Korean literature

Korean literature is the body of literature produced by Koreans, mostly in the Korean language and
sometimes in Classical Chinese. For much of Korea's 1,500 years of literary history, it was written in Hanja. It
is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear. Korea is
home to the world's first metal and copper type, the world's earliest known printed document and the world's
first featural script.

Contents
Korean literature
Hyangga
Goryeo songs
Sijo and Gasa
Prose
Fiction
Oral literature
History
The early Joseon period
The late Joseon period
Modern literature
Korean Literature during Japanese rule
National division
Korean literature abroad
References
External links
See also

Korean literature
Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of the Korean peninsula. There
are four major traditional poetic forms: hyangga ("native songs"); byeolgok ("special songs"), or changga
("long poems"); sijo ("current melodies"); and gasa ("verses"). Other poetic forms that flourished briefly
include the kyonggi-style, in the 14th and 15th centuries, and the akchang ("words for songs") in the 15th
century. The most representative akchang is Yongbi och'on ka (1445–47; Songs of Flying Dragons), a cycle
compiled in praise of the founding of the Yi dynasty. Korean poetry originally was meant to be sung, and its
forms and styles reflect its melodic origins. The basis of its prosody is a line of alternating groups of three or
four syllables, which is probably the most natural rhythm to the language.

One famous earliest poetry or lyric song was the Gonghuin (Konghu-in) by Yeo-ok during Gojoseon.
Hyangga

Hyangga (hangul: 향가 鄕歌
, hanja: ) was written in Korean using modified hanja in a system that is called
idu (hangul: 이두 , hanja:吏讀 ), literally "clerk's writings." Specifically, the variety of idu used to write
hyangga was sometimes called "hyangchal". Idu was a system using hanja characters to express Korean. The
key to the system was to use some hanja characters for their intended purpose, their meaning, and others for
their pronunciation, ignoring their pictographic meaning. On the surface, it appears to be a complicated, even
incomprehensible system, but after using the system one becomes comfortable with certain characters
consistently standing for Korean words.

Hyangga was the first uniquely Korean form of poetry. It originally indicated songs that were sung in the Silla
period. Only twenty five survive. The Samguk Yusa contains 14 poems and the "Gyunyeojeon", a set of
biographies of prominent monks, contains eleven poems. Both these classic works were written much after the
Unified Silla, in the subsequent Goryeo dynasty, yet the poems in the Samguk Yusa appear to be based on no-
longer-extant records actually from the Silla period.

Hyangga are characterized by a number of formal rules. The poems may consist of four, eight or ten lines. The
ten-line poems are the most developed, structured into three sections with four, four, and two lines respectively.
Many of the ten-line poems were written by Buddhist monks, and Buddhist themes predominate the poems.
Another dominant theme was "death". Many of the poems are eulogies to monks, to warriors, and to family
members.

Jemangmae-ga (Lament for My Sister; ;제망매가 祭亡妹歌

) is a hyangga written by a buddhist
monk named Wol-myeong( 월명 ). Through this hyangga he mourns the death of his sister.
Ode to Eternal Life (원왕생가; 願往⽣歌)

Goryeo songs

The Goryeo period was marked by a growing use of hanja characters. Hyangga largely disappeared as a form
of Korean literature, and "Goryeo gayo" (hangul: 고려가요
, literally "Goryeo songs") became more popular.
Most of the Goryeo songs were transmitted orally and many survived into the Joseon period, when some of
them were written down using hangul.

The poetic form of the Goryeo songs is known as byeolgok or changga (hangul: 별곡 ). It flourished during the
middle and late Koryo dynasty. It is characterized by a refrain either in the middle or at the end of each stanza.
The refrain establishes a mood or tone that carries the melody and spirit of the poem or links a poem composed
of discrete parts with differing contents. The theme of most of these anonymous poems is love, the joys and
torments of which are expressed in frank and powerful language. The poems were sung to musical
accompaniments chiefly by women entertainers, known as kisaeng. There are two distinct forms: dallyeonche
단련체
( )and yeonjanche ( 연잔체 ). The former is a shorter form in which the entire poem was put into a single
stanza, whereas the latter is a more extended form in which the poem is put into several stanzas. The Goryeo
songs are characterized by their lack of clear form, and by their increased length. Most are direct in their
nature, and cover aspects of common life.

Sijo and Gasa

Sijo and gasa are closely linked to the development of hangul in the early Joseon period. As hangul was
created, akjang was developed as a way to note musical scores using the Korean script. King Sejong himself is
credited with a compilation of Buddhist songs.
Sijo (literally current tune) was common in the Joseon period. Although its poetic form was established in the
late Goryeo period, it did not become popular until the Joseon period. Many of the sijo reflected Confucian
thought; the theme of loyalty is common. Sijo are characterized by a structure of three stanzas of four feet
each. Each foot contains three to four syllables except on the third stanza, where the 1st foot is supposed to
have 3 syllables and the 2nd foot can have as many as seven. Sijo are thought to have been popular with
common people.

Gasa is a form of verse, although its content can include more than the expression of individual sentiment,
such as moral admonitions. Gasa is a simple form of verse, with twinned feet of three or four syllables each.
Some regard gasa a form of essay. Common themes in gasa were nature, the virtues of gentlemen, or love
between man and woman.

Prose
Korean prose literature can be divided into narratives, fiction, and literary miscellany. Narratives include
myths, legends, and folktales found in the written records. The principal sources of these narratives are the two
great historical records compiled in Classical Chinese during the Koryo era: Samguk sagi (1146; "Historical
Record of the Three Kingdoms") and Samguk yusa (1285; "Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms"). The most
important myths are those concerning the Sun and the Moon, the founding of Korea by Tangun, and the lives
of the ancient kings. The legends touch on place and personal names and natural phenomena. The folktales
include stories about animals; ogres, goblins, and other supernatural beings; kindness rewarded and evil
punished; and cleverness and stupidity. Because the compiler of the Samguk yusa was a Zen master, his
collection includes the lives of Buddhist saints; the origin of monasteries, stupas, and bells; accounts of
miracles performed by Buddhas and bodhisattvas; and other tales rich in shamanist and Buddhist elements. It
also includes the 14 hyangga mentioned above. The compilations made in the Koryo period preserved the
stories of prehistoric times, of the Three Kingdoms, and of the Silla dynasty and have remained the basic
sources for such material. Later compilations made during the Yi dynasty served as a major source of materials
for later Yi dynasty fiction.

Fiction

Korean fiction can be classified in various ways. First, there is Korean fiction written in Chinese and that
written in Korean. Second, there are the short works of one volume, "medium" works of about 10 volumes,
and long works of more than 10 volumes. Third, there are works of yangban writers and those of common
writers. In respect to the last classification, however, there is also a group of fictional works in which the
viewpoints of the yangban and the commoner are combined. Most of this fiction was based on the narratives
mentioned above, the author adding incidents and characters to the original story. It is not possible to assign
definite dates or authors to most of these works. The stories are generally didactic, emphasizing correct moral
conduct, and almost always have happy endings. Another general characteristic is that the narratives written by
yangban authors are set in China, whereas those written by commoners are set in Korea.

The literary miscellany consists of random jottings by the yangban on four broad topics: history, biography,
autobiography, and poetic criticism. Like fiction, these jottings were considered to be outside of the realm of
officially sanctioned Chinese prose (e.g., memorials, eulogies, and records), but they provided the yangban
with an outlet for personal expression. Thus, their portrayal of the customs, manners, and spirit of the times in
which they were composed make these writings an essential part of Korean prose.

The first known classical work of Korean fiction is Geumo Sinhwa ( ⾦鰲新話 금오신화 New stories from
Mount Geumo) by Kim Si-seup ( 김시습 ). It was written in Chinese. From the 17th century onwards, fiction
became increasingly popular and more readily available through book rental schemes.
Pansori-based fiction was a particularly popular form of fiction, appearing in the late 17th and early 18th
century, based on the five orally transmitted pansori (Chunhyangga, Simcheongga, Heungbuga, Jeokbyeokga
and Sugungga). Although based on older traditional songs, it was composed in its present form in the 1870s
by the pansori writer, and characterized by human stereotypes of ordinary people of the time.

In the mid-Joseon period, parable-like stories were published. By the end of the Joseon period, many writers
had started to deviate from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literature, and literature about
common people such as merchants, thieves, or gisaeng was commonplace.

Kim Manjung (1637–1692) wrote The Cloud Dream of the Nine ( 구운몽).
Tale of Hong Gildong ( 홍길동전)
Chunhyangjeon is a kodae sosol ( 고대 소설) novel based on the pansori Chunhyangga.
Several lives of the poet Choe Chiwon have come down: In hanmun the Choegounjeon ( 최고운
전) Choemunhonjeon (최문헌전), in hangul the Choechungjeon (최충전, 崔忠傳), The Story of
Faithful Choe.

Oral literature

Oral literature includes all texts that were orally transmitted from generation to generation until the invention of
Hangul (han'gul)--ballads, legends, mask plays, puppet-show texts, and p'ansori ("story singing") texts.

In spite of the highly developed literary activity from early in Korean history, song lyrics were not recorded
until the invention of Hangul (han'gul). These orally transmitted texts are categorized as ballads and are
classified according to singer (male or female), subject matter (prayer, labour, leisure), and regional singing
style (capital area, western, and southern). The songs of many living performers, some of whom have been
designated as "intangible national treasures" by the South Korean government, are still being recorded.

Legends include all those folk stories handed down orally and not recorded in any of the written records.
These legends were for long the principal form of literary entertainment enjoyed by the common people. They
deal with personified animals, elaborate tricks, the participation of the gods in human affairs, and the origin of
the universe. An example of a folktale orally passed is the Gyeonmyo jaengju which is about a journey a cat
and a dog take to retrieve a lost marble out of gratitude toward their master.

The mask plays are found in Hahoe, Chinju, T'ongyong, Kimhae, and Tongnae in North and South
Kyongsang provinces; Yangju in Kyonggi Province; Pongsan in Hwanghae Province; and Pukch'ong in south
Hamgyong Province. The most representative plays are the sandae kuk genre of Yangju, the pyolsin kut of
Hahoe, and the okwangdae nori (five-actor play) of Chinju. Although the origin of these plays is uncertain,
they are generally presumed to have developed from primitive communal ceremonies. Gradually, the
ceremonial aspect of the plays disappeared, and their dramatic and comic possibilities were exploited. The
dialogue was somewhat flexible, the actors being free to improvise and satirize as the occasion demanded. The
plays were not performed on a stage, and there were no precise limits as to the space or time in which the
performances took place. The audience also traditionally responded vocally to the play as well as passively
watching it. The organization of the mask plays—through repetition and variety—achieves a remarkable effect
of dramatic unity. (see also dramatic literature)

Only two puppet-show texts are extant, Kkoktukaksi nori (also called Pak Ch'omjikuk; "Old Pak's Play") and
Mansok chung nori. Both titles are derived from names of characters in the plays. No theory has been
formulated as to the origin and development of these plays. The plots of the puppet plays, like those of the
mask plays, are full of satiric social criticism. The characters—Pak Ch'omji, governor of P'yongam,
Kkoktukaksi, Buddhist monk, and Hong Tongji—dance and sing, enacting familiar tales that expose the
malfeasance of the ruling classes. (see also puppetry)

The final type of folk literature is found in the texts of p'ansori of the Yi dynasty. These texts were first
recorded in the 19th century as verse, but the written forms were later expanded into p'ansori fiction, widely
read among the common people. This transformation from poetry to narrative fiction was easily accomplished,
since p'ansori were always narrative. Originally the entire p'ansori performance repertoire consisted of 12
madang ("titles"). Although all 12 remain as narrative fiction, only five of them are sung today. The texts
evolved gradually from the legends, which provided their sources and were altered and expanded as they were
passed from one performer to another.

History

The early Joseon period

Yongbi eocheonga (hangul: 용비어천가 ⿓⾶御天歌

, hanja: ) literally means "Songs of the Dragons Flying to
Heaven". It was compiled during the reign of Sejong the Great as an official recognition of the Joseon dynasty
and its ancestral heritage as the forerunners of Joseon, the Golden Age of Korea. The Songs were composed
through the efforts of a committee of Confucian philologists and literati in the form of 125 cantos.

This compilation was the first piece of Korean text to depart from a long history reliant on Chinese characters
and be recorded in Hangul, the first and official alphabet of Korea. There are several underlying themes in
addition to the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty which are of significant importance to understanding the
events that provoked the creation of these poems: linear events that took place in China, the apotheosis of
virtuous Kings proceeding the fall of the Goryeo Dynasty, and Confucian political and philosophical
ideologies of the era in rejection to Buddhism. Each of the poems included in the work convey deep-seated
feelings of nationalism and a proud proclamation of cultural independence from the Mongol empire.

The late Joseon period

Modern Korean literature developed against the background of the Joseon Dynasty's fall. This first period of
modern Korean literature is often called the "enlightenment". This period was to a large extent influenced by
the 1894 Gabo Reforms which introduced Western-style schools and newspapers emerged. Many newspapers
published sijo, gasa, or even serial novels and led to the emergence of professional writers. Sinchesi (hangul:
신체시 , literally "new poetry") was established, and contributed to the formation of modern free verse poetry
which is called Jayusi (hangul: 자유시 ). Sinchesi abandoned the fixed metaphor found in classical Korean
poetry, influenced by the French vers libre.

Many biographical works were published in the late Joseon period where the main character was often
depicted as a hero. These works cultivated patriotism and national consciousness.[1]

Modern literature
Modern Korean literature gradually developed under the influence of Western cultural contacts based on trade
and economic development.[2] The first printed work of fiction in Korean was John Bunyan's Pilgrim's
Progress (in Korean: 천로역정 Cheonno-yeokjeong), translated by James Scarth Gale (1893).
Christian religion found its way into Korea, culminating in the first complete edition of the Bible in Korean
published in 1910. However, it was mostly Western aesthetic schools that influenced Korean literature. Music
and classical poetry, formerly considered one as part of changgok, were increasingly perceived as old-
fashioned and out of date.

Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped increase working class literacy
rates. Hangul reached its peak of popularity in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major
renaissance. Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul.

Korean Literature during Japanese rule

During the period of Japanese imperial rule (1910–1945), Japanese literature had deep connections with the
establishment of modern literature in Korea due to some of the founders of modern literature in Korea having
come from Korean students who had studied in Japan during the Meiji period. Their representatives are Choe
Nam-seon and Yi Kwang-su. Many expressions of the late Joseon period, with their focus on self-reliance and
independence, were no longer possible. Ernest Bethell's Taehan Maeil Shinbo ( ⼤韓每⽇申報 ) provided for
Korean writers a brief opportunity of artistic expression free from censorship, from July 1904 till May 1909,
but after control of the paper was seized by the Government-General uncensored Korean publishing became
impossible.

Lee In-jik's New Novel: Bloody Tears(in Korean: 혈의 누 Hyeorui-nu), which was published in 1906 in
Mansebo, later became a universal name for "New Novel". "New novel" refers to the works created for about
10 years before 1917. "New Novel" generally involved realistic problems as sanctions. Accordingly, it dealt
with topics related to self-reliance, freedom of association, the promotion of new education, enlightenment,
and the destruction of tradition and superstition, and the act of salvation of enlightenment.

With the Samil Movement in 1919 came a new form of Korean literature. Many writers exhibited a more
positive attitude, trying to cope with the national situation at the time. Literature focused on self-discovery, and
increasingly on concrete reality. Artistic endeavors were supported by new nationalist newspapers.

In 1919 Kim Tong-in and Kim Hyok founded a literary magazine, Changjo ( 창조 Creation) marking the
starting point of contemporary Korean literature. The magazine was followed in 1920 by Kaebyok ( 개벽 ), and
Pyeho ( 폐허 廢墟 The Ruins, Hwang Song-u and Yom Sang-sop); in 1921 Changmichon ( 장미촌 ); in 1922
Paekcho (백조 White Tide, Yi Sang-hwa and Hyon Chin-gon); and in 1923 Kumsong ( 금성 Gold Star, of Yi
Chang-hui and Yang Chu-dong). The literary magazines which appeared during the 1920s and 1930s laid the
basis for the future development of modern Korean literature. Almost all of these magazines were ordered to
discontinue publication in the 1940s as the Japanese tightened their grip with the spread of their aggressive war
to the Pacific and all of Southeast Asia. The important task of the 1920s was to work out ways of introducing
foreign elements into literary works dealing with the reality of colonial rule in Korea.

Many novels of the 1920s centered on themes of the suffering of intellectuals. The lives of farmers were often
depicted as pathetic. As the Japanese government strengthened ideological coercion during the 1930s, Korean
literature was directly affected. Many novels of the time experimented with new literary styles and techniques.

Kang Kyeong-ae ( 강경애, 姜敬愛; 1907–1944): In'gan munje (인간문제 From Wonso Pond)
Kim Tong-in (1900–1951): Pulgun San (붉은 산 Red Mountain)
Shim Hun (1901–1936): Sangnoksu (상록수 Evergreen Tree, 1943 posthumously)
Ri Ki-yong (리기영, 李箕永; 1895–1984): Kohyang (The Home Village, 1932), later a North
[3]
Korean author
Hong Myong-hui (1880—1968): Im Kkok-chong (Story of the bandit Im Kkok-chong)
 최서해, 崔曙海; 1901–1932): Hongyom (홍염)
Choi Seo-hae (
Yom Sang-seop (염상섭, 廉想涉; 1897–1963): Sam dae (Three Generations, 1932) Mansejon
(만세전)
Chae Man-shik (1902–1950): Thaepyong Chunha (태평천하 Peaceful Spring on Earth, 1937)
and Tagryu (Muddy Stream, 1941)

Poets included: Han Yong-un, Buddhist reformer and poet: Nimui chimmuk (The Silence of My Beloved,
1925), Chang Man-yong, Chu Yo-han, Hwang Sok-woo ( 황석우 ), Kim Myeong-sun, Kim Sowol, Kim
Yeong-nang, Pak Tu-jin, Yi Sang, Yi Sang-hwa ( 이상화 李相和
, ), Yu Chi-hwan, Yun Dong-ju, and Yi Yuk-
이육사 李陸史
sa ( , ; 1904–1944) tortured to death by the Japanese military police.

National division

After 1945, Korea soon found itself divided into North and South. The Korean War led to the development of
literature centered on the wounds and chaos of war and tragedy.

North Korea (DPRK)

South Korea (ROK)

Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and their struggles
with national pain. The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another common theme of the time.
In the post-war period, a traditionalist movement emerged: going back to the roots of traditional rhythms and
folk sentiments. Other poets are linked to an experimentalist movement, attempting to bring new experiences
to Korean poetry.

In the 1960s many South Korean writers started to reject post-war literature as sentimental escapism. While
some South Korean authors reflected traditional humanism, writings by many others reflect deep alienation
and despair. They sought to engage the readers with the political reality of the time. This led poetry and
literature in general to become an important means of political expression. Also remarkable for the
development of literature in 1960s was the influence of Western modernism. The 1970s saw the emergence of
literature that was anti-establishment and dealt with the concerns of rapid industrialization, such as the neglect
of farmers.

At the same time, literature concerned with the national division (bundan soseol) became more popular. At the
beginning of the twenty-first century, the national division is still a common theme, but classic stories are also
popular. Some North Korean writers are very highly appreciated in the South and in 2005 writers from both
Koreas held a joint literary congress.

Korean literature abroad

Until the 1980s Korean literature was largely unknown outside of the peninsula. The kind of works translated
has become increasingly diverse, and the quality of the translations has improved.*[4] Flowers of Fire
(1974)[5] was one of the first anthologies of Korean literature published in English. In non-English-speaking
countries there are fewer Korean works translated, though LTI Korea has also promoted translations in
German, Spanish, French and Polish. The increased popularity of Korean film has increased interest in Korean
mass market literature, particularly in Japan and China.

References
 1. Montgomery, Charles (5 March 2016). "KOREAN LITERATURE CHAPTER SIX: TRANSITION
– ENLIGHTENMENT FICTION AND THE 'NEW' NOVEL" (http://www.ktlit.com/korean-literatur
e-chapter-six-transition-enlightenment-fiction-and-the-new-novel/). www.ktlit.com. KTLit.
Retrieved 8 March 2016. "Even biographical novels, typically about heroes, focused tightly on
the importance of nationalism and modern awareness."
2. The first western-influenced work was perhaps the 1885 manuscript of 60 Corean Tales
prepared by Kim Chae-guk( 김재국
) for diplomat William George Aston's language lessons in
1885.
3. 리기영 in North Korean orthography, 이기영Yi Kee-Yeoung, in South Korean orthography
4. Korean Fiction in Translation, by Dr. Bruce Fulton (http://www.kahs.org/downloads/99KoreanFi
c.pdf) pdf
5. Peter H. Lee (9780824810368)

Choe-Wall, Yang Hi (2003). Vision of a Phoenix: The Poems of Hŏ Nansŏrhŏn, Ithaca, New
York, Cornell University. ISBN 1-885445-42-3 hc.
Hyun, Theresa (2003). Writing Women in Korea: Translation and Feminism in the Early
Twentieth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2677-2
Lee, Peter H. (2013). The Story of Traditional Korean Literature. Amherst, New York: Cambria
Press. ISBN 978-1-60497-853-7
Lee, Peter H. (1990). Modern Korean Literature: An Anthology. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi
Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1321-5
Lee, Peter H. (1981). Anthology of Korean Literature: From Early Times to the Nineteenth
Century. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0756-6
Lee, Peter H. (2003). A History of Korean Literature, Cambridge University Press
McCann, David R. (2000). Early Korean Literature: Selections and Introductions. New York:
Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11947-4
Pihl, Marshall R (1994). The Korean Singer of Tales. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press. ISBN 978-0-674-50564-3

External links
Asianifo (http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/literature.htm#Literature%20of%20the%20P
eriod%20of%20National%20Division)
Kyujanggak Archive (http://kyujanggak.snu.ac.kr/PDF/PDF_LIST.jsp?ptype=list&subtype=oo)
(big pdfs of many Korean classics)
KTLIT Korean Modern Literature (http://www.ktlit.com)

See also
Korean poetry
Culture of Korea
List of Korean-language poets
List of Korea-related topics
List of Korean novelists
Korea Literature Translation Institute (LTI Korea)

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