka
JATAKA STORIES
Previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and
animal form:
• The Ass in the Lion’s Skin (Sihacamma Jātaka)
• The Cock and the Cat (Kukkuta Jataka)
• The Foolish, Timid Rabbit (Daddabha Jataka)
IMPORTANT PAINTINGS OF AJANTA
• The Jackal the Crow (Jambu-Khadaka Jataka)
• Vajrapani (protector and guide, a symbol of Buddha’s • The Lion and the Woodpecker (Javasakuta Jataka)
power)
• The Ox Who Envied the Pig (Munika-Jataka)
• Manjusri (manifestation of Buddha’s wisdom) and
• The Swan with Golden Feathers (Suvannahamsa Jataka)
• Padmapani (Avalokitesvara → symbol of Buddha’s • King Shibi (Shibi-Jataka)
compassion).
• The Turtle Who Couldn’t Stop Talking (Kacchapa Jataka)
LEPAKSHI PAINTINGS
• Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh. MINIATURE PAINTINGS
• Mostly lonely single figures and one rarely finds group • Colours : a flat manner and the dress and human outlines
paintings. are demarcated in black.
• Vajrayana school of Buddhism also used and patronised • The view of the faces is from a three quarter angle and
these paintings. gives a detached appearance.
• Prominent painters: Dhimman and Vitapala. • The landscapes are full of trees, rocks and other designs
AURANGZEB
Did not encourage painting and as a result, large number
of mughal court painters started migrating to the provincial
courts in Rajasthan.
BASHOLI SCHOOL
• 17th century Painting in Pahari.
• Early phase: Expressive faces + receding hairline + big
eyes (shaped like lotus petals characterise it).
Points of • Use a lot of primary colours (red, yellow and green).
Rajput Style Mughal Style
Difference
• Used the Mughal technique of painting on clothing but
Type Initially based on It is based on the
developed their own styles and techniques.
mural and fresco Persian miniature
forms. In the painting style. • Contrast of colours is associated with this school and they
later period, the are borrowed from the Malwa paintings.
miniature painting • 1st patron: Raja Kirpal Singh who ordered the illustration of
form became Bhanudatta’s Rasamajari, Gita Govinda and the Ramayana
dominant. drawing.
Themes Usually devotional Mughal emperor and • Famous painter: Devi Das who was famous for his
or religious in his household(royal depiction of Radha Krishna and the portrait of kings in
nature. pomp and show, their livery and in white garments.
the battles and the
hunting scenes are
also very popular).
Peculiarity Uses Hindu They focus either
symbols (lotus, on the person in the
peacock and swan). picture or on trees,
camels and falcons.
Time period 17-18th century 16th to 18th century.
was the major
period.
• Developed in the sub-himalayan states that were also • Decline of the Mughal empire, Trained artists migrated
under the umbrella of Mughal over lordship. to the Kangra region as they got patronage by Raja
Govardhan Singh in 1774.
• The painting exhibit a rich colour scheme, animals, palm glasses for embellishments to create larger than life
trees, men and women belong to the Deccan tradition. images
• The paintings showcase a generous use of gold colour. • Theme: Smiling Krishna in various poses and various
major events in his life.
• Reached their zenith under the patronage of Sarfoji
Maharaj
• Currently, this school is still operational but they have
moved towards experimenting with diverse subjects like
birds, animals, buildings etc.
MYSORE PAINTINGS
• Theme: Hindu gods and goddesses.
• Two or more figures in each painting and one figure
predominates all the others in size and colour.
GOLCONDA SCHOOL OF PAINTING • They use the ‘gesso paste’, (mixture of zinc oxide and
• Patrons: Qutb Shahi rulers. Arabic gum) → shining. → to counter it → use of muted
• These paintings show dancing. colours that are not so bright.
• Two more notable paintings: ‘Lady with the Myna bird’
and the ‘Lady smoking Hooka’.
MODERN PAINTINGS
Company Paintings
• Colonial period → British Company officers employed
HYDERABAD SCHOOL OF PAINTING painters (trained in Indian styles) → Hybrid style of
• It was developed in 1724 after the foundation of Asaf Jahi painting (elements of Rajput, Mughal and other Indian
dynasty by Nizam-ul-Mulk Chin Qilij Khan. styles of painting with European elements paintings).
• Originated in Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Patna, Varanasi and • Idea of the Bengal school came up with the works of
Thanjavur. Abhanindranath Tagore in early 20th century.
• Sewak Ram, Ishwari Prasad and Ghulam Ali Khan. • Arabian night series made a mark on a global scale as it
broke away from the previous schools of Indian painting
BAZAAR PAINTINGS and brought in something new.
• Influenced by the European encounter → No Indian • Incorporate Swadeshi values in India art and tried to
influence but took the Roman and Greek influence. reduce the influence of Western art style among artists.
• School was prevalent in the Bengal and Bihar region. • Important Painting: Bharat Mata and various Mughal
themed paintings.
Theme:
• Other notable painter of this school is Nandlal Bose.
• Greco-roman heritage.
• He was also associated with Santiniketan.
• Everyday bazaar (Indian bazaars with European
background). • He is known for his white-on-black Gandhi sketch, which
become iconic during 1930s. He was also entrusted with
• Religious themes but the figures of Indian Gods and
the task of illuminating the original document of the
Goddesses with more than two axes and elephant faces
Constitution of India.
like that of Lord Ganesha were prohibited → why? →
• Rabindranath Tagore: His paintings are unique as they
deviated from the European notion of natural human
used dominant black lines → made the subject look very
figurine.
prominent.
• Other famous painters of Bengal school are Asit Kumar
Haldar, Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, Hemen Majumdar
Sunayani Devi etc.
• Bharat Mata painting: Sister Nivedita called Bharat mata
painting as 1st Indian Masterpiece in Arts.
• 4 hands of Bharat mata are symbolism of Diksha
(Education), Anna (Food), Bastra (Clothing) and devotion,
RAJA RAVI VERMA (KERALA) the four gifts of the Motherland to her children.
• One of India’s greatest painters. • The painting is also considered significant because of its
• Considered to be the originator of the school of modern historical value and since it had helped in conceptualizing
painting. the idea of Bharat Mata (Mother India).
• ‘Modern’ → Heavy influence of western techniques and • Abanindranath Tagore reinvented Rajput and Mughal
themes. (elements of South Indian painting with the miniature painting from the influence of western models
western techniques of colour and style). of art.
• ‘Raphael of the East’ → Brush strokes and almost lifelike CUBIST STYLE OF PAINTING
paintings.
• Inspiration from the European Cubist movement.
• Famous works: Lady in the Moonlight, Mother India,
• Objects were broken, analysed and then reassembled. The
Ravana Kidnapping Sita.
artist reconstructed this process on the canvas through
BENGAL SCHOOL OF ART the use of abstract art forms.
• Supposed to have a reactionary approach to the existing • Tried to achieve the perfect balance between line and
styles of paintings in the 1940–1960. colour.
• Unique as they use simple colours. • M.F Hussain, who made a series of paintings called the
‘Personification of Romance’. In the paintings that used
abstract connotations, he used the motif of a horse
frequently as it was best to depict the fluidity of motion.
FOLK PAINTINGS
• Madhubani Paintings/Mithila paintings.
• Theme : Religious motifs of the Hindus, including Krishna,
Rama, Durga, Lakshmi and Shiva.
• The figures in the painting are symbolic, for example, fish PATUA ART (WB)
depicts good luck and fertility. • Started out as a village tradition by painters telling Mangal
• Also made depicting auspicious occasions like birth, Kavyas or auspicious stories of Gods and Goddesses.
marriage and festivals. • Paintings are done on pats or scrolls.
• Flowers, trees, animals, etc. are used to fill any gaps in the • Painted on cloth and told religious stories.
painting.
• Usually used to comment on political and social issues.
• Traditionally, these were painted on walls using rice paste These patuas mostly come from Midnapur district of the
and vegetable colours on a base of cow dung and mud. state.
• Now: handmade paper, clothes and canvas, still the
natural colours were used.
• No shading → Paintings are two-dimensional.
• Double line border, bold use of colours, ornate floral
patterns and exaggerated facial featureṣ
• Given GI (geographical indication) status.
KALIGHAT PAINTING
• Around the Kalighat temple in the then British capital
(Calcutta)
• Water colours were used on mill paper using brushes
made of calf and squirrel hair
• the paintings depicted religious note
• express social sentiments.
WARLI PAINTING
• Warlis, indigenous people that occupy mainly the Gujarat-
Maharashtra border.
• Close resemblance to Bhimbetka.
• ritualistic paintings have a central motif of a chaukat or
chauk, which is surrounded by scenes portraying fishing,
hunting, farming, dances, animals, trees and festivals.
• Goddesses → Palaghata (goddess of fertility) Gods →
PAITKAR PAINTING spirits that have taken human form.
• Area: tribal people of Jharkhand, • Traditionally: Walls using very basic graphic vocabulary,
• Old form of painting has cultural association with Ma including a triangle(from conical shaped trees ), a
Mansa, one of the most popular goddesses in tribal circle(from sun or moon) and a square(sacred enclosure
household. or piece of land).
• Common theme ‘What happens to human life post death’. • The base is made of a mixture of mud, branches and cow
dung that gives it a red ochre colour.
• In Santhal tribe of Jharkhand, Paitkar painting is
considered to have the capacity to send the wandering • For painting only white pigment is used, which is made of
souls of the dead to heaven, and thus, help to free them a mixture of gum and rice powder.
from all pain.
KALAMKARI PAINTINGS
• Kalam → a pen made of sharp pointed bamboo, used to
regulate the flow of colours. The base is cotton fabric.
• Main centers: Srikalahasti and Machilipatnam in the state
of Andhra Pradesh. THANGKA PAINTING
• Images are drawn free hand. • Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh region and Arunachal
• Inspiration comes from hindu mythology. Pradesh.
PITHORA PAINTINGS
• The paintings are done by some tribal communities of
Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
• Traditionally performed on walls inside the homes of the
Rathvas.
• Drawn on special family-occasions as a ritual. Depiction of
animals are common especially horses.
nnnn
3. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the 6. Consider the following historical places:
most famous and oft-illustrated paintings at 1. Ajanta caves
(a) Ajanta 2. Lepakshi temple
(b) Badami 3. Sanchi stupa
(c) Bagh Which of the above places is/ are also known for mural
(d) Ellora paintings?
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2
4. With reference to Indian history, who among the
following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
world? nnnn
MAINS QUESTIONS
1. The “flute playing Krishna” theme is very popular in Indian art. Discuss. 2012
2. While banging out their salient features, distinguish between either ‘Madhubani’ Art and ‘Manjusha’ Art or’ Rajasthani’
schools of painting and the’ Pahari’ school of Painting. 2011
3. Write about the chief features of the Bundi school of painting. 1993
5. What are the basic differences between Mughal style of painting and Rajput style of painting? 1985
nnnn
• Panini made the first proper reference to the art of making Deepak Night Summer Compassion
music. Megh Late Night Rainy Courage
Rishabha Supertonic Re • Laya: The tempo of the tala, which keeps the uniformity of
Gandhara Mediant Ga the time span.
Madhyama Sub-dominant Ma • Recognized and used talas: Dadra, kaharba, rupak, ektal,
Panchama Dominant Pa jhaptal, Teental and Ada chautal.
Dhaivata Sub-mediant Dha RASA
Nishada Subtonic Ni • Emotional responses in the performer and the audience
• Swara differs from Shruti (smallest gradation of pitch → • Also been called the ‘aesthetic delight’
quality of frequency).
• Initially → 8 rasas then ‘shanta’ rasa was added → nine
• 22 Shrutis or microtones → 12 are audible (7 Suddha
rasas or ‘Nauras’.
Swaras + 5 Vikrita Swaras).
Type of Rasa Mood it Evokes
RAGA Shringara Love
Derived from Sanskrit word ‘Ranj → to delight or to make Haasya Humour/Laughter
happy and satisfy a person form the basis of the melody (tala Karuna Pathos
becomes the basis of the rhythm).
Art & Culture 69
Art & Culture Indian Music
• Number of Notes 7 notes atleast 5. • Starts with Alap → Sung without words.
• Types of Notes only has Aaroha or ascending notes. • Essentially a poetic form that is incorporated into an
Aaroha and Avaroha notes. extended presentation style that is marked by precise and
• Melody no need to be melodious → not sung. Sung so overt elaboration of a raga.
need to be melodious. • Dhrupad includes use of sanskrit syllables → temple origin
• Important notes Thaats don’t have vaadi and samvaadi. • Compositions → 4 to 5 stanzas and are performed by a
Ragas have vaadi and samvaadi. duo.
• Naming Thaats are named after the popular ragas. Ragas • Tanpura and Pankhawaj usually accompany them.
are named after the emotion they evoke.
• Although Dhrupad consolidated in 13th Century but
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN MUSIC reached its zenith in the court of emperor Akbar
(patronised musical masters like Baba Gopal Das, Swami
1. Classical Music
Haridas and Tansen).
(a) Hindustani Music
Famous Gharanas: • Famous for their concern towards precise tuning and
• Dagari Gharana: Dagar family sings in the Dagar Vani,puts expression of notes
great emphasis on alap, Dagars are Muslims but usually • Nayak Gopal founded it but the real credit of making this
sing Hindu texts of Gods and Goddesses. Ex: Gundecha popular lies with Abdul Karim Khan and Abdul Wahid
Brothers from Jaipur. Khan in the early 20th century.
• Darbhanga Gharana: Khandar Vani and Gauhar Vani. Agra Gharana
Emphasise on the raga alap and composed songs over an • Historians → 19th century,established by Khuda Baksh.
improvised alap. Improvise it by incorporating a variety of • Musicologists → Haji Sujan Khan founded it.
layakari. • Faiyaz Khan revived the Gharana by giving it a fresh
• Ex: Mallik family Ram Chatur Mallik, Prem Kumar Mallik and lyrical touch. Since then it has been renamed as the
and Siyaram Tewari. Rangeela Gharana.
• Bettiah Gharana: Perform the Nauhar and Khandar vani • Composition: Blend of Khyal and Dhrupad style. The artists
styles.Famous family who expounds the system is the give special emphasis to Bandish in the composition.
Mishras. The living member who performs regularly is • Major expounders: Mohsin Khan Niazi and Vijay Kichlu.
Indra Kishore Mishra. Form of Dhrupad prevalent in the Patiala Gharana
Bettiah and Darbhanga schools is known as the Haveli • Bade Fateh Ali khan and Ali Baksh khan started the
style. Gharana in the 19th century.
• Talwandi Gharana: Sing the Khandar vani but as the • Gathered a reputation for ghazal, thumri and khayal.
family is based in Pakistan it has become difficult to keep • Use of greater rhythm, emotions (tend to use
that within the system of Indian music. ornamentation or alankaras in their music). They stress on
intricate tanas.
KHYAL
• Bade Ghulam Ali Khan Sahab → one of India’s greatest
• Derived from Persian and means “idea or imagination”.
Hindustani classical vocalists well known for his rendition
• Origin of this style was attributed to Amir Khusrau. of the Raga Darbari.
• Popular → greater scope for improvisation.
Bhendibazaar Gharana:
• Most unique features of Khyal → use of taan in the
Chhajju Khan, Nazir Khan and Khadim Hussain Khan founded
composition → Alap is given lesser room as compared to
it in the 19th century. They gained popularity and fame as the
Dhrupad.
singers were trained to control their breath for a long period.
• Based on the repertoire of short songs ranging from two Using this technique, these artists could sing long passages
to eight lines. in a single breath. Furthermore, they are unique as they use
• Khyal composition is also referred to as a ‘Bandish’. some Carnatic ragas in their envious repertoire.
• Bada Khyal: Sung in the slow tempo.
TARANA STYLE
• Chhota Khyal: Sung in the fast tempo.
• The rhythm plays a very crucial role.
KHAYAL GHARANAS • Structure consists of a mainly melody, usually short,
Gwalior Gharana repeated many times, with variation and elaboration at
the performer’s discretion.
• One of the oldest and the most elaborate Khyal Gharana
• Uses many words that are sung at a fast tempo.
• Very rigorous → equal emphasis on melody and rhythm
• Currently, the Worlds Fastest Tarana Singer is Pandit
• Singing is very complex but perform simple ragas
Rattan Mohan Sharma of the Mewati Gharana(“Tarana ke
• Ex: Nathu Khan and Vishnu Palushkar. Baadshah).
Kirana Gharana SEMI-CLASSICAL STYLES OF HINDUSTANI MUSIC
• After the town named Kirana in Uttar Pradesh • Lighter version of ragas.
• Better known for their mastery over the slow tempo ragas • Lighter version of tala and use madhyam or dhrut laya(
• Prefer the use of traditional ragas or the Sargam faster in tempo).
• Most famous: Pandit Bhimsen Joshi and Gangubai • Emphasize more on bhava and lyrics than alap-jod-tan-
Hangal. jhala.
• Inspired by the Bhakti movement → text usually revolves • Father of Carnatic Music : Purandaradas (1484-1564)
around the girl’s love for Krishna. (settled in Vijay Nagar- Krishna deva raya), Kannada and
Sanskrit, Vaishnavite Mostly krishna
• Language: Hindi or Awadhi dialect or the Braj Bhasha
dialect. • Thyagraja (1767-1847) was influenced by Purandar Das .
composed thousands of devotional compositions, most in
• Compositions are usually sung in a female voice →
Telugu and in praise of Lord Ram.
different than the other forms as thumri is characterized
by its inherent sensuality. • Trinity of Carnatic music: Saint Tyagaraja along with
Muthuswami Dikshitar and Shyama Sastri.
• Greater flexibility with the use of raga → Improvisation.
• Every composition in the Carnatic style has several parts
• Ex: Begum Akhtar (Most timeless voice of singing thumri).
to it.
TAPPA • Pallavi: First or the second thematic lines of the
• Rhythm plays a very important role as the compositions composition → often repeated → great scope for
are based on fast, subtle and knotty constructions → great improvisation.
use of very quick turn of phrases. • Anu Pallavi: Follow the Pallavi or the first line → sung in
• Originated → folk songs of the camel riders of North-West the beginning and sometimes also towards the end of the
India. song, but it is not necessary to repeat it after every stanza
• Legitimacy → brought to the Mughal court of emperor or Charanam
Muhammad Shah. • Varnam: Mainly sung at the beginning of a recital.
• Genre of choice of the wealthy elite as well as the classes • Ragamalika: Mainly the concluding part of the
with more modest mean. performance → soloist is free to indulge in improvisation.
• Zamindari classes (late 19th and early 20th centuries) in But artists have to return to the original theme at the end
of the composition.
their baithak-khanas (literally, baithak - assembly, khana -
halls or salons) → “Baithaki” style and jalsaghar (literally, • Mainly played with mridangam.
halls for entertainment, mujra or nautch halls). • Thanam: Piece of melodic improvisation in free rhythm
• Style is getting extinct and no one is getting involved with with mridangam.
it. • Ragam: Pieces which do not have a mridangam are called
• Expounders: Mian Sodi, Pandit Laxman Rao of Gwalior ‘Ragam’.
and Shanno Khurana. Points of Hindustani Hindustani
Difference Music Music
GHAZAL
Influence Arab, Persian and Indegenous
• A poetic form that consists of rhyming couplets and a Afghan
refrain, with each line sharing the same meter. Freedom Scope for artists No freedom to
• Believed to originated in Iran (1000 AD). Maximum 12 to improvise. improvise
ashaar or couplets. Hence scope for
variations
• Spread in South Asia in the 12th century due to the
Sub-styles Several → Only one
influence of Sufi mystics and the courts of the new Islamic gharanas particular
Sultanate. prescribed style
• Reached its zenith in the Mughal period. It is said that of singing
Amir Khusrau was one of the first expounders of the art of Need for equally important Emphasis on
Instruments as vocals vocal music
making Ghazal.
Time Adheres to time No
• Ghazal not only has a specific form, but traditionally deals
Major Instruments Tabla, Sarangi, Veena,
with just one subject love, specifically an unconditional
Sitar and Santoor Mrindangum and
and superior love. Mandolin
• Famous persons: Muhammad Iqbal, Mirza Ghalib, Rumi Common Flute and Violin Flute and Violin
(13th century), Hafez (14th century), Kazi Nazrul Islam.
• Based on the grand epic-Mahabharata and Bhima as hero. • Qawwali kind of devotional music as they are in praise of
the Allah or the Prophet Muhammad or any other major
• Tijanbai from the state of Chhattisgarh who won the
Sufi or Islamic saint. composed in a single raga and is
Padma Shri and the Padma Bhushan for her contribution
generally written in Urdu, Punjabi or Hindi. Some words of
to this musical field.
Brajbhasa and Awadhi are also used
• Alha (Madhya Pradesh): A heroic ballad song with
intricate words. It is also related to the epic Mahabharata Other Sugam Sangeet:
as they try to glorify the heroes who are seen as the • Abhanga Maharashtra In praise of Vithobha God. Songs
reincarnations of the Pandavas. Five brothers of the composed and sung by Tukaram, Namdev, etc.
Pandavas are substituted here as Alha, Udal, Malkhan, • Bhatiali Bengal About nature and daily life and sung by
Lakhan and Deva. the boat drivers.
• Panihari (Rajasthan): Related to water. women fetching • Tevaram Tamil Nadu Sung by the Shaivite community like
water from the nearby well. Oduyars.
• Ovi (Maharashtra and Goa): Usually the songs of women • Kirtan Bengal Involves singing and dancing and takes
during leisure time and when they are completing their inspiration from the Gita Govinda.
household work.
RABINDRA SANGEET
• Pai Song (Madhya Pradesh): Sung during the festivals,
• Recreates the music produced by the Nobel Laureate
especially those festivals that fall during the rainy season Rabindranath Tagore.
→ good monsoon and a good harvest’.
• Themes of this sangeet range from worship of the one
• Lavani (Maharashtra): Combination of traditional dance true god, devotion to nature and its beauty, love and a
and song that is performed usually on the beats of the celebration of life.
Dholki, which is a percussion instrument. The music is
• Most prominent emotions in the Rabindra Sangeet was
unique as it is perfect for dancing. It has a powerful rhythm also the strain of patriotism and to keep one’s nation
and beats which ensures that everyone dances merrily. above one’s own needs.
• Maand (Rajasthan): Developed in the royal courts (So
Gana Sangeet
recognised in the classical circles). Usually about the bards
singing the glory of the Rajput rulers. Near to Thumri or • Form of fusion music that is sung in chorus or groups and
Ghazal → song Kesariya Balam is in Maand style. in large numbers.
• Powad (Maharashtra): Usually ballads sung for the heros • Most common form of Gana Sangeet is to sing about the
of the past like Shivaji. patriotic feelings.
• Also include songs of protest against the malpractices in
• Khongjom Parva (Manipur): A popular ballad genre
the society. They generally try to bring in a social message.
which is a musical narration of the battle of Khongjom
fought between the British army and the Manipuri • One of the most popular examples of Gana Sangeet is our
resistance forces in 1891. national song. Vande Mataram, which is sung in praise of
the nation.
• Bhavageete: Emotional songs that are very popular
• Those instruments that are struck by small hammer (a) their Martial arts in North-East India
or a pair of sticks. For example, Gotuvadyam and (b) Musical tradition in North-West India
Swaramandal. (c) Classical vocal music in South India
(d) Pietra dura tradition in Central India
COMMUNITIES RELATED TO MUSIC
• Langha (muslim tribal community) Gujarat and 2012
Rajasthan Entertain muslim Rajputs by praising them With reference to Dhrupad, one of the major traditions of
through songs. India that has been kept alive for centuries, which of the
• Manganiar or Merasi (muslim community) Rajasthan following statements are correct?
Use an instrument Kamaicha to sing classical folk music. (i) Dhrupad originated and developed in the Rajput
• Karta bhajas West Bengal They have four classes and are kingdoms during the Mughal period.
indulged in chanting mantras leading to perfection as per (ii) Dhrupad is primarily a devotional and spiritual music.
their belief. (iii) Dhrupad Map uses Sanskrit syllables from mantras.
• Bauls West Bengal Mystic group of singers in the Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
countryside. They are one of the classes of Kartabhaja.
(a) (i) and (ii)
• Jogi,Bhopa Rajasthan.
(b) (ii) and (iii)
• Barot, Charan, Gadhvi Gujarat.
(c) (i), (ii) and (iii)
• Muria tribes Madhya Pradesh Sing songs called Relo.
(d) None of these
• Kamar community Chhattisgarh Marriage song.
nnnn
• Pathya (words) were taken from Rigveda, Abhinaya • Abhinaya Darpan and Sangeet Ratnakar guide the
(gestures) from Yajurveda, Geet (music) from Samaveda, technique and grammar of body movements.
Rasa (emotions) from Atharvaveda. • leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance→
• Can only be performed by trained dancers + have very Dancer expresses the sahitya through movement.
particular meanings for each step, known as “Mudras”. • Ekcharya lasyam’ → One dancer takes on many roles in a
single performance.
Main Components
• ‘Tanjor quartet’ → Four Thanjavur teachers → Chiniah,
Three main components form the basis of these dances
Ponniah, Vadivelu and Shivanandam. → Dance also
viz.
known as Tanjore natyam.
1. Natya-Dramatic element of the dance (the imitation of
• Also referred as the ‘fire dance’.
character).
• One of the principal mudras is ‘Kataka Mukha Hasta’ in
2. Nritta-Pure dance, in which the rhythms and phrases of
which the three fingers are joined to symbolise ‘Om’.
the music are reflected via body gestures.
3. Nritya-the portrayal of mood through facial expression,
hand gesture, and position of the legs and feet.
Parts
There are two basic aspect of Indian classical dance viz.
1. Tandava- emphasize on male characteristics of power
strength and firmness.
2. Lasya- denotes grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya, which
represents the feminine aspect of dance.
REVIVAL
• Rukmini Devi Arundale created a Renaissance. Before
her, this art was almost dead. She raised this art form to a
Puritan form.
• Rukmini Devi founded the Kalakshetra in Adyar and • Full foot contact is of prime importance with no sharp
thus gave a new hope to the promotion of this Dance bends of the upper or lower part of the body
form. • Only classical dance of India having links with Muslim
• Also, T.Balasaraswati ‘s efforts helped to uplift this art culture→unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in
form to the form known today. art.
• Famous dancers :Yamini Krishnamurthy, Meenakshi • Only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the
Sundaram Pillai, Saroja Vaidyanathan, Janaki Rangarajan North Indian music.
etc. • #Jugalbandi is the main attraction of kathak recital
which shows a competitive play between the dancer
KATHAK (UTTAR PRADESH)
and the table player
• #Kramalaya is the concluding piece comprising of
intricate and fast footwork.
• #Gat bhaav is dance without any music or chanting.
This is used to outline different mythological
episodes.
• World famous →spectacular footwork, amazing spins,
Nazakat and Padhant (Chanting of bols, toda, tukdas by
dancer himself and then performing). A distinctive feature
of Kathak→creates a nexus between the dancer and
audience.
• The heavy ghunghroos are worn by the Dancers
• Kathakars or story-tellers, are the people who narrate • A Wide variety of sounds are hidden in these ghunghroos
stories. like running train, heavy rains, Sound of Horse riding,(
• largely based on episodes from the epics, myths and Ghode ki chaal) and much more. This adds more beauty to
legends. the performance.
Sequence
• Starts with Vandana ( Worshipping God).
• Uthaan
• That
• Aamad (sequence of That/ Aamad/ Uthaan may be
different in different gharanas).
• Equal distribution of Body weight along the horizontal • Salaami
and vertical axis.
• Music: Carnatic → singer is accompanied by musical • #Manduk shabdam: Tells the story of a frog.
instruments like mridangam, violin, flute and tambura. • #Jala Chitra Nrityam: Draws pictures on the floor with his
• Marked by fast rhythmic footwork & sculpuresque body or her toes.
Make-up
• A mixture of rice paste and lime is applied to make the
chutti on the face, which highlights the facial make-up.
• The lips, the eyelashes and the eyebrows are designed to
look prominent.
• According to the role→face is colored/painted.
• Green → Noble characters.
• Tati (Red)→evil like Ravana.
• Kari (black) → Hunters and monsters.
• Yellow → women
KATHAKALI (KERALA) Famous Artists Kalamandalam Krishna Prasad, Kalamandalam
• ‘Katha’= Story or tale, ‘Kali’= Performance and Art. Its Kesavan, Namboodiri, Kalamandalam Gopi etc.
roots are in ancient ‘Kutiyattam’ (Classical Sanskrit Dance
Drama) and ‘Krishnattam’ (Dance-Drama depicting Stories
of Hindu God Krishna).
• Movements are influenced by ancient martial arts and
athletic tradition.
• Conducted at night and ends in early morning →
Originated from Ramanattam (Ram story via 8 plays)
• #Language: Manipravalam → a mixture of Malayalam
and Sanskrit.
• The weight of the body is on the outer edges of the feet
which are slightly bent and curved.
ODISSI (ODISHA)
• Archaeological evidence→2nd century BC → Found in the
• Traditionally a male-dominated dance and now females
caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri near Bhubaneshwar.
are too welcomed in this dance form.
• Probably it is oldest classical dance of India denotes the
• Main themes: Mythological themes include Ramayan,
worship of Lord Jagannath.
Mahabharat, Bhagvat Purana, etc.
• It has its mention in the oldest Sanskrit Text – Natya
• Kathakali is also famous for its huge elaborate costumes,
Shastra as Audramagdhi.
amazing make-up style, face masks, and ornaments.
• The Sun Temple at Konarak, built in the 13th century, with
• The movement of the eyebrows, the eye-balls and the
its Natya mandap or Hall of dance, marks the culmination
lower eye-lids as described in the Natya Shastra are not
of the temple building activity in Orissa.
used to such an extent in any other dance style.
• These dance movements, frozen in stone, continue to
• The characters in a Kathakali performance are broadly
inspire Odissi dancers even today.
divided into Satvika, Rajasika and Tamasika types.
• Odissi is famous for its presentations on poet Jayadev’s
• Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and more
fabulous work.
refined.
Elements
• Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements
are used to suggest certain feelings or emotions.
• With the lower half of the body remaining static, the torso
moves from one side to the other.
Sequence
• Managalacharan (Worshipping Lord Jagannath or other
Revival and Promotion:
gods, goddesses).
• Kelucharan Mahapatra, Gangadhar Pradhan, Pankaj
• Pushpanjali (Offering of flowers) and salutation to mother
Charan Das etc.revived this dance form in the late forties
earth. This also includes Trikhandi Pranam- Devas, Gurus,
and early fifties.
and Rasikas.
• Upliftment and popularization by Sanjukta Panigrahi,
• Batu Nrutya: Fast dance pure dance which we call it as
Sonal Mansingh, Kumkum Mohanty, Anita Babu, Sujata
Nritta which is then followed by Nritya which include,
Mohapatra etc. contributed to the of Odissi.
Abhinay- Expressions on some devotional poems or
songs. • Recently, the Odissi has now been included in the syllabus
of IIT Bhubaneshwar’s B.Tech syllabus since 2015. It
• The verses may be in Sanskrit or Odia language.
became the first national technical institute to introduce
Ashtapadis—Dashavtar, Ardhanari etc. Are quite famous.
any Indian Classical Dance form in their syllabus.
• Then comes the Dance Drama in sequence.
#2 types of Concluding item
• Moksha includes joyous movements signifying liberation.
• Trikhanda majura is another way of concluding, in which
the performer takes leave from the gods, the audience
and the stage.
• Themes: Hindu gods and goddesses. Modern day
expressive theme presentations go beyond the horizon.
• Prominent Feature→independent movement of head,
chest and pelvis.
Art & Culture 80
Art & Culture Dances of India
MANIPURI (MANIPUR)
Elements
Themes and styles
• Performed are mostly on Radha-Krishna and other
myths.
• Dramas written by Sankardev are typically presented.
Sattriya performance integrated two styles
• Masculine (Paurashik Bhangi — energetic and with
jumps).
• Feminine (Stri Bhangi—Lasya or delicate).
Costumes
• Male—Dhoti, chadar, paguri (turban).
• Female—Ghuri, chadar, Kanchi (waist cloth) made up of
materials manufactured in Assam.
• The play and Character specific costumes are also seen in
Sattriya.
• Also known as ‘Jogai’.
• Masks are used for special characters (like demons)
• Manipuri showcases the love between Radha- Krishna
sometimes.
through Raaslila.
• Traditional Assamese jewelry is employed.
• A combination of two culture- Indian and South-East
• Music: Borgeet of Sankardev and Madhavdev. Asian.
• Instruments: Khol (two faced asymmetrical drum), • Manipur dance has a large repertoire; however, the most
Cymbals- Manjira Bhortal, Flute, Violin, Harmonium etc. popular forms are the Ras, Sankirtana and Thang-Ta
Revival and Promotion • There are five principal Ras dances of which four are linked
• Conventionally, it was only performed by with specific seasons, while the fifth can be presented at
‘Bhokots’/‘Monks’ as a part of their daily rituals not before any time of the year
the idol but before the copy of Bhagvat Purana placed in • The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies
the eastern corner of dance community hall (namghar). the dance which is known as Sankirtana in Manipur.
• After the second half of the 20th century, this dance • The martial dancers of Manipur – the Thang-ta – have
form moved from the den of Assam’s Monasteries to the their origins in the days when man’s survival depended on
modern day stage. his ability to defend himself from wild animals.
Costume
Mehta,Yumlembam Gambhini Devi,Jhaveri Sisters (uses • Mohiniyattam has a unique White/Off-White Costume
Ghunghru)and many others. with the gold ornaments
• The prominent one-sided hairstyle (bun) also called as
MOHINIATTAM (KERALA)
‘Kuduma’.
• A feminine classical dance form; literally meaning the
Dance of the Enchantress. The sequence of Mohiniyattam
• The word ‘Mohini’ →charming women avatar of Lord • Invocation → Jatiswaram → Varnam → Shlokam →
Vishnu – to end the evil powers. Mohiniattam also Shabdam → Padam → Tillana.
connotes, beautiful dancing women.
Revival and Promotion
• It is deeply rooted in femininity, Grace (Lasya) and Beauty
• In 1930, Nationalist Malayalam poet Vallathol Narayan
(Sringara) forming the quintessence of this dance form
Menon helped to repeal the ban on temple dancing in
• Distinguishing feature → Characteristic body movements,
Kerala as well as established the Kerala Kalmandalam dance
marked by the graceful sway of the torso
school and gave encouragement for its training and practice.
• The movements are never abrupt, but dignified, easy,
• Mukundraj, Krishna Panicker, Thankamony as well as Guru
natural, restrained and yet subtle.
and Dancer Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma gave
• The text ‘Hastha Lakshanadeepika’ is followed (for hand their heroic contribution in reviving the traditional art form.
gestures and facial expressions) that has an elaborate
description of mudras. FOLK DANCES
• The swaying coconut trees in the gentle breeze is • Performed for every possible occasion - to celebrate the
reminiscent of the soft and languorous movements of arrival of seasons, birth of a child, a wedding and festivals,
Mohiniyattam. which are a plenty.
• Accompanying music → Sopana style, which in its lyricism, • Extremely simple with minimum of steps or movement,
is evocative of the spiritual element. full of energy and vitality. Some dances are performed
separately by men and women while in some performances
men and women dance together.
• On most occasions, the dancers sing themselves,
accompanied by artists with instruments.
• Most of the costumes, worn for folk dances, are colorful
with extensive jewels and designs.
NORTH INDIA
• Dumhal (J&K): Dancers performing this dance are dressed
up wearing vibrant colored robes and conical caps which
are generally studded with beads and look really beautiful.
Not every man can perform this dance but only males of
Wattal can perform this dance and that too during special
occasion.
Costume
CENTRAL INDIA
• Gaur Dance, tribal people of Chhattisgarh: In this
dance, men don colorful head-dresses and hats adorned
with peacock plumes. Women, beautified by tattoos and
ornamented with fillets made out of brass and necklaces • Jawara Dance, Madhya Pradesh: The dance not only
made out of beads, also join the gathering. involves rapid feet movement but also difficult acts
of balancing. The women perform a balancing act by
carrying a basket full of the harvested crop on their head.
EAST INDIA
• Chhau: This dance form traces its roots to Odisha,
Jharkhand and West Bengal but it is popular in other parts
as well. As masks form an important feature of this dance
it is called ‘Chhau’, which literally translates to ‘mask’. The NORTH EAST INDIA
performers wield weapons such as swords and shields • Bihu, Assam: Bihu is celebrated at the beginning of the
while dancing. harvest season and goes on for nearly 30 days.
WEST INDIA
• Dandiya, Gujarat and Rajasthan: Dandiya is a dance
form which requires its dancers to wield sticks and wear
colorful costumes. Much like the ‘Saila’ dance, sticks here
are used for rhythmic purpose.
• Koli, Maharashtra: Since the dance is performed by • Tamang Selo (Sikkim): This group dance of Tamang
fishermen, it involves elements of fishing and sea. Both community with robust foot tapping and elaborate sound
men and women are involved in this interesting dance and display of Damphu instrument is performed on all
form which is a treat to watch. happy occasions. It highlights vigour and vitality of the
community. Tamang songs known as ‘ Hwai’ are full of
human emotions. These are so popular that no Nepali
merrymaking is considered complete without singing a
Tamang song.
• Mamita (Tripura): Mamita dance is performed on the
occasion of MAMITA festival, which is harvest festival of
Tripuri People. Mamita festival is held during the time of
Durgapuja or Osa Mutai. The king would celebrate Durga
puja, who would sacrifice buffalo, yak etc in the Durga
puja, at that time common man would perform Mamita
festivals, where they would sacrifice cock, duck and
• Tippani Dance: Saurashtra region of Gujrat, this dance is
pigeon in the mamita festivals.
performed only by women. Shehnai and percussions like
Manjira, Tabla and Dhol are used to create music. • Fusim Dance (Jammu Kashmir).
• Misra Raas / Gop Raas (Gujarat) by both men and women
though this form has remained an ‘all-male’ performance,
in Saurashtra. As a newly evolved form it is barely two
generations old. Since Mishra raas is not a dance tradition
of any specific community, there is a lot of flexibility in
costumes and music.
• Hudka Chhudka (Uttarakhand).
• Koli dance(Maharashtra) -- traditionally performed by
• Padhar Dance, Gujarat: Performed by fishermen, who fisherwomen of the state -- and another dance form by
spend their lives along the banks of Nal Sarovar, Padhar men, which is closely related to the exchange of the ‘takla’
dance involves enactment of fishing and rowing of boats. vegetable among local tribal groups.
Margam Kali, Puli Kali, Mudiattam, Thirayattam, Chavittu • Andhra Pradesh: Veethi Natakam, Burrakatha, Lambadi,
Nadakam, titambhu nritam, Chakyar koothu. Koya.
• Madhya Pradesh: Maanch, Nacha, Phul patti, Tertali, Grida. • Tamil Nadu: Therukuttu, Veethi Natakam, Bhagwat Mela
• Maharashtra: Tarfa Naach, Tamasha, Lalit Bharud, Natakam, Kurvaanji, Pagal Vasham, Kavadi Chindu.
Gondha, Dashavatar, Lavani, Koli dance. • Telangana: Bathukamma.
• Meghalaya: Shad sukmysiem, Shad nongkrem, Derogata, • Uttar Pradesh: Bhagat, Sang-Swang, Naqqual, Mayur
Do dru Sua, Laho Nritya, Charukala.
• Nagaland: Chang Lo (Sua Lua). • Uttrakhand: Chholiya.
• Odisha: Pala Jtra, Daskathia, Mayurbhanj Chhau, Mangal • Goa: Fugadi, Dashavatar, Perni jagar, Musal khel, Samai
Ras, Sowang, sambalpuri (dalkhai, rasarkeli), parbha. nrutya, Gonph dance, Dekhni, Kunbi dance, Ghode modni,
• Punjab: Naqqal, Swang Bhangra. Dhalo, Tonya mel, Talgadi.
• Rajasthan: Khyal, Rasdhari, Rammat, Turra Kilangi, Gauri, • West Bengal: Chhau (Purulia), Santhali.
Ghoomar, Nautanki, Ihamtara.
nnnn
Reasons for decline of Sanskrit Theatre • narrator is accompanied by a group of musicians known
• As Sanskrit dramatists began to diverge towards poetry, as Gayan-Bayan Mandali who play the ‘khol’ and cymbals.
the lyrical writings started gaining popularity over the • unique features of this form of theatre is the use of masks
dramatic works. to depict special expressions.
• The rigid orthodoxy of the Sanskrit theatre restricted the
creative space of new playwrights who turned to other KALA
forms.
• As Sanskrit became more and more embellished, it lost
popularity among the masses.
• It was increasingly confined to the religious sphere and
among the Brahmins, while other languages such as Pali
and Prakrit took its place.
• With the advent of Muslim rulers, Sanskrit theatre took a
definite backseat, as dance and music gained patronage.
FOLK THEATRE
• Ancient folk theatre of the Vaishanvite tradition.
Folk theatre Sanskrit theatre • It is mainly based around the lifes and incarnations of
rural roots and the rustic more urban-oriented Vishnu.
flavour was reflected in the and sophisticated in its • Some of the popular branches of Kala are Dashavatar Kala,
dramatic style involved. treatment of the play. Gopal Kala and Gaulan Kala.
devotional themes, adopting Sanskrit play became
RAMLILA (UTTAR PRADESH)
love ballads and accounts an amalgamation of
of local heroes and thus entertainment and religious
adopted more secular tones. traditions.
social wisdom than mere Nayak, Nayika,Vidushak.
social entertainment.
• Indian folk theatre can be broadly classified into three
categories as follows:
• Ritual Theatre
• Theatre of Entertainment
• South Indian Theatre
• an enactment of Ramayana using songs, dances and
Ritual Theatre
dialogues, mainly during the period before Dussehra. It is
• During Bhakti movement® popular means for generally performed by male actors, who perform the role
communicating faith to God. of Sita as well.
• Raslila is a dance drama enactment of the adolescent love • Bhavai (Gujarat and Rajasthan) series of small plays,
stories of Krishna and Radha, known as Vesha or Swanga.
• exclusively on Lord Krishna legends; • theme of the play is generally romantic.
• it is believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays based • accompanied by a semi-classical music.
on the life of Krishna. • Instruments such as Bhungala, Jhanjha and tabla.
• In this theatre form the dialogues in prose combined • The sutradhara is known as Nayaka.
beautifully with songs and scenes from Krishna’s pranks.
DASKATHIA ODISHA
BHUTA, KARNATAKA
Garodas
OJA-PALI, ASSAM
POWADA, (MAHARASHTRA)
• A play was written lauding the heroic deeds of Shivaji BHAND PATHER, J&K
(Shivaji killed his adversary Afzal Khan).
• Operatic ballads depicting stories of valour and sung by
the folk musicians known as Gondhalis and Shahirs.
NAQAL OR BHAND (PUNJAB AND ADJOINING AREAS) • Derives its name from Burra – the percussion instrument
used extensively during the performance.
YAKSHAGANA, KARNATAKA
• Perhaps the oldest theatre
traditions.
• Regions of Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka.
• Originated: Royal Court
(Vijaynagar empire).
• Performed by: Jakkula Varu (a • Open-air theatre tradition.
Community). • Performed during the worship of the local deity.
• largely a descriptive dance-drama enacted by a single • 5 types of Bayalatas – Dasarat, Sannata, Doddata, Parijata
artist. Later forms adopted further variations and became and Yakshagana.
a typical dance drama. • The stories are based on the love of Radha-Krishna.
• Popular variants: Lalita in Maharashtra, Bhavai in Gujarat • Parijata and Yakshagana ® by a single Sutradhar.
and Gandharva Gana in Nepal.
• Other three forms ® performed in a chorus of three-four,
• Popular Plays: Garudachalam by Obayya Mantri, Krishna- aided by a Vidushaka.
Hiramani by Srinddha and Sugriva Vijayam by Rudra Kavi.
TAL-MADDALE (KARNATAKA)
BURRA KATHA (ANDHRA PRADESH)
KOOTHIYATTAM (KERALA)
• Tal ® cymbal
• Maddale ® drum
• India’s oldest continuing form of theatre that has survived
• Considered as the predecessor of Yakshagana.
since 10th century A.D. in Kerala.
• Performed while sitting and without any costumes, dance
• Completely adheres to the rules laid down in Natya
or acting.
Shastra.
• The narration is done by a Bhagavata who is aided by a
• Chakyaar (actor), Nambiar (instrumentalist) and
group of Arthadharis.
Nangyaar (those taking woman’s role) are the main
THEYYAM (KERALA) characters of Koodiyattam.
• Language: Sanskrit, Prakrit and Malayalam, with Mizhavu
and Edakka providing the background music.
• All the characters begin the play with Nirvahana, a
recollection of the past events of the story.
• After this, the story unfolds in a leisurely fashion with
commentaries on social, philosophical, and political
behaviour.
• Margi Madhu Chakyar is a leading exponent of this art
form.
• It is similar to a practice in Karnataka, called Bhuta Kola.
MUDIYETTU, KERALA
• open theatre ® performed in front of the local temples to
mainly honour the spirit of the ancestors besides gods.
• Themes of Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Shaivism are now
common.
• The actors wear elaborate headgear and colourful
costumes.
Koimbidar are the seven charaters of Mudiyettu. PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS - MAINS
• In 2010, Mudiyettu was inscribed in the UNESCO’s • 2011: Write a sentence each on any five of the following
Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of traditional theatre forms:
Humanity after Koodiyattam. • Bhand Pather
• Styled and designed on the • The figures are manipulated so that the silhouettes
various characters of the created on the blank screen create telling imagery.
Yakshagana theatres.
A. Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
• Have joints at the legs, shoulders,
elbows, hips and knees.
• Unique feature ® more than
one puppeteer is used to
manipulate the puppets.
C. Ravanchhaya (Odisha)
3. GLOVE PUPPETS
• The figures are generally 3-4 ft. high and dressed like
B. Utul Nachh (Bengal-Odisha-Assam)
characters of Jatra.
• They Generally have three joints – at the neck and at the
shoulders.
• The puppeteers, each of whom control a single puppet by
means of a rod attached to his waist, are placed behind
a high curtain.
• The puppeteers move around behind the curtain,
imparting similar movements to the puppets.
• The performance is accompanied by a musical troop of
3-4 musicians playing harmonium, cymbals and tabla.
nnnn
• Orthodox School ®as the final authority of the Vedas is • Self-control (yama) & Observation of rules (niyama).
recognized by all of them (Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaishehsika, • fixed postures (asana) & Breath control (pranayama).
Mimansa, Yoga, Vedanta). • Choosing an object (pratyahara) & fixing the mind
• Unorthodox School ® No believe in Vedas Authority (dharna).
(Carvaka, Kapalika, Jainism, Buddhism). • Concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana).
• Samkhya School (Kapila) • Complete dissolution of self, merging the mind and the
• Reality is constituted of two principles: object (Samadhi).
• Purusha ® mere consciousness, devoid of attributes, • Vaisheshika School (Kanada)
cannot be changed (absolute, independent, free, limitless) • Atomism Theory ® Combination of atoms and
• Prakriti ® constituted of materialistic attributes molecules into matter ® Marked the beginning of
(thoughts & movement) + change or transformation of physics in India.
these attributes brings about the change in all objects. • All objects in the universe ® composed of five
• All in this world originates from the interplay of these two elements–earth, water, air, fire and ether except time,
entities i.e. Purusha and Prakriti. space, mind and soul and God is the guiding principle.
• No concept of God. • Believe in law of karma.
• Nyaya School (Gautama) • Creation and destruction of universe is a cyclic process
• Basically a technique of logical thinking. and take place in agreement with God’s wish.
• Valid knowledge ® real knowledge ® one knows • Finally this school was merged with Nyaya school of
about the object as it exists viz. it is when one knows a philosophy.
snake as a snake or a cup as a cup. • Mimamsa School (Jamini)
• Salvation ® through acquisition of knowledge and
• Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and
veracity of a statement can be tested via inference,
religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by
hearing and analogy.
the Vedas.
• Theory of Praman – Nyaya (science of reasoning, debate,
• Vedas contains eternal truth & in order to attain
logic and epistemology).
salvation it strongly recommended vedic sacrifices
• Pratyaksha (Perception). (Which ultimately needed Brahamanas).
• Anumana (Inference). • Reasoning was used to provide justification of vedic
• Upamana (Comparison). rituals and attainment of salvation, dependent on their
• Sabda (Testimony). way of performance.
• Yoga School (Patanjali) • Principle aim of this philosophy was to attain Heaven
• Base is in Samkhya school. and salvation ( A person will enjoy heavon as long as his
virtues last and then will come to earth, but in salvation – the philosophy of the masses.
he will be free from the cycle of Death and Birth). • Believe in Perception (Pratyksha)®So do not believe in
world, God, Soul, Heaven Karma.
Vedanta School
• Basic Structure BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• Brahamasutra of Badrayana (200 B.C.) ® Later • In northern India, it developed into two streams, nirguna
commentaries were written by Shankaracharya and bhakti and saguna bhakti.
Ramanujam. • Nirguna bhaktas: Devotees of a formless God even
• It implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the while calling him variously as Rama, Govinda, Hari or
concluding portion of the Vedas. Raghunatha. The most conspicuous among them were
Kabir and Nanak.
• Shankaracharya
• Saguna bhaktas: Devotees of Rama, the son of
• Propagated Advaita (non-dualism or belief in one
Dasharatha, or Krishna, the son of Devaki and Vasudeva.
reality).
• Tulsidas, who idolised Rama in his famous Ramcharita
• Ultimate reality is one, it being the Brahman; existent, Manas.
unchanging, the highest truth & the ultimate knowledge.
• Surdas, who sang praises of Krishna in his famous.
• World is false and self and Brahman are not different –
• Raskhan, a Muslim poet, who was a devotee of Lord
All is Brahman and Brahman is all.
Krishna, also belonged to this tradition.
• Ramanujacharya
• An eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid wrote a treatise Haqaiq-
• Propagated Vishistadvaita means modified monism. i-Hïndi to explain Islamic equivalents of Krishna, Radha,
• Ultimate reality is Brahman (God) & matter and soul are Gopi, Jamuna, Ganga etc.
his qualities. • Pahul was the sanctified water offered by a master to the
• Madhavacharya pupil or shishya as a token of his being accepted as a
• Propagated Dvaita (Dualism). trainee on his march to godliness.
• world is not an illusion but a reality full of differences. • The Sikhs performed “washing of the swords” ceremony,
called khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi custom
• Nimbaraka
(the saint-soldier concept).
• Propagated Dvaitadvaita (Dualistic monism).
• God transformed himself into world and soul. VAISHNAVISM AND SHAIVISM IN SOUTH INDIA
• world and soul are different from God (Brahman) & Vaishnavism
survive with the support of God only, hence, they are • Panini’s Ashtadhyayi worshippers of Vasudeva (Krishna).
separate but dependent. • Vasudeva-Bhagavata cult Vishnu (primarily an aspect of
• Vallabhacharya sun) and Narayana (cosmic God).
• Propagated Suddhadvaita (Pure non-dualism). • Gupta period Vaishnava bhakti cult + doctrine of
• Brahman (God) is Sri Krishna who manifested himself as incarnations (avataras).
souls & matter. • Vaishnava saints (Vishnu)in Tamil ® known as Alvars +
• God and soul are not distinct, but one. songs called Prabandhas.
1. PRELIMS
With reference to the religious history of India, consider QUESTIONS
(a) Mimamsa and Vedanta
the following statements: (b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism. (c) Lokayata and Kapalika
2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika (d) Sankhya and Yoga
sect of Buddhism
7. Which one of the following describes best the concept
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas
of Nirvana in Buddhism?
fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.
(a) The extinction of the flame of desire
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(b) The complete annihilation of self
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) A state of bliss and rest
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) A mental stage beyond all comprehension
2. Consider the following :
8. Which of the following statements is/are applicable to
1. Deification of the Buddha
Jain doctrine?
2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice
3. Image worship and rituals
penance.
Which of the above is/ are the feature/ features of
2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
Mahayana Buddhism?
3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
3. With reference to the religious practices in India, the
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
“Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to:
(a) Buddhism (b) Jainism 9. With reference to the history of ancient India, which of
the following was/were common to both Buddhism and
(c) Vaishnavism (d) Shaivism
Jainism?
4. With reference to the religious history of India, consider
1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment
the following statements:
2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals
2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of
phenomena were not wholly momentary, but Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
existed forever in a latent form. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 10. The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 maintained by
5. With reference to the religious history of India, consider (a) Universal Law (b) Universal Truth
the following statements : (c) Universal Faith (d) Universal Soul
1. The concept of Bodhisattva is
central to 11. With reference to the Indian History, consider the
Hinayana sect of Buddhism. following text:
2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to 1. Nettipakarana
enlightenment.
2. Parishishtaparvan
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to
3. Avadanashataka
help all sentient beings on their path to it.
4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Which of the above are Jains texts?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(a) 1, 2, and 3 (b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 3, 4
6. Which one of the following pairs does not form part of
the six systems of Indian Philosophy?
12. With reference to Indian history, consider the following (c) Logical arguments were essential means for the
pairs: highest bliss.
Historical person Known as (d) Salvation was to be obtained through meditation.
1. Aryadeva Jaina scholar 14. According to Kautilya’s Arthahshastra, which of the
2. Dignaga Buddhist scholar following are correct?
3. Nathamuni Vaishnava Scholar 1. A person could be a slave as a result of a judicial
How many pairs given above are correctly matched? punishment.
(a) None of the pairs (b) Only one pair 2. If a female slave bore her master a son, she was
legally free.
(c) Only two pairs (d) All three pairs
3. If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her
13. The world’s second tallest statue in sitting pose of
master, the son was entitled to the legal status of the
Ramanuja was inaugurated by the Prime Minister of
master’s son.
India at Hyderabad recently. Which one of the following
Which of the statements given above are correct?
statements correctly represents the teachings of
Ramanuja? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(a) The best means of salvation was devotion (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(b)
Vedas are eternal, self-existent and wholly
authoritative nnnn
• Bhamaha(Poet of Kashmir) → divided poetry into Sanskrit, 0.6% of the Indian population speaks languages
Prakrit, and Apabhramsha. belonging to this group. The Sino-Tibetan group is further
• Dandin said that Apabhramsa is the dialect of the common divided into:
folk. 1. Tibeto-Burman: Languages under Tibeto-Burman are
• Many Jain monks and scholars wrote extensively in further divided into four groups.
Apabhramsa and sustained it. • Tibetan: Sikkimese, Bhutia, Balti, Sherpa, Lahuli and
• Major texts and writers are: Pushpadanta→ Mahapurana Ladakhi
(Digambara Jain text), Dhanapala→ Bhavisayattakaha. • Himalayan-Kinnauri and Limbu
MODERN INDO-ARYAN GROUP • North Assam-Abor, Miri, Aka, Dafla and Mishmi
• Languages: Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Gujrati, Marathi, • Assam-Burmese-Kuki-chin, Mikir, Bodo and Naga.
Punjabi, Rajasthani, Sindhi, Odia, Urdu etc. Manipuri or Meithi is the most important languages
spoken under Kuki-chin under the sub-group.
• The languages under this sub-group developed gradually
after 1000 AD. 2. Siamese-Chinese: Ahom is important language. Extinct.
• Malayalam (smallest and the youngest of the Dravidian STATUS OF CLASSICAL LANGUAGE
group). Criteria
SINO-TIBETAN GROUP • High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a
period of 1500–2000 years.
• Belong to Mongoloid family and stretch to all over the
Himalayas, North Bihar, North Bengal, Assam and up to • Ancient literature/texts → considered a valuable heritage
the North-Eastern frontiers of the nation. Considered to by generations of speakers.
the older than the Indo-Aryan languages and are referred • Original literary tradition and not borrowed from another
to in the oldest Sanskrit literature as Kiratas. speech community.
• The classical language and literature being distinct from 2. Brahmi script: Oldest writing systems used in the Indian
modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the subcontinent and in Central Asia during the final centuries
classical language and its later forms or its offshoots. BCE and the early centuries CE.
• Tamil in the year 2004 Sanskrit in the year 2005 Telugu in • Some believe that Brahmi derived from contemporary
the year 2008. Semitic script or may be Indus script.
• All surviving Indic scripts in South East asia are
• Kannada in the year 2008 Malayalam in the year 2013
descendants of the Brahmi.
Odia in the year 2014.
• Ex: Rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India →
**The Government has been criticised for not including Pali as
deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep. Brahmi is usually
a classical language as experts argue that it fits all the above
written from left to right.
mentioned criteria.
• Brahmi is an abugida → meaning that each letter
Lingua Franca → bridge language, common language, represents a consonant, while vowels are written with
trade language or vehicular language → used to make obligatory diacritics called matras in Sanskrit, except
communication possible between persons not sharing a native when the vowels commence a word.
language or dialect, in particular when it is a third language,
distinct from both native languages. India → English.
Tamil people to write the Granthi or Pallava alphabet and has its origins in 13th century. It is closely related to the
the Tamil script. development of the Nastaliq style of Perso-Arabic script.
6. Kadamba script: A dedicated script for writing Kannada. Urdu script in its extended form is known as Shahmukhi
It is also a descendant of the Brahmi script and developed script and is used for writing other Indo-Aryan languages
during the reign of the Kadamba dynasty in the 4th-6th of North Indian subcontinent like Punjabi and Saraiki as
centuries. This script later became Kannada-Telegu script. well.
7. Grantha script : Widely-used between the sixth century PRELIMS QUESTION
and the 20th centuries by Tamil speakers in South India,
Q. Which one of the following was given classical language
particularly in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, to write Sanskrit
status recently?
and the classical language Manipravalam, and is still in
(a) Odia (b) Konkani
restricted use in traditional Vedic schools. It is a Brahmic
(c) Bhojpuri (d) Assamese
script. The Malayalam script is a direct descendant of
Grantha as are the Tigalari and Sinhala alphabets. 2015
8. Sarada scrip An abugida writing system of the Brahmic Q. Consider the following languages:
family of scripts, 8th century. It was used for writing i. Gujarati ii. Kannada
Sanskrit and Kashmiri. Originally more widespread → later iii. Telugu
restricted to Kashmir, and it is now rarely used except by Which of the above has/have been declared as ‘Classical
the Kashmiri Pandit community for ceremonial purposes. Language/Languages’ by the Government?
9. Gurmukhi script: Developed from the Sarada script and (a) (i) and (ii) only (b) (iii) only
was standardised during the 16th century by Guru Angad. (c) (ii) and (iii) only (d) (i), (ii) and (iii)
The whole of the Guru Granth Sahib is written in this script. 2014
10. Devanagari script: An abugida alphabet of India and Q. Consider the following statements:
Nepal. It is written from left to right. Used for over 120 1. 21st February is declared to be the International
languages, including Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, Pali, Konkani, Mother Language Day by UNICEF.
Bodo, Sindhi and Maithili among other languages and 2. The demand that Bangla has to be one of the
dialects, making it one of the most used and adopted national languages was raised in the Constituent
writing systems in the world. The Devanagari script is also Assembly of Pakistan.
used for classical Sanskrit texts. Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
11. Modi script: Used to write the Marathi language. After
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
20th century the Balbodh style was promoted as the
standard writing system for Marathi. Other languages Q. With reference to India, the terms ‘HaIbi, Ho and Kui’
such as Urdu, Kannada, Gujarati, Hindi and Tamil are also pertain to
known to have been written in Modi. (a) dance forms of Northwest India
(b) musical instruments
12. Urdu script: Right-to-left alphabet used for the Urdu
(c) pre-historic cave paintings
language. It is a modification of the Persian alphabet,
(d) tribal languages
which is itself a derivative of the Arabic alphabet and
nnnn
Satavahana
Coins were predominantly of copper and lead, however,
silver issues are also known. These coins carried the motifs of
fauna like elephants, lions, bulls, horses, etc. often juxtaposed
against motifs from nature like hills, tree, etc. The silver coins
of the Satavahanas carried portraits and bilingual legends.
3. Post-Mauryan Period
• Western Kshatrap → earliest coins bearing dates. Harsha (7th century AD, Kalachuri of Tripuri (11th century
AD) and early medieval Rajputs (9th-12th centuries AD).
• Common copper coins → ’bull and hill’ and the ‘elephant
• Gold coins struck between this period are rare.
and hill’ types.
• These were revived by Gangeyadeva the Kalachuri ruler
who issued the ‘Seated Lakshmi Coins‘.
• The Bull and Horseman type of coins were the most common
motif appearing on coins struck by the Rajput clans.
• In western India, imported coins like the Byzantine solidi
were often used reflecting trade with the Eastern Roman
Empire.
3. Gupta Period
• Gupta coinage (4th-6th centuries AD) followed the tradition
of the Kushans, depicting the king on the obverse and a
deity on the reverse. SOUTH INDIAN COINAGE
• The deities were Indian and the legends were in Brahmi. • The symbols and motifs on South Indian coin issues
were confined to dynastic crests such as the:
• The earliest Gupta coins are attributed to Samudragupta,
Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta and their coins • Boar (Chalukya), Bull (Pallava), Tiger (Chola), Fish (Pandya
often commemorate dynastic succession as well as and Alupas), bow and arrow (Cheras) and lion (Hoysala)
significant socio-political events, like marriage alliances, etc.
the horse sacrifice, etc (King and queen type of coin of • The Yadavas of Devagiri issued ‘Padmatankas’ with an
Chandragupta 1, Asvamedha type, etc.), or for that matter eight-petalled lotus on the obverse and a blank reverse.
artistic and personal accomplishments of royal members • Decorative features are rare and divinities are almost
(Lyrist, Archer, Lion-slayer etc.). absent till the medieval Vijayanagar period (14th-16th
centuries AD).
• We see the decline in the number of coins produced in
this phase. Some historian believe that it was because of
a decline in trade and commerce.
Post-Gupta Coinage
• Represented by a monotonous and aesthetically less
interesting series of dynastic issues including those of
Coins of Akbar • Kalpi rupees feature a fish and a tortoise can be seen on
coins form Hazrat Delhi Mint. A Trishul symbol appears on
• Coins of Akbar also reflect the power of this mighty
one of the Agra rupees and the Surya or the sun appears
emperor and they are the most exquisite and varied
on one of the rupees from Hissar Firooza mint.
among the ones that were minted by other Mughal
emperors.
• Themes: A duck was depicted on gold mohur from Agra
mint and a rupee from berar mint. A Hawk was depicted
on a commemorative coin that was issued to celebrate
the victory over fort Asirgarh.
nnnn
nnnn
nnnn
FOREIGN TRAVELLERS
Traveller/ Identity/Job Duration Reign of the Contribution
Envoy Ruler
Ptolemy Greco-Roman 130 CE Wrote a book named “Geography of India”
mathematician,
Geographer,
astronomer etc.
Megasthenes Greek 302-298 BCE Chandragupta wrote a book named “Indica”
Ambassador of Maurya
Selecus Nikator
Deimachos Greek 320-273 BCE Bindusara
Ambassador
Fa-Hien Chinese 405-411 CE Chandragupta II First Chinese pilgrim. Wrote a travelogue
Buddhist monk “Vikramaditya” “Fo-Kyo-Ki” (the records of Buddhist
Kingdoms)
Sung Yun Chinese 515-520 CE He was sent by the devout Buddhist
Buddhist monk Empress Hu of the Northern Wei Dynasty.
He returned with 170 mahayan texts
Hiuen Tsang Chinese 630-645 CE Harshavardhana Came through Taskent and Swat valley.
Buddhist monk Wrote a travelogue “Si-Yu-Ki” (The records of
Western World)
I-tsing Chinese Traveller 671-695 CE Wrote records of his 25-year travels
contributed to the world knowledge of
the ancient kingdom of Srivijaya, as well
as providing information about the other
kingdoms lying on the route between
China and the Nalanda Buddhist university
in India.
Al-Masudi Arab Traveller 957 CE Gave an extensive account of India in
“Muruj-ul-Zahab”
Al-Beruni(Abu Iranian Scholar 1024-1030 CE Wrote “ Tahqiq-i-Hind/Kitab-ul-Hind. Known
Rehan and Polymath as founder of Indology
Mahamud)
Marco Polo Venetian 1292-1294 CE Pandyan ruler Wrote “The Book of Sir Marco Polo” on the
Traveller of Madurai, economic history of India
Madverman,
Kulshekhara
Ibn Batuta Morrish Traveller 1333-1347 CE Muhammad-Bin- Wrote a travelogue “ Rehla”
Tughlaq
Shihabuddin Syrian Traveller 1348 CE Wrote a book “Masalik albsar fi-mamalik al-
al-Umari amsar”
Nicolo Conti Italian Merchant 1420-1421 CE Devraya I of Gave a graphic account of Vijayanagara,
Sangam Dynasty referred “Telugu” as “Italian of the East”
of Vijayanagar
empire
Abdur Razzaq Ambassador 1443-1444 CE Devaraya II of Stayed at the court of Zamorin of Calicut.
of Shahrukh of Sangam Dynasty Gave a brief account of Calicut and
Timurid dynasty of Vijayanagar Vijayanagara, in his Matla us Saddin wa
and Persian empire Majuma ul Baharain
Traveller
Athanasius Russian 1470-1474 CE Visited South India in 1470 described the
Nikitin merchant condition of the Bahmani kingdom under
Muhammad III. Wrote a narrative “The
journey beyond 3 seas”
Duarte Barbosa Portuguese 1500-1516 CE gave a brief description of the government
Traveller and the people of Vijayanagar Empire
Dominigo Paes Portuguese 1520-1522 CE Krishnadeva Raya
Traveller of Vijayanagar
Empire
Fernao Nuniz Portuguese 1535-1537 CE Achyutdeva Raya Wrote history of the empire from its earliest
Portuguese Merchant of Tuluv dynasty times of the closing years of Achyutdeva
Merchant of vijayanagar Raya’s reign
Empire
John Hughen Dutch Traveller 1583 CE Gave a valuable account of the social and
Von Linschotten economic life of South India
William Ambassador 1608-1611 CE Jahangir
Hawkins of British King
James I
Sir Thomas Roe Ambassador 1615-1619 CE Jahangir
of British King
James I
Edward Terry Ambassador of 1616 CE Wrote “A Voyage to East-India”. English
Sir Thomas Roe chaplain at the English embassy to the
Mughal empire
Franciso Dutch Traveller 1620-1627 CE Stayed at Agra. Gave a vivid account of
Palsaert the flourishing trade at Surat, Ahmadabad,
Broach, Cambay, Lahore, Multan etc.
Peter Mundy Italian Traveller 1630-1634 CE Shahjahan Gave valuable information about the living
standard of the common people in the
Mughal Empire
Jeen Baptiste French Traveller 1638-1663 CE Visited India 6 times. Account covers the
Tavernier reign of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
John Albert de German traveller 1638 CE Reached Surat in 1638 CE
Mandesto
Nicolao Italian Traveller 1653-1708 CE Dara Sikoh
Manucci
Francois Bernier French physician 1656-1717 CE Aurangzeb’s
and Philosopher noble -
Danishamand
Khan
Jean de French Traveller 1666 CE Gave an account of cities like Ahmadabad,
Thevenot Cambay, Aurangabad and Golconda
John Fryer English Traveller 1672-1681 CE Gave a vivid account of Surat and Bombay
Gemelli Careri Italian Traveller 1695 CE Landed at Daman. Important remarks on
the Mughal emperor’s military organisation
and administration
JAIN VOCABULARY
Jain Vocabulary
Name Meaning
Abhyantara tapa Internal austerity
Abrahama unchasity
Adana-niksepa regulation of actions of taking or
samiti placing Jain Vocabulary
Agama sacred precepts Name Meaning
Aghatiya karma the non-destructive karma Aparigraha abstention from greed for worldly
Ahimsa abstention from injury to living possessions
beings Apauraseya of non-human origin
Ailaka the grade of ascetics of Digambara Apavadiki nivrtti partial renunciation
sect below that of Nirgrantha Ap-kaya jivas water-bodied souls
grade
Apta Tirthankara
Ajiva non-soul, non-living substance
Arati waving of lights in front of an idol
Akasa space
Arjika a female ascetic
Aksata sacred rice
Artha wealth, worldly prosperity
Amanaska Jivas souls having no mind
Asatya falsehood
Anagara-dharma ethical code for non-householders,
Asrama a stage in life
i.e. ascetics.
Asrava the attraction of karmic matter
Ananta-chatustaya infinite quaternary
towards the soul
Ananta-darsana infinite perception
Asubha-asrava influx of vice or demeritorious
Ananta-jnana infinite knowledge karmas into the soul
Ananta-sukha infinite bliss Asteya abstention from theft
Ananta-virya infinite power Atichara transgression, short coming
anarthadanda- a vow to abstain form wanton Atithi-samvibhaga- a vow to feed ascetics and/ or pious
vrata unnecessary activities vara householders
Anasana fasting Atman soul, spirit
Anatmavada belief in the non-existence of soul Atmavada belief in existence of soul
Anekanta manifoldness Autsargiki nivrtti complete renunciation
Anekantavada many-sided view-point, doctrine Avadhi-jnana clairvoyant knowledge of matter
of manifold aspects
Avamodarya eating less
Anga essential requisite, component,
Avasarpini descending
limb
Avasyakas necessary daily duties
Anihnava Without concealment of knowledge
Avatara incarnation
Antaraya karma the obstructive-karma
Avidya ignorance
Anumana inference
Avirati vowlessness, non-renunciation
Anupreksa reflection
Aviveka want of discrimination
Anu-vrata a small vow
Ayu-karma the age-determining karma
Anu-vrata the small vow movement
Baddha jivas souls in bondage
Andolana
Bahumana great honor or zeal
Vyutsarga giving up attachment to the body Bodhidharma monk who brought Buddhism to
China.
Yathakhyata ideal and passionless conduct
Bodhisattva enlightened being who remains in
Yati a male ascetic
this existence to help others, a saint.
Yoga activity of mind, speech and body.
Brahma the supreme deva, who convinced
Basic Buddhist Vocabulary Buddha to teach.
Name Meaning Brahma vihara four "sublime states" of the
Abhidharma pitaka higher teachings, philosophy boddhisattva: Maitri, Karuna,
Mudita, Upeksa.
Alaya-vijñana "store" consciousness (similar to
Buddha The awakened one, the enlightened
collective unconscious)
one.
Amitabha the Buddha of the Western "Pure
Ch'an Chinese for Zen Buddhism.
Land." Also known as Amida.
Chandaka Buddha's squire, who helped him
Ananda Buddha's friend, cousin, and
leave his princely life.
favorite disciple, and the monk who
remembered the Sutras. Ching-T'u Chinese for Pure Land.
Anatman (anatta) not-self, self or ego not ultimately Citta basic mind or consciousness
real. Citta-matra mind only, idealism
Annitya (anicca) change, impermanence of all things, Dalai Lama the leader of Tibetan Buddhists.
including us. Deer Park where Buddha gave his first sermon,
Arahant Worthy one, a name for the Buddha. in Sarnath, near Benares, to the five
sadhus.
Arhat a monk who has achieved nirvana.
Dependent "one thing leads to another," all is
Asanga one of two brothers who lived in
origination connected.
India in the 300's ad who developed
Yogachara. Devadatta Buddha's "evil" cousin. "Theodore."
Asita the astrologer who predicts Buddha's Devas gods.
fate Dhamma Pali for dharma.
Asuras titans or demigods. Dharma (dhamma) the teachings of the Buddha.
Avalokiteshwara boddhisattva of compassion Dharmakaya Buddha-mind, the pervasive essence
Avidya (avijja) ignorance, delusion. Dharmas ultimate elements of the universe
Avadana (Sanskrit- “Noble Deeds”) legendary (not dharma as in teachings!)
material centring on the Buddha’s Dhyana (ch'an, meditation.
explanations of events by a person’s zen)
worthy deeds in a previous life. Dogen (1200- monk who brought Soto Zen to
Bardo (Tibet) the period between death 1253) Japan.
and rebirth. Duhkha (dukkha) suffering, distress, lack of peace. First
Bhagava The blessed one, a name for the noble truth.
Buddha. Dzogchen Tibetan tantric techniques for rapid
Bhikshu monk. enlightenment.
Bodh-gaya a town in Bihar where Buddha was Eightfold Path right view, aspiration, speech, action,
enlightened at 35. livelihood, effort, mindfulness,
concentration.
Lama Tibetan tantric master, now often Nirodha containment of suffering. Third noble
truth.
used to refer to any respected monk.
Nirvana (nibbana) liberation, enlightenment, release
Lumbini Grove where Buddha was born, during his
from samsara.
mother's trip to her parents' home.
Pali a language related to Sanskrit in
Madhyamaka middle way, negative logic, not this
which the earliest scriptures were
-- not that
recorded in Sri Lanka.
Mahakyashapa the monk who understood the silent
Pali canon see the Tripitaka.
sermon and led the first council.
Pancha shila five moral precepts: Avoid killing,
Mahamaya, or Buddha's mother, who died seven or harming any living thing; Avoid
Mayadevi days after his birth stealing; Avoid sexual irresponsibility;
Mahaprajapati Buddha's aunt and stepmother, Avoid lying, or any hurtful speech;
founder of Buddhist nuns. Avoid alcohol and drugs which
diminish clarity of consciousness.
White Lotus School sect focusing on the Lotus Sutra. Also People usually wear yellow garments
known as T'ien T'ai or Tendai. Christmas Commemorate the birth of Jesus
Yama the king of the 21 hells. Easter Oldest and holiest Christian festival
Yashodhara Buddha's wife, whom he married – the day when Jesus Christ was
when they were both 16 crucified
Yidam mental image of a god or other entity On this day Jesus Christ rose from the
used for meditation dead and ascended into heaven
Yogacara (or school emphasizing primacy of Thai Pongal Harvest festival celebrated in Tamil
vijñañavada) consciousness Nadu, Puducherry and Sri Lanka
Zazen sitting meditation in Zen Buddhism To thank the Sun God and farmstead
Zen a group of Buddhist sects that focus livestock
on meditation. Also known as Ch'an, Boiling of milk in clay pot symbolize
Son, or Dhyana. material abundance for household
Kumbha Mela Held at all 4 places every 3 years Muharram Celebrated on the 1st month of the
by rotation (Allahabad, Haridwar, Islamic calendar unlawful to fight
Nashik, Ujjain) during this month
Associated rivers Ganga at Haridwar, the Sangam of Dree Festival an agricultural rite, which is observed
the Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical by Apatanis in Arunachal Pradesh
Saraswati at Allahabad, Godawari at involves sacrifice of fowls, eggs and
Nashik, and Shipra at Ujjain animals to the sun and moon god to
Ardha Kumbh Haridwar and Prayag every 6 years appease these Gods to avoid feminine.
Mela
Purna Kumbh Mela Prayag every 12 years nnnn
Art & Culture 135
INDIAN LITERATURE
It includes everything which is included in the word ‘literature’ in its broadest, sense: religious
and mundane, epic and lyric, dramatic and didactic poetry, narrative and scientific prose, as
well as oral poetry and song.
ANCIENT INDIAN LITERATURE
The Puranas are the meeting point of diverse religious and social beliefs, are linked with the
vital spiritual and social needs and urges of the people, and are a unique outcome of the ever-
continuing synthesis based on an understanding between various groups of vedic Aryans and
non-Aryans.
The Sanskrit language is divided into the Vedic and the classical. The great epics, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas are part of the classical period, but are
discussed separately because of their enormity and importance, and are undoubtedly the
precursors of Sanskrit Kavya (epic poetry), nataka (drama) and other literature. Classical Sanskrit
literature includes the Kavyas (epic poetry), the Nataka (drama), lyric poetry, romance, popular tales,
didactic fables, gnomic poetry, scientific literature on grammar, medicine, law, astronomy,
mathematics, etc. Classical Sanskrit literature is on the whole secular in character. During the
classical period, language was regulated by the rigid rules of Panini, one of the greatest
Sanskrit grammarians.
Kavya tradition : More focus on the form, such as the style, figure of speech, conceits,
descriptions, etc., and the story-theme is pushed to the background. The overall
purpose of such a poem is to bring out the efficacy of a religious and cultured way of
life, without flouting any ethical norms
Lyrical poetry: Constitutes a fusion of erotic and religious sentiments. In fact, division
between art and religion in Indian culture seems to be less sharp than in Europe and
China. In Kalidasa’s narrative lyric poem, Meghaduta , cloud as messenger tell the
story of two lovers who are separated which is to keep sublime conception of love,
which looks dark in separation, like a black cloud with a silver lining. Jayadeva (12
century A.D.) wrote the lyric poetry Gitagovinda to describe every phase of love
beween Krishna and Radha – longing, jealousy, hope, disappointment, anger,
reconciliation and fruition – in picturesque lyrical language.
Didactic fable: Panchatantra (five chapters), written by Vishnu Sharma, dealing with
politics and practical wisdom. Hitopadesha, written by Narayan Pandit , the bird,
animal-human and non-human stories of advice for the benefit of the listeners, These
literary masterpieces crossed the borders of the sub-continent and became popular in
foreign lands. So, whole of Sanskrit literature was just not religious or elitist. These
popular fables are obviously a retelling of folklore.
Pali and Prakrit were the spoken languages of Indians after the Vedic period. Prakrit in the
widest sense of the term, was indicative of any language that in any manner deviated from
the standard one, i.e. Sanskrit. Pali is archaic Prakrit. In fact, Pali is a combination of various
dialects.
Buddhist Text in Pali : Vinaypitaka, suttapitaka , abhidhamma pitaka and jataka Kathas ,
Avadanas(Noble deeds) .Jataka tales grew in bulk, they assimilated popular tales, ancient
mythology, stories from older religious traditions, etc. Buddhist literature is also abundantly
available in Sanskrit, which includes the great epic Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha (78 A.D.).
Jain tales in general are didactic in character and written in some forms of Prakrit. Much also
in the way of moral tale and poetry are to be found.
Sangam literature: Two themes aham (subjective love poems), and puram (objective, public
poetry and heroic). The Sangam classics, consisting of 18 works (eight anthologies of lyrics
and ten long poems), are well known for their directness of expression. These were written
by 473 poets, among whom 30 were women, the famous poetess Avvaiyar being one of
them. Tamil grammar Tolkappiyam,written by Tolakappiyar , was written, to understand
early Tamil poetry. It indicates five landscapes or types of love, and outlines their symbolic
conventions. The famous Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar, serves as a manual of precepts to
guide one to noble living(Ethics). It expounds a secular, moral and practical attitude towards
life. The twin epics, Silappadhikaram (the story of the anklet), written by Ilango-Adigal,
and Manimekalai (the story of Manimekalai) by Chattanar, were written sometimes in A.D.
200-300 and give vivid accounts of Tamil society during that period. If Tamil reveals a
triumph of Brahmanic and Buddhist knowledge, Kannada shows Jain ascendency in its
ancient phase. Malayalam absorbed a rich treasure contained in the Sanskrit language.
Nannaya (A.D.1100) was the first Telugu poet.
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
After 7-8th Century A.D, local differences in Prakrit grew more and more pronounced, which
later came to be known as Apabhramsa, and this led to the modern Indian languages taking
shape and being born. These languages, conditioned by the regional, linguistic and ethnic
environment, assumed different linguistic characteristics. Urdu is the youngest of the modern
Indian languages, taking its shape in the 14th century A.D., deriving its script from an Arabic-
Persian origin, but vocabulary from Indo-Aryan sources, i.e. Persian and Hindi. Sanskrit,
though the oldest classical language, is still very much in use, and hence is included in the list
of modern Indian languages by the Constitution of India.
i. It discussed about worldly love (Kama -Eros) and divine love ( Prema -mystic Eros).
ii. It is a poetic approach to religion and an ascetic approach to poetry. It is poetry of
connections – connecting the worldly with the divine, and as a result, the old form of
secular love poetry began to have a new meaning in all languages.
iii. The rise of bhakti poetry gave rise to regional languages (Bhasa). Kabir (Hindi) says
that Sanskrit is like water of a well stagnant, Bhasa like flowing water. A seventh
century Shaiva Tamil writer Manikkarvachakar has something similar to say about in
his book of poetry Thiruvachakam.
iv. The conception of bhakti did away with the elite tradition of Sanskrit and accepted the
more acceptable language of the common man.
v. Bhakti also attacked the age-old caste system and devoted itself to the worship of
humanity, because the catch-word of bhakti is that God is there in every human being.
vi. The movement was in essence subaltern, as most of its poets belonged to the so-called
‘lower’ castes.
vii. Bhakti is antitheology and against any kind of conceptual erudition.
viii. Bhakti became a great platform for Hindu-Muslim unity.
ix. The power of ancient bhakti poetry in Tamil set in motion what might well be
considered a pan-Indian efflorescence.
Devotional literature in Kannada called Vachanas realted to Krishna, Rama and Shiva cults,
Example: Pampa’s (10th century) , Basavanna (12th Century) ,Allama Prabhu (Kannada) wrote
great poetry under the garb of religion.
Devotional literature in Marathi, the close successor of Kannada, became the next venue for
bhakti.
i. Gyaneswar (1275 A.D.) – 1st bhakti poet and became famous for his poetic
contribution to bhakti for Vithal (Vishnu).
ii. Eknath (16th Century ): wrote devotional abhangas (a literary form)
iii. Tukarram (1608-1649 A.D.) whose songs cast a spell all over Maharasthra.
iv. Bhakti literature in Gujarati : poets like Narsi Mehta and Premananda occupy a
prominent place in the galaxy of the Vaishnava poets.
Afterwards, the sequential order is as follows: Kashmiri, Bengali, Assamese, Manipuri, Oriya,
Maithili, Braj, Avadhi (the last three languages come under the umbrella language, Hindi) and
other languages of India. Chandidas( Bengali poet), Vidyapati (Maithili) ,Lal Ded (Kashmiri
Muslim poetess), Govinda Das (16th century), Balaram Das are other famous saints .
Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1533), a great Bengali saint, helped Vaishnavism to turn
into a religious and literary movement, made it a living faith and became a source of never-
ending inspiration to a host of Bengali poets, including Jiva Goswami.
Sankardev (1449-1568), an Assamese devotional poet, used plays (Ankiya-Nat) and Kirtan
(devotional songs) to propagate Vaishnavism and became a legend.
Jagannath Das is a legendary devotional poet in Oriya who wrote Bhagavat (the story of
Krishna), which has spiritually united all the people of Orissa and created a living
consciousness.
Muslim and Hindu saint-poets of rural Bengal known as Bauls (mad lovers) created oral
poetry of divine intoxication under the influence of both Vaishnava and Sufi (Islamic
mysticism which enunciates the doctrine of divine love) philosophy.
Medieval Muslim Bengali poets like Daulat Kazi and Saiyad Alaoal (17th Century A.D.) wrote
narrative poems based on Sufistic philosophy, betraying a happy cultural and religious
synthesis of Islam and Hinduism.
Kabir (15th- 16th century) (Hindi) is the foremost among the poets of the sant tradition (faith
in one omnipresent god and not in many gods like Rama and Krishna). Kabir’s poetry touches
upon the various aspects of devotion, mysticism and social reforms. He is the First Indian
saint who has coordinated Hinduism and Islam by giving a universal path that could be
followed by both Hindus and Muslims
Hindi literature: With its supra-regional character, attracted Namdev (Marathi) and Guru
Nanak (Punjabi) and others to write in Hindi, which by then had developed into a
conglomeration of many languages and dialects, and came to be known as an umbrella
language. The centrality of Hindi and its vast geographical area was the reason for it. Surdas,
Tulsidas and Meera Bai (15th to 16th Century A.D.) point to the great heights of Vaishnavite
lyricism achieved by Hindi. Tulsidas (1532 A.D.) was the greatest of the Rama-bhakti poets
who wrote his famous epic, the Ramacharit Manas (the lake of the deeds of Rama). In fact,
epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata received a rebirth in the new languages. These
languages gave a fresh life, a renewed relevance, and a meaningful reincarnation to the great
Sanskrit epics, and these epics in their turn provided substance and style to the new languages
too. Kamban in Tamil, Krittibasa Ojha in Bengali, sarala Das in Oriya, Ezhuttacchan in
Malayalam, Tulsidas in Hindi and Nannaya in Telugu are well knoown and legion. Muslim
poets like Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Raskhan, Rahim and other wrote Sufi and Vaishnava
poetry. The religious and cultural synthesis that was a special feature of medieval India finds
abundant expression in its literature. Guru Nanak says truth is supreme, but above truth is
truthful living. The poetry of the Sikh Gurus and others like Kabir , ravidas is collected in the
Guru Granth Sahib . Bulleh Shah, the most famous Muslim Punjabi poet, popularised Sufism
through Punjabi Kafi (verse-form).
Kafi is a small poem in stanzas followed by refrain and is sung in a dramatic way. Shah
Latif, the famous Sindhi Muslim poet (1689 A.D.) in his sacred work Risalo explained Sufi
mystic love as the divine truth.
Secular Poetry in Hindi: Many poets like Bihari Lal and Keshav Das created secular poetry
of Sringara (erotic sentiment), and a large number of other poets, wrote academic accounts of
the entire range of poetry, in verse form.
Urdu Literature: Amir Khusro (1253 A.D.), an early architect of India’s composite culture, and
a great Sufi poet, who first experimented with Persian and Hindi (then known as Hindavi)
mixed poetry, which was the genesis of a new language, subsequently recognised as Urdu.
Urdu has largely followed Persian forms and metres in poetry, but it has adopted some of the
purely Indian forms also. Ghazals (lyrical couplets), marsia (elegy) and qasidah (ode of praise)
are of Iranian origin. Sauda (1706-1781) was the first among the late medieval poets who gave
vigour and versatility to Urdu poetry, which his predecessors had been struggling to
accomplish. Then, it was Dard (1720-1785) and Mir Taqi Mir (1722-1810) who gave Urdu
maturity and class, and ushered it into the modern period.
The most important literary event that revolutionised literature was the emergence of literary
prose in all the modern Indian languages, and the advent of the printing press, under the
patronage of an Englishman, William Carey (1761-1834), at Serampore, Bengal. It is true that
Sanskrit and Persian had a vast body of prose, but the necessity for prose in modern Indian
languages, for use in administration and higher education, led to the emergence of prose in
different languages at the beginning of the modern period. The birth of newspapers and
periodicals in Indian languages between 1800 and 1850 was extremely important for the
development of prose.
Bankim Chandra wrote many historical novels like Durgesh Nandini(1865), and Anand Math
(1882), acquired a pan-Indian popularity and made nationalism and patriotism a part of
dharma. This alternative was a distinctive civilizational concept of universalism that was
accepted by many as a reply to western colonialism.
Rabindra Nath Tagore (Bengali, 1861-1942) : He made federalism an important part of his
concept of national ideology. He said that the unity of India has been and shall always be a
unity in diversity. The foundation for this tradition had been laid in India at the social level,
not the political, by saints like Nanak, Kabir, Chaitanya and others. It is this solution-unity
through acknowledgement of differences-that India has to offer to the world. As a result,
India’s nationalism is mingled with its spiritual tradition, with truth and tolerance preached
by Mahatma Gandhi, and non-alignment advocated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, showing
India’s concern for its pluralism. Modern Indian pluralism is multi-lingual, multi-cultural,
secular, national-state concept.
In fact, in the 19th century, the idea of national identity emerged from literature, and most
Indian writings turned into the voice of enlightment. This paved the way for India to
understand the real, factual position by the time it reached the threshold of the 20th century.
It was during this time that Tagore started writing the novel Gora (1910), to challenge colonial
rule, colonial criteria and colonial authority, and to give new meaning to Indian nationalism.
Indian Romanticism
The trend of Indian romanticism ushered in by three great forces influenced the destiny of
modern Indian literature. These forces were Sri Aurobindo’s *(1872-1950) search for the divine
in man(philosophical treaties - The Life Divine), Tagore’s quest for the beautiful in nature and
man, and Mahatma Gandhi’s experiments with truth and non-violence. The age of romantic
poetry in Hindi is known as Chhayavad, the age of romantic mystery, in Kannada, is
Navodaya, the rising sun, and in Oriya, it is known as Sabuj, the age of green. Jaishankar
Prasad, Mahadevi (Hindi); Vallathol, Kumaran Asan (Malayalam); Kalindi Charan Panigrahi
(Oriya); B.M. Srikantayya, Puttappa, Bendre (Kannada); Viswanath Satyanarayana (Telugu);
Uma Shankar Joshi (Gujarati), and poets of other languages highlighted mysticism and
romantic subjectivity in their poetry. Indian romanticism is fraught with mysticism – not like
English romanticism, which wants to break puritanic shackles, seeking joy in Hellenism. In
fact, the romantic trend of the modern times follows the tradition of Indian poetry, where
romanticism indicates the Vedantic (the philosophy of one Reality) oneness between Nature
and man. Muhammad Iqbal (1877-198), went through initially a romantic-cum-nationalistic
phase in his poetry. His best collection of Urdu poems is Bang-i-Dara (1924). His quest for
Pan-Islamism did not deter him in his concern for humanity at large.
Tagore called him Mahatma (saint). Gandhi became the theme of both poetry and fiction of
cultural nationalism. He became an apostle of peace and idealism. Poets like Vallathol
(Malayalam), Satyendranath Datta (Bengali), Kazi Nazrul Islam (Bengali) and Akbar
Allahabadi (Urdu) accepted Gandhi as a challenge to western civilization, and as an assertion
of the dignity of Asian values.
Sarat Chandra Chatterjee (1876-1938): He was well known for his portrayal of women,
their sufferings and their often unspoken love. He was both a Gandhian and a socialist.
Premchand (1880-1936): He was the finest literary exponent of the Indian peasantry in
Indian literature. As a true Gandhian, he believed in the idealistic theory of ‘a change
of heart’ in the exploiters. But, in his magnum opus, Godan (1936), he becomes a realist
and records the suffering and struggle of the Indian rural poor.
Progressive Literature
The advent of Marxism on the Indian literary scene in the thirties is a phenomenon which
India shared with many other countries. Both Gandhi and Marx were driven by opposition to
imperialism and concern for the dispossessed sections of society. The Progressive Writers
Association was originally established in 1936 by some expatriate writers in London, like
Mulk Raj Anand (English). However, soon it became a great pan-Indian movement that
brought together Gandhian and Marxist insights into society.
After independence, in the fifties, the disillusionment became more vivid because of the
pressure of the disintegration of society and a broken relationship with India’s past heritage.
Then came the Naxalite movement of the seventies, and with it post-modernism entered the
Indian literary scene. In the Indian context, post-modernism arrived as a reaction to media-
operated and market-guided reality – a reaction to the modernism of the sixties of the
existential anguish, of the crisis of identity, and of the frustration of the idealist, but it carried
with it the trend of progressive literature of protest and struggle.
Dalit Literature
The literature which is concerned with the socially underprivileged, and which asserts the
socio-political stature of the underdogs, is known by this name. The Dalit movement was
started in literature by Marathi, Gujarati and Kannada writes under the leadership of Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar. Marathi poets, Namdev Dhasal or Narayan Surve, or novelists like Daya Pawar,
or Laxman Gaikwad, reflect in their writings the anguish of a community, and demand the
shaping of a just and realistic future for the underprivileged and the outcast in society.
Use of Mythology
In order to bridge the gap between urban and rural consciousness, between the past and the
present, another trend which is very much visible in the post-modernist poetry scene is the
use of mythology to present the modern predicament. Mythic thoughts, in fact, are attempts
to mediate the gaps between continuity and change, thereby authenticating the idea of ‘total
poetry’.
Contemporary Literature
In the post-modern era the effort is to be natural, to be Indian, to be near to the common man,
to be socially conscious. The third generation of Malayalam writers like N. Prabhakaran, and
P. Surendran prefer the term anti-modernism to post-modernism and are content simply to
narrate human tales without any explicit social message or philosophical pretensions.
Source: CCRT
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