CHAPTER -3-

Wireless LAN and Its Standards

 Introduction
2  It is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices within a
limited area such as Home, School, Office Building, etc.
 It is flexible data communication system implemented as an extension to
a wired LAN.
 It a small network consisting of AP and stations. APs are like BSs and
stations are like laptops, PC, Mobiles, etc.
 It is a wireless local area network that uses radio waves as its carrier.
 The last link with the users is wireless.
 The backbone network usually uses cables
 The wireless LAN connects to a wired LAN.
o There is a need of an access point that bridges WLAN traffic into the
wired LAN.
o The AP can also act as a repeater for wireless nodes, effectively doubling
the maximum possible distance between nodes.
WCMC Lecture Note, 2/5/2022
 Introduction, Cont. …
3
o Wireless Access Points (APs) -
a small device that bridges
wireless traffic to your network.
o Most access points bridge
wireless LANs into Ethernet
networks

 According to their coverage areas, wireless data networks are

classified into:
1. WPAN – is the smallest coverage area limited to an office. E.g.
Bluetooth
2. WLAN – Connects users on a particular floor of a building. E.g. Wi-
Fi
3. WMAN – connects residents and visitors to a city. E.g.
WiMAX(Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)
4. WWAN – connects the entire country. E.g. Broadband Cellular
System
WCMC Lecture Note 2/5/2022
 Introduction, Cont. …
4

WCMC Lecture Note, Year: 2018-19 2/5/2022

 How are WLANs Different?
5

 They use specialized physical and data link protocols

 They integrate into existing networks through access points
which provide a bridging function
 They let you stay connected as you roam from one coverage
area to another
 They have unique security considerations
 They have specific interoperability requirements
 They require different hardware.
 They offer performance that differs from wired LANs.

WCMC Lecture Note, 2/5/2022

 OSI Layer of WLAN
6

Physical Layer:
 The wireless NIC takes frames of data from the link layer,
scrambles the data in a predetermined way, then uses the
modified data stream to modulate a radio carrier signal.
Data Link Layer:
 Uses Carriers-Sense-Multiple-Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA).

WCMC Lecture Note, 2/5/2022

 WLAN Requirements
7

1. Throughput – efficient of wireless medium to maximize a

capacity.
2. Numbers of Nodes – it needs to support hundreds nodes across
multiple cells.
3. Service Area – its coverage area has a diameter of 100 – 300 m.
4. Battery Power Consumption – it need to have a long battery life
when used with wireless adapters.
5. Transmission Robustness and Security – it able permit reliable
transmission even in noise environment and provide some level of
security from eavesdropping.
6. Handoff/Roaming – it should enable mobile stations to move from
one cell to another.
7. Dynamic Configuration – it should permit automatic and dynamic
addition, deletion, and relocation of end systems without disturbance to
other users.
WCMC Lecture Note, 2/5/2022
 Transmission Media for WLAN (WLAN Techno.)
8

 There are two transmission technologies used to setup in WLANs.

1. Infrared (IR) Technology
 In this, signal-covering cell is limited one location (room). Coverage
is small, because it cannot penetrate the walls and other opaque
obstacles.
 It uses diffuse light reflected at walls, furniture etc. or directed light
if a line of sight (LOS) exists between diodes (LED) or laser diodes.
 Photo diodes act as receivers.
 Interference by sunlight, heat sources, etc.
 Example: TV Remote
2. Radio Technology
 It doesn’t require LoS.
 Interference with other electrical devices.
 Example: Bluetooth
WCMC Lecture Note, 2/5/2022
 Topologies of Wireless Network
9

 Topology – defines how nodes of a network are connected.

 There are basically two types topologies in WLAN. They are

1). Infrastructure
 The wireless terminals are connected to the backbone network
through APs.
 It uses a medium access type called DCF (Distributed Coordination
Function) and PCF (Point Coordination Function).
2). Ad Hoc
 It is peer-to-peer mode.

 An ad-hoc networks don’t require a central access point.

 Devices on the wireless network directly to each other.

 It uses a medium access type called DCF.

 Independent BSs with no AP.

WCMC Lecture Note, 2/5/2022
 Topologies of Wireless Network, Cont. …
10  It shown as follows.

WCMC Lecture Note, Year: 2018-19 2/5/2022

11

WCMC Lecture Note, Year: 2018-19 2/5/2022

12

WCMC Lecture Note, Year: 2018-19 2/5/2022

 Modulation Techniques for WLAN
13

Spread Spectrum
 It is a modulation technique that increases signal bandwidth beyond
the minimum necessary for data communication.
 The bandwidth of the transmitted signal is much greater than the
bandwidth of the original message, and
 The bandwidth of the transmitted signal is determined by the
message to be transmitted and by additional signal as Spreading
Code.

WCMC Lecture Note, Year: 2018-19 2/5/2022

 Modulation Techniques for WLAN, Cont. …
14

 Need spread spectrum technique:

o To provide efficient utilization of bandwidth and power.

o To reduce interference.

o To establish secure communication.

o Immunity to jamming

 Frequency Hopping is the spread spectrum technique that

involves transmitting the signal over a random sequence of
frequencies, i.e. first transmitting at one frequency, then
second, then third, and so on.

WCMC Lecture Note, 2/5/2022

 Modulation Techniques for WLAN, Cont. …
15

 Two modulation techniques in a WLAN.

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
 It is the method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a
carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom
sequence known to both transmitter and receiver.
 It is used as a multiple access method in the CDMA scheme
frequency-hopping CDMA (FH-CDMA).
 Each available frequency band is divided into sub-frequencies.
 Signals rapidly change (“hop”) among these in a predetermined order.
 Interference at specific frequency will only affect the signal during
that short interval.
 Sender don’t use a single frequency to transmit data.
 Multiple frequency is used for transmission.
WCMC Lecture Note 2/5/2022
 Modulation Techniques for WLAN, Cont. …
16
 Sender send data using frequency f1 for 625 micro second and
then change frequency.
 Different -2 sender use different -2 frequency pattern.
 79 channels from 2.402 to 2.480 GHz with 1 MHz channel
space.
 Minimum hopping rate 2.5 hops/second.

WCMC Lecture Note, Year: 2018-19 2/5/2022

 FHSS Process
17  Frequency of carrier is periodically modified following a
specified sequence of frequency.
 This sequence is called hopping sequence or spreading code.
 The amount of time spent on each frequency or hop is called
dwell time.
 Following frequency hopping sequence, the message is
modulated.
 Example:

Application
Area:
• Wi-Fi
• Bluetooth
2/5/2022
 Modulation Techniques for WLAN, Cont. …
18
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 Every user assigned a spreading code. This secret code is used to
encode the signal.
 This code is multiplied with original message and resultant message
is then transmitted.
 Receiver use the same spreading code to decode the message to
retrieve the original message.
 The process of modulating a specific sequence of bits is called
chipping.
 Example:
o The data to be transmitted: 1001
o The chip or spreading code: 0010
 For each data bit, the complete spreading code is used to multiple the
data.
 It uses the XOR gate method, i.e. 0 x 0 = 0, 1 x 1 = 0, 1 x 0 = 1, 0 x
1=1

2/5/2022
 DSSS, Cont. …
19 a

2/5/2022
 DSSS, Cont. …
20  In this case, it uses only four bits.
 What if it uses larger bits like 8, 16, 32, 64, …? DSSS
spreading gain is used.
 It found that, the larger spreading gain of the DSSS signal, the
more effective the performance of the system.

Applications of DSSS
 Convert Communication – to provide secure and convert
communications.
 CDMA cellphone technology – to provide a multiple access
scheme.
 GNSS – satellite based navigation systems.

 It also enables different satellites to use the same channel

without mutual interference.

2/5/2022
 Modulation Techniques for WLAN, Cont. …
21 3. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
 It a variation of FDM.
 It is used for many of the latest wireless and
telecommunication standards, such as Wi-Fi 802.11ac, 4G and
5G cellular phone technologies, WiMAX, Satellite, and many
others.
 It is a multi-carrier modulation scheme that transmits data over
a number of orthogonal subcarriers.
 It breaks the data to be sent into small chunks, allocating each
sub-data to a sub-carrier and the data is sent in parallel
orthogonal subcarriers.
Exampl
e:

2/5/2022
 FHSS vs DSSS vs OFDM vs MIMO
22  FHSS uses hopping to spread signals while DSSS combines
data signals directly with a higher bit rate sequence.

2/5/2022
 WLAN Standards
23  In 1990, the IEEE 802 Committee formed a new working
group, IEEE 802.11, specifically devoted to wireless LANs,
with a charter to develop a MAC protocol and physical
medium specification.
 Since that time, the demand for WLANs, at different
frequencies and data rates, has exploded.
 Keeping pace with this demand, the IEEE 802.11 working
group has issued an ever-expanding list of standards.
 It is published 802.11 in 1997, after seven years of work.
 Most prominent specification for WLAN which is limited to
Physical and Data Link Layer.

2/5/2022
 IEEE 802 Protocol Layer
24  The protocol layer of the OSI vs IEEE 802 reference model is:

Fig. IEEE 802 Protocol Layers Compared to

OSI Model
2/5/2022
 Functions of Physical Layer
25  Encoding/decoding of signals
 Preamble generation/removal (for synchronization)
 Bit transmission/reception
 Includes specification of the transmission medium
Functions of MAC layer:
 On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address and
error detection fields
 On reception, disassemble frame and perform address
recognition and error detection
 Govern access to the LAN transmission medium
Functions of LLC Layer:
 Provide an interface to higher layers and perform flow and
error control

2/5/2022
 Separation of LLC and MAC
26  The logic required to manage access to a shared-access
medium not found in traditional layer 2 data link control
 For the same LLC, several MAC options may be provided.

2/5/2022
 IEEE 802.11
27
 It is a set of MAC and PHY layer specifications for implementing
WLAN computer communication in the 900 MHz and 2.4, 3.6, 5,
and 60 GHz frequency bands.
 It is family of IEEE standards and first WLAN standard.

 Deals in LAN and MAN specifically, for networks carrying variable-

size packet.
 It is a connectionless data-oriented network which works in physical
and MAC layer.
Requirement of IEEE 802.11 Standard
 Single MAC to support multiple PHY layers.

 Mechanisms to allow multiple overlapping network in the same area.

 Provision to handle the interference from other ISM band radios and
microwave ovens.
 Mechanism to handle “hidden terminals”.

 Options to support time-bounded services.

 Provisions to handle privacy and access control.

2/5/2022
 Architecture of IEEE 802.11
28  The architecture is as follows.

2/5/2022
 Architecture of IEEE 802.11, Cont. …
29
 Stations - any device that contains an IEEE 802.11
conformant MAC and physical layer.
 Access Point (AP) – any entity that has station functionality
and provides access to the distribution system via the wireless
medium for associated stations.
o It functions as a bridge and a relay point.
o It is implemented as part of a station.
o It is the logic within a station that provides access to the DS by
providing DS services in addition to acting as a station.
 Basic Service Set (BSS) – a set of stations controlled by a
single coordination function.
o The smallest building block of a wireless LAN is a BSS.
o It consists of some number of stations executing the same MAC
protocol and competing for access to the same shared wireless
medium.
o It may be isolated or it may connect to a backbone DS through an
AP.
2/5/2022
 Architecture of IEEE 802.11, Cont. …
30  BSS, Cont. …
o Each station belongs to a single BSS; that is, each station is
within wireless range only of other stations within the same BSS.
o It is also possible for two BSSs to overlap geographically, so that
a single station could participate in more than one BSS.
o Further, the association between a station and a BSS is dynamic.
o Stations may turn off, come within range, and go out of range.
o In a this, client stations do not communicate directly with one
another.
o Rather, if one station in the BSS wants to communicate with
another station in the same BSS, the MAC frame is first sent from
the originating station to the AP, and then from the AP to the
destination station.
o Similarly, a MAC frame from a station in the BSS to a remote
station is sent from the local station to the AP and then relayed by
the AP over the DS on its way to the destination station.
2/5/2022
 Architecture of IEEE 802.11, Cont. …
31
o When all the stations in the BSS are mobile stations, with no
connection to other BSSs, the BSS is called an Independent BSS
(IBSS).
o An IBSS is typically an ad hoc network.
o In an IBSS, the stations all communicate directly, and no AP is
involved.
 Coordination Function (CF) - the logical function that determines
when a station operating within a BSS is permitted to transmit and
may be able to receive PDUs.
 Distributed System (DS) – a system used to interconnect a set of
BSSs and integrated LANs to create an ESS.
o It can be a switch, a wired network, or a wireless network.
 Enhanced Service Set (ESS) – a set of one or more interconnected
BSSs and integrated LANs that appear as a single BSS to the LLC
layer at any station associated with one of these BSSs.
o It is a wired backbone LAN but can be any communications network.

2/5/2022
 Architecture of IEEE 802.11, Cont. …
32  MAC Protocol Data Unit (MPDU) - the unit of data exchanged
between two peer MAC entities using the services of the physical
layer.
 MAC Service Data Unit (MSDU) - information that is delivered as
a unit between MAC users.
 Portal - To integrate the IEEE 802.11 architecture with a traditional
wired LAN.
o The portal logic is implemented in a device, such as a bridge or
router, that is part of the wired LAN and that is attached to the DS.
 Service Set Identifier (SSID):
o Network name.
o 32 octets long.
o Similar to “Domain-ID” in the pre-IEEE WaveLAN systems
o One network (ESS or IBSS) has one SSID

2/5/2022
 Architecture of IEEE 802.11, Cont. …
33  Basic Service Set Identifier (BSSID)
o cell identifier.
o 6 octets long (MAC address format).
o Similar to NWID in pre-IEEE WaveLAN systems.
o One BSS has one SSID.
o Value of BSSID is the same as the MAC address of the radio in
the AP.

2/5/2022
 IEEE 802.11 Services
34  The services, providers and a place where they used are
summarized as follows:

2/5/2022
 IEEE 802.11 Services, Cont. …
35  Distribution service -
o Used to exchange MAC frames from station in one BSS to station in
another BSS
 Integration service
o Transfer of data between station on IEEE 802.11 LAN and station on
integrated IEEE 802.x LAN
 No transition
o Stationary or moves only within BSS
 BSS transition
o Station moving from one BSS to another BSS in same ESS
 ESS transition
o Station moving from BSS in one ESS to BSS within another ESS

2/5/2022
 IEEE 802.11 Services, Cont. …
36  Association
o Establishes initial association between station and AP
 Reassociation
o Enables transfer of association from one AP to another, allowing
station to move from one BSS to another
 Disassociation
o Association termination notice from station or AP
o Authentication
 Establishes identity of stations to each other
 De-authentication
o Invoked when existing authentication is terminated
 Privacy
o Prevents message contents from being read by unintended recipient

2/5/2022
 IEEE 802.11 MAC
37
 MAC layer covers three functional areas:
o Reliable data delivery
o Access control
o Security
 More efficient to deal with errors at the MAC level than higher layer
(such as TCP)
 Frame exchange protocol
o Source station transmits data
o Destination responds with acknowledgment (ACK)
o If source doesn’t receive ACK, it retransmits frame
 Four frame exchange
o Source issues request to send (RTS)
o Destination responds with clear to send (CTS)
o Source transmits data
o Destination responds with ACK

2/5/2022
 Hidden Terminal Problem
38  A is sending a message to B, but C is out of its range and
hence while "listening" on the network it will find the network
to be free and might try to send packets to B at the same time
as A.
 So, there will be a collision at B.
 The problem can be looked upon as if A and C are hidden
from each other. Hence it is called the "hidden node problem".

2/5/2022
 Exposed Node Problem
39  If C is transmitting a message to D and B wants to transmit a
message to A, B will find the network to be busy as B hears C
transmitting.
 Even if B would have transmitted to A, it would not have been
a problem at A or D.
 CSMA/CD would not allow it to transmit message to A, while
the two transmissions could have gone in parallel.

2/5/2022
 IEEE 802.11 Physical Layer
40  The physical layer for IEEE 802.11 has been issued in five
stages. They are 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and
802.11n.
 They are summarized in the following table.
Operatio
Max. Max.
No Proto Releas n Throu Net Gross Modu
Indoor Outdoor
. col e Date Frequen ghput Bitrate Bitrate lation
Range Range
cy
802.11 Oct. 27 54 OFD 10 ft/30 100 ft/ 30
1 5 GHz 72 Mbps
a 1999 Mbps Mbps M m m
802.11 Oct. 5 11 150 ft/ 300 ft/ 90
2 2.5 GHz 52 Mbps DSSS
b 1999 Mbps Mbps 45 m m
802.11 Jun. 22 54 128 OFD 150 ft/ 300 ft/ 90
3 2.4 GHz
g 2003 Mbps Mbps Mbps M 45 m m
MIM
802.11 Sep. 5 or 2.4 144 600 1422 O, 300 ft/ 600 ft/
4
n 2009 GHz Mbps Mbps Mbps OFD 90 m 182 m
M
2/5/2022
 WLAN Protocol
41 1). MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
 It uses RTS and CTS to send frame and receive between the sender and
receiver.
 It is used to avoid data collisions caused by hidden stations problems.
 Collision may occur.
2). MACAW (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless)
 It extends the functionality of MACA.
 It adds ACK after every successful frame transmission.
 It is mostly used in ad-hoc networks.
 It uses RTS and CTS with ACK frame (carrier sense -CSMA) between
the sender and receiver.
 It has a good performance.
 Collision avoided.

2/5/2022
 Advantages of WLAN
42
 Flexibility -
 Planning -
 Design – a wireless network allow for the design of small,
independent devices.
 Cost – adding a number of users to a wireless network will not
increase the cost.
 Robustness – ability to survive disasters. E.g. Earthquakes
Disadvantages of WLAN
 QoS – it offer lower quality than their wired counterparts. Why? (Low
bandwidth, Interference, higher delay, etc.)
 Restrictions – all wireless products have to comply with national
regulations.
 Safety and Security -
 Proprietary Solutions -

2/5/2022