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Biac 099
Biac 099
Ecosystem restoration is an important means to address global sustainability challenges. However, scientific and policy discourse often overlooks
the social processes that influence the equity and effectiveness of restoration interventions. In the present article, we outline how social processes
that are critical to restoration equity and effectiveness can be better incorporated in restoration science and policy. Drawing from existing case
studies, we show how projects that align with local people's preferences and are implemented through inclusive governance are more likely to
lead to improved social, ecological, and environmental outcomes. To underscore the importance of social considerations in restoration, we
overlay existing global restoration priority maps, population, and the Human Development Index (HDI) to show that approximately 1.4 billion
people, disproportionately belonging to groups with low HDI, live in areas identified by previous studies as being of high restoration priority. We
conclude with five action points for science and policy to promote equity-centered restoration.
Keywords: land use management, social justice, climate change mitigation, restoration longevity, restoration policy
BioScience 73: 134–148. © The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological Sciences. This is
an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For
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https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biac099 Advance Access publication 30 November 2022
top-down studies and broad spatial scale analyses. These the chance that they empower and benefit local communities.
targets mainly focus on numerical outcomes, estimating, We also describe how equity-centered restoration can increase
for example, the potential numbers of trees that could the likelihood that the ecological benefits of restoration are
be planted (as in the One Trillion Trees Initiative) or the realized and sustained over time.
number of hectares that could be restored (as in the Bonn To ground our arguments, we provide an empirical out-
Challenge). Such outcomes can lead to benefits for current look from a diverse set of case studies to show how gover-
and future generations whose well-being may decrease as a nance processes, power dynamics, and values influence the
result of present-day ecosystem degradation, if restoration social and ecological outcomes of restoration. These cases
is implemented in an ecologically and socially sound man- show how representation in decision-making processes
ner. However, many lands with potential for restoration are (procedural equity), recognition of values and identity
crucial to the livelihoods of people who are often marginal- (recognitional equity), and the distribution of costs and
ized from economic and decision-making opportunities. benefits (distributional equity) influence the overall equity
Social dimensions such as power dynamics, governance of restoration (terms described in figure 1). To underscore
the discussion, we will first synthesize key insights from target setting, and intervention design (Mansourian and
the literature and then discuss concrete case studies that Sgard 2021).
both embody good examples of equity-centered ecosys- The case studies discussed below indicate that the
tem restoration but also cases where a lack of attention to level of coordination across scales, inclusivity across
social considerations or sound ecological approaches led actors, and adaptability in the restoration governance
to reduced equity and effectiveness of interventions. Many system influence restoration outcomes. Evidence shows
of the cases we present also illustrate trade-offs associated that “broad” (i.e., with inclusive membership across
with restoration interventions. scales and actors) and “nimble” (i.e., with adaptive
cogovernance built in) governance processes allow the
Governance systems. Several elements of landscape governance actors involved in restoration to better perceive, under-
are likely to influence restoration outcomes: who participates stand, and respond to shocks and stressors to land sys-
in decision-making, at what scales, how policymakers and tems and, therefore, to sustain land-use interventions
participants at different scales interact, and how resources over time (Garmestani and Allen 2015, Wells et al. 2020,
get allocated. However, governance processes often receive Petersen-Rockney et al. 2021). Effective public partici-
insufficient attention inin large-scale restoration studies, pation in natural resource management further hinges
on trust between communities and implementing agen- 2018). However, the governance system did not foster suf-
cies (Davenport et al. 2007). ficient cooperation across districts and social learning pro-
When restoration planning is guided by a thorough cesses were not formalized in multistakeholder fora to allow
understanding of the scale, inclusiveness, and procedures of for greater harmonization of knowledge and approaches
governance systems on the ground, there is a higher chance across actors and regions. These gaps in coordination,
that the restoration efforts exhibit a better institutional fit adaptability, and feedback led to challenges such as limited
with local processes and capacities (Sapkota et al. 2018, resource capacity, inequitable resource distribution, and
Djenontin and Zulu 2021). Trusted organizational brokers, negative institutional externalities in the implementation
such as local nongovernmental organizations, can support of the national FLR plan. Furthermore, limited cooperation
communities to develop capacity in organization and techni- among resource-governance bodies and harmful competi-
cal planning, as well as leadership on monitoring processes tion over incentives and benefits undermined socioecologi-
(Elias et al. 2021). Conversely, where project designs and cal restoration goals. A similar example can be found in a
land planning institutions are not inclusive or adaptive—that study in which Wiegant and colleagues (2020) examined
by power relations, colonial history, and disparities between Value trade-offs. Win–win situations are elusive in land sys-
genders (Lave et al. 2014). Restoration takes place in the con- tems and trade-offs are often inevitable (Lele and Kurien
text of both local and global power imbalances, and distant 2011, Hajjar et al. 2021, Loveridge et al. 2021, Meyfroidt et al.
and financially powerful actors often have a large influence 2022). Different restoration interventions produce diverse
on how restoration is carried out (Elias et al. 2021). In the mixes of outcomes linked to food production, carbon, biodi-
same vein, less powerful actors are often excluded from versity, watershed protection and livelihoods, among others.
land-use decision-making processes, especially in light of Human motivations and behaviors surrounding restoration
increasing international interest in land systems for food are “enculturated” and “enearthed”—that is, influenced by
security and climate change mitigation opportunities (Rudel their cultural and social context—and are therefore not
and Meyfroidt 2014). readily predictable according to a single general model
Western knowledge frameworks have a long history of (Schill et al. 2019). Different actors therefore value different
dominating the discourse on conservation priority setting outcomes of restoration. These actors, furthermore, have
at the expense of other local non-Western value systems various degrees of vulnerability to restoration outcomes and
harvesting, increasing longevity. The authors conclude that restoration priority by Strassburg and colleagues (2020) on the
these traditional forest-based community systems of man- basis of global spatial variation in benefits and implementa-
agement are a promising avenue to enhance local livelihoods tion costs which cover around 10% of the global land surface
and maintain high levels of forest cover, even when support- (figure 3c). Higher restoration priority classes showed lower
ive policies and financial mechanisms are lacking (de Souza HDI values (figure 3d), meaning that people with among
et al. 2016). the lowest incomes, education levels, and health outcomes
Some cases explicitly show that a neglect of livelihood are likely to be the most affected (positively or negatively) by
considerations and wider socioeconomic context in resto- restoration investments guided by Strassburg and colleagues
ration projects reduces the adoption and longevity of such (2020). Many of these areas further coincide with the pres-
interventions. In Himachal Pradesh in Northern India, ence of indigenous communities that are often marginalized
for example, Coleman and colleagues (2021) assessed the in public and private decision-making (https://native-land.
impact of large-scale tree planting projects undertaken over ca). These numbers provide a global perspective, accounting
decades by the state forestry department on government for human vulnerability, to the estimate by Erbaugh and col-
(Waylen et al. 2013, Meyfroidt et al. 2022). Still, restora- natural scientists, local actors, implementers, governments,
tion scientists, policy makers, and practitioners can better and conservation agencies as coleaders of ongoing scientific
promote outcomes that align with environmental and social syntheses and agenda-setting efforts. Diverse methods and
justice by increasing their focus on social processes. approaches from across scientific divides are all necessary to
Moving forward, we propose that the restoration com- understand how restoration can be scaled (Chaplin-Kramer
munity consolidate a vision around equity-centered ecosys- et al. 2022), and scientists need to increasingly engage
tem restoration with substantial input from scientists and in interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches (in
people in vulnerable communities. Equity-centered eco- regards to conservation; Bennett et al. 2017b).
system restoration should place the rights and perspectives By acknowledging the myriad ways in which any land
of the most vulnerable and most affected people at its core use generates benefits and trade-offs across actors at differ-
through measures that promote procedural, recognitional, ent scales, restoration science could better anticipate how
and distributional equity. If restoration is deemed beneficial risks and opportunities to people may emerge from differ-
and desirable by local actors through consultative and equi- ent restoration interventions in different contexts. Power
However, to prevent this attention being mobilized toward context of broader climate action. Authors of top-down
harmful objectives, it is crucial that insights from these spatial analyses showing where restoration theoretically could
maps are complemented by site-specific knowledge in res- be done often provide caution about the limitations of their
toration planning and agenda setting. Restoration practice studies, especially that they are guided by a narrow range
should always be informed by case studies, guided by local of globally or regionally available metrics or exclude certain
knowledge and consultative processes, and prioritize the areas. Despite these caveats, mapping studies have, in some
perspectives of the most vulnerable people. Many outcomes cases, been taken up as blueprints for where restoration should
simply cannot be measured well at a global scale or rec- be done. For example, in reference to the restoration potential
onciled within an optimization framework. As argued by map by Bastin and colleagues (2019) Christiana Figueres,
Chaplin-Kramer and colleagues (2022) both high-level and the former UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
local studies are needed to successfully address environ- executive secretary was quoted as saying, “Finally, we have an
mental problems linked to landscapes. A dialogue between authoritative assessment of how much land we can and should
empirical cases and global analyses, as we've shown in this cover with trees without impinging on food production or
restoration initiatives, so that the pressure on restoration to crucial to developing restoration that is more equitable and
be a climate change solution can be reduced, allowing for a effective. We have suggested five action points for science,
greater focus on the overall ecological and social outcomes of practice and policy to achieve these goals: Placing equity at the
restoration activities. center of restoration practice and work closely with local com-
munities; increasing focus on equity and justice in the study,
Action point 5: Targets and commitments. Finally, we recommend design, and implementation of restoration; elevating of case
adjusting high-level restoration targets and commitments to studies in global agenda setting efforts; improving scientific
place greater emphasis on equity. As we show, areas with the communication around restoration; and promoting targets
highest estimated restoration potential are home to over a bil- and pledges that better measure social and ecological out-
lion people, disproportionately belonging to some of the most comes. By centering restoration science, policy, and practice
vulnerable groups globally. Land-use policies driven by actors on equity there is a greater chance that restoration initiatives
in northern countries but implemented in the Global South will succeed in mitigating climate change, safeguarding biodi-
have a troublesome history of marginalizing people who have versity and ecological processes, and improving well-being for
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