Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Scientometric Review of Trends in Solar Photovoltaic Waste Management Research
A Scientometric Review of Trends in Solar Photovoltaic Waste Management Research
Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, are effective measures to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions related to the
Solar generation of power. However, the large exploitation of solar PV modules, leads to undesirable waste accu
Photovoltaic mulation, impacting the environment. Solar PV waste management research is an emerging field which has
Trends
received more attention recently, affected by the increase volume of solar PV disposal. However, only a few
Waste management
Scientometric review
studies have reviewed the current trends in solar photovoltaic waste management. This study reviewed the
End-of-life emerging trends in solar photovoltaic waste management research from 1974 to 2019 using the scientometric
review techniques. A total record of 4683 articles were retrieved from the Web of Science database on solar PV
waste. The co-word, co-citation and co-author analysis of the retrieved articles were conducted to determine the
emerging trends in the PV waste management research. The results revealed that, with a gradual growth in the
PV waste management research, performance and efficiency of polymer solar cells have been the centre of recent
research due to its light weight, flexibility, environmentally harmless materials and lower cost over the silicon
based solar cells. However, it will be years before they are ready for commercialization for specific applications.
Thus, the silicon-based modules are the most installed to date and will be coming to their end-of-life very soon.
The results also show that, little attention was given to areas like recycling, recovery, policies and regulations on
solar PV module waste management. Future research should focus on assessing the recycling potential and
emissions from current solar PV modules and the easy remanufacture, recovery and reuse of future solar PV
modules.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Oteng).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.06.036
Received 1 February 2021; Received in revised form 1 June 2021; Accepted 13 June 2021
Available online 20 June 2021
0038-092X/© 2021 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
and life cycle energy use. Studies have identified that an abuse of this analysed 817 and 70 journal papers respectively as compared to the
could however lead to unwanted environmental impacts in relation to number of papers that is used in this study (4683 articles). Most
disposal of waste and material availability (Fthenakis, 2004; Fthenakis importantly, waste and end-of-life solar PV panel management research
and Moskowitz, 2000; Kannan et al., 2006; Nieuwlaar et al., 1996; is an emerging field and needs to be constantly reviewed as new articles
Phylipsen, 1995). The exponential increase in the PV panel waste is emerge (Xu et al., 2018; Chowdhury et al., 2020; Mahmoudi et al.,
anticipated to reach over 60 to 70 million tonnes by 2050 (Ardente et al., 2021). Furthermore, none of the previous studies on solar photovoltaics
2019; IRENA and IEA-PVPS, 2016). Moreover, PV modules contain and waste have mapped out the co-author relationship and analysis
dangerous materials that poses serious human health risk as well as risk linking authors and their institutions. Again, these studies have not
to the environment (Mahmoudi et al., 2018). These dangerous materials further studied into details the co-citation, co-author and co-word
can be found in PV modules such as Copper Indium Gallium Selenide analysis. This research is relevant because, bibliometrics review using
(CIGS) which contains Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb) and Selenide (Se); the aforementioned analysis is a valuable complement to traditional
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) which contains Cd and Pb; and Crystalline ways of reviewing literature, thus, it creates more understanding
Silicon (c-Si) which contains Pb (IRENA, 2016; Bang et al., 2018; Podoan through the relationship that exists (Fonteyn et al., 2020) within the full
et al., 2019; Mahmoudi et al., 2021) Workers who are exposed to these structure of the solar PV waste research domain. It presents a broader
harmful waste materials and gases such as poly/brominated flame re perspective on solar PV through the collaborative ties that links various
tardants, heavy metals, and Chlorofluorocarbons (ozone depleting car researchers within the domain, links and maps out similar research el
bons) are prone to severe health impacts, where some wider population ements as well as identifying information flow and influential re
may be affected by the exposures as well (Fiandra et al., 2019). The searchers within the field of solar photovoltaics research.
production of semiconductors springs up the most heath concerns in From the above, this study differentiates itself by bridging the gap in
solar panel use because it contains potentially dangerous materials literature on solar PV waste research through scientometric analytical
(Moss et al., 2014). Moreover, hazardous wastes are generated by the review. This study provides an in-depth understanding of the current
panels after their useful life which is also another environmental prob research trend on solar photovoltaic waste research through all the years
lem. Due to their life expectancy of 25 years, the reuse and recycling of till now. It also identifies future research agenda and the gaps in liter
these panels was not of much concern at the development stages, but, ature. It aims at highlighting the emerging trends of solar photovoltaic
presently, an appreciable number of these already installed solar panels waste research through i) co-word analysis, ii) co-citation analysis, and
are entering their end-of-life stage. Therefore, an effective management iii) co-author analysis using the retrieved data from the WoS database.
of these retiring panels are now becoming an environmental issue of This paper consists of five sections: The first section gives an intro
much concern (Aman et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2018). duction and the reason for the research as previously explained. The
second section explores the methods that is adopted in analysing the
1.1. Knowledge gap and research objectives study. The selection of the database, keywords and tools as well as the
scientometric techniques used are explained in this section. The third
Photovoltaics is a broad research area because of its multidisci section describes the analysis and the results from the research. It dis
plinary application in various research fields. However, previous re cusses the co-word, co-citation and co-author analysis of the study. The
views on photovoltaics has leaned towards general application, capacity discussion of the results is elucidated in the fourth section of this paper.
building and recycling. The waste management and end-of-life aspect is The last section finally lays down the conclusions.
an emerging field and has received little attention when it comes to
reviews, a gap this research tends to bridge. Solar panel waste recycling 2. Methodology
status by Xu et al. (2018) discussed the processes of the retrieval and
dismantling of waste solar panels with an in-depth discussion of various Data analysis in this paper is based on the science mapping meth
recycling techniques and methods. Another review by Sica et al. (2018) odology. According to Chen (2017), science mapping represents a
addressed the end-of-life management of PV modules focusing on “generic process” of domain analysis and visualisation. This process
technology, life cycle, production, environmental issues and their end- includes several components within a scientific literature that enables
of-life explained into details. The study ended with suggestions and the exploration and interpretation of significant trends and patterns
future directions on how the PV industry is becoming a big player in highlighted by visual and scientometric analytical indicators, metrics
circular economy and how it is being shaped through the lens of natural and tools. Bibliometric or Science mapping is a spatial representation
systems in providing services and goods. Both studies adopted a quali relating specialities, fields, disciplines and individual authors and doc
tative review of the literature without necessary going through database uments to each other showing their relative locations and physical
searches. proximities (Cobo et al., 2011). Science mapping overlaps between
Similarly, a review by Salim et al. (2019a) highlighted drivers, bar scientometric, bibliometric and informatics in its analysis yet they are
riers and enablers of battery energy storage and photovoltaic systems independent techniques on their own (Hood and Wilson, 2001). Studies
when it comes to their end-of-life. They identified some drivers clustered based on science mapping typically applies either a scientometric or
under economic, social and environmental. The barriers were also bibliometric analysis technique (Hosseini et al., 2018).
grouped under policy and economic, recycling infrastructure, environ Scientometric analysis compared to bibliometrics delivers a broader
mental, market and social clusters. With the final which is the enablers approach when it comes to measuring and analysing bibliometric tools
falling under recycling technology and infrastructure, behavioural, and data, to reveal potentially insightful trends and patterns whiles
policy and economic, market and social. A discussion of the current bibliometrics predominantly focuses on the literature per se (Hood and
research trend was also highlighted, finally ending up with the devel Wilson, 2001). Several studies employ different scientific methods when
opment of a conceptual framework for solar energy systems when it reviewing literature such as systematic literature reviews (Curtin et al.,
comes to the circular supply chain. The study was limited to the years 2019; Wassie and Adaramola, 2019; Wu, H.Y. et al., 2019), bibliometric
2000 to 2018. In a recent systematic literature review carried out by technique (Chen et al., 2017), scientometric analysis (Chen et al., 2014;
Mahmoudi et al. (2019a), they discussed the trend analysis, bibliometric Montoya et al., 2014; Shi and Liu, 2019), and content analysis (Herbes
details and treatment procedures of end-of-life PV modules. Their re and Ramme, 2014) within areas like renewable energy, sustainability,
view considered all published research available in Web of Science construction and diseases. This study therefore employs scientometric
(WoS), Scopus and Science direct upto 2018. With both using the WoS techniques in its analysis as it broadly covers bibliometric data, tools and
database in addition to Scopus and Science direct respectively. methods.
Moreover, Salim et al. (2019a) and Mahmoudi et al. (2019a)
546
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
2.1. Database and keyword selection according to each of their abilities and strengths when it comes to
bibliographic data analysis.
The quality of a scientific review depends on the selection of Thus, choosing an appropriate tool is critical when thoroughly ana
appropriate databases and the methodology used. Retrieval of data from lysing your data. A careful analysis of the various software established
bibliometric sources such as Scopus, WoS, Medline, Science Direct and the need for the use of CiteSpace, Gephi and VOSviewer for this
Google Scholar (Cobo et al., 2011; Mongeon and Paul-Hus, 2016), are research. This is because Citespace facilitates the detection of abrupt
relevant in collecting information within several scientific fields. How changes and emerging trends within scientific literature (Chen et al.,
ever, results may vary depending on the database used as their coverage 2012), Gephi is used to explore and manipulate networks (Bastian et al.,
differs in each database when it comes to research disciplines (Mongeon 2009) whiles VOSviewer explores, visualises and produces bibliometric
and Paul-Hus, 2016). Clarivate Analytics uses the Web of Science cita maps and networks (Van Eck and Waltman, 2018).
tion database, consisting over 155 million records in 34,000 journals
having over 1.7 billion cited references across several disciplines 2.3. Scientometric techniques
(Clarivate Analysis, 2020), and is mostly used by the scientific research
community due to its quality (Niñerola et al., 2019). This study employs Establishing a relationships and links between units such as authors,
the WoS database because of its scientific robustness and comprehen cited references, documents and journals through co-word analysis, co-
siveness (Neto et al., 2016; Olawumi and Chan, 2018). The search is citation analysis, co-author analysis and bibliographic coupling are the
conducted within the Web of Science Core Collection (including Science analysis involved in scientometric techniques (Cobo et al., 2011). Pro
Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED), Social Sciences Citation cessing the data retrieved required the use of three scientometric tech
Index (SSCI), Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI), Conference Pro niques for this study, and among them are 1) co-word analysis: involves
ceedings Citation Index- Social Science & Humanities (CPCI-SSH), keyword co-occurrence and clusters as well as burst detection of the top
Conference Proceedings Citation Index- Science (CPCI-S), and Arts & keywords, 2) co-citation analysis: deals with the co-cited author, docu
Humanities Citation Index (A&HCI)) database on 10th December 2019. ments and journal visualisation and relationships within downloaded
Many articles would have been under review or published after the papers from the WoS database, and 3) co-author analysis: compares the
database search which means publication number may increase at the occurrences and linkages between authors, countries and institutions.
end of the year. These articles are not analysed in this paper but may be Table A1 in the appendix shows the details and description of the
cited in the discussion. techniques used.
The keywords for this study are within the waste research studies
conducted by several researchers on solar or photovoltaic cells. There 3. Analysis and results
fore, these keywords were adopted (Mahmoudi et al., 2019a; Salim
et al., 2019a; Shubbak, 2019; Sica et al., 2018) and modified (keywords The 4683 retrieved articles were analysed using CiteSpace, Gephi
from the waste hierarchy (Parto et al., 2007) formulated by Ad Lansink) and VOS viewer software to establish the emerging trends of solar
through expert opinions to suit the purpose of this study. A search cri photovoltaic waste research. According to Cobo et al. (2011), critical
terion was then developed to select the required articles needed for the information can be extracted through network, temporal and geospatial
studies. Keywords such as “solar panels” OR photovoltaic OR “photovol analysis. The aforementioned analysis was performed using the software
taic cells” OR “pv panels” AND “End-of-life” OR waste OR recycl* OR reus* explained earlier. This section therefore explains the various analysis
OR recover* OR dispos* OR treatment, were combined with the Booleans applied to the data retrieved from the database.
(“AND” and “OR”) and used as the search query in the WoS database.
These keywords needed to occur within the topic search of the Web of 3.1. Publication distribution
Science Core Collection.
An initial search produced 6520 records, among these were aca Research on solar photovoltaics was first referenced as back as 1974
demic literature consisting of 4857 articles, 1724 proceedings papers, in the journal of applied physics (Fahrenbr.Al and Bube, 1974), where
274 reviews, 16 early access, 7 editorial materials, 7 meeting abstracts, 3 Fahrenbr and Bube researched on the effects of heat treatment on copper
letters, 1 note, 1 book chapter, 1 retracted publication and 1 correction sulphide/cadmium sulphide (Cu2S-CdS) heterojunction photovoltaic
from 13 different languages. This search was then limited to articles cells. Research concerning photovoltaics was also cited by (Lawrence
which were written in English in all years. All the other documents were et al., 1984; and Miyata et al., 1987) in 1984 and 1987. From these
also excluded with the exception of the articles and reviews because of years, photovoltaic research has received a study interest since 1991. A
the comprehensiveness and reputability of these sources as “certified look at Fig. 1 shows the growth of solar photovoltaic module waste
knowledge” (Olawumi and Chan, 2018). Thus, 4683 total records were research through the years till now. Particularly in 2014 where there
retrieved for analyses. The records were then downloaded and imported was a sharp climb of about 438 documents within the year. This shows
into EndNote version X9 reference manager for analysis. the attention solar photovoltaics (PVs) waste research is receiving and
will continue to receive because of the retirement of old solar PV
2.2. Tool selection modules in the coming years. This upward increase and interest in this
area of research has propelled several researchers (Salim et al., 2019b;
The selection of an appropriate visualisation tool for analysis is very Sica et al., 2018) to look into the end-of-life management of solar PVs. A
critical when it comes to scientometric analysis. There are several significant record of 636 publications on solar photovoltaic waste
existing science mapping tools such as VOSviewer (van Eck and Walt module research occurred in 2018 only. This shows the gradual interest
man, 2009), VantagePoint (Porter and Cunningham, 2004), Sci2 Tool waste research is receiving recently and how best researchers can steer
(Chen et al., 2012), Network Workbench Tool (Börner et al., 2010), towards new innovation and creativity when it comes to solar photo
Leydesdorff’s Software (Leydesdorff and Schank, 2008), IN-SPIRE voltaic modules.
(Wise, 1999), CoPalRed (Bailón-Moreno et al., 2005), CiteSpace II
(Chen, 2006), Bibexcel (Persson et al., 2009), Gephi (Bastian et al., 3.2. Distribution of articles in journals
2009) and HistCite (Garfield, 2004) for visualising and analysing tem
poral, dynamic and structural trends and patterns within a scientific Among the articles retrieved, journals that produced 45 and more
literature. Moreover, analytical methods such as network, temporal articles were selected making up the top 20 journals within the field.
(burst detection) and geospatial analysis are conducted using these Table 1 illustrates the distribution of the publications within the top 20
software tools (Cobo et al., 2011). The various tools perform differently journals selected. Their characteristics such as the number of articles
547
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
700
600
500
Number of articles
400
300
200
100
0
1974 1984 1987 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Year
produced, number cited, journal impact factor (JIF) and their Scimago network of co-occurring keywords was explored using the VOSviewer
Journal and Country Ranking (SJR) were accessed. Among the 20 and CiteSpace software. Using all the keywords such as the author’s
journals, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, ACS Applied Materials keywords and keywords plus (indexed terms from journals) from the
and Interfaces, Solar Energy, Journal of Materials Chemistry A and database, the relationship and patterns of the keywords were estab
Journal of Physical Chemistry C produced more than 100 articles related lished. Fig. 2 shows a visualisation of the frequency or count of the
to solar photovoltaics waste research. keywords as well as the co-occurrence between them.
InCites Journal Citation Report from Clarivate analytics indicates From a combination of over 14,561 keywords analysed, 207 nodes
that Advanced Energy Materials (25.245), Advanced Functional Mate surpassed the threshold of minimum thirty occurrences for the analysis
rials (16.836), Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (12.110), in VOSviewer. The visualisation in Fig. 2 shows the keyword counts,
Journal of Materials Chemistry A (11.301) and Applied Energy (8.848) where “performance” and “efficiency” received the highest frequency of
are the top five journals with the highest impact factor in 2019 citation 813 and 702 respectively. “solar cell” was the third highest with 647
report with Advanced Functional Materials having the highest number counts. The others are “thin film” (4 7 0), film (4 1 8), morphology (3 3 2),
of citations (7266) followed by Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells photovoltaic cell (2 9 6), system (2 2 4), layer (2 4 3), polymer solar cell
(6171). The SJR was also compared with the JIF to reconcile the impacts (2 2 5), energy (2 2 4), design (2 2 3), nanoparticle (2 1 8), photovoltaic
these journals have on photovoltaic waste research. The results were (2 1 3), recombination (2 0 2), polymer (1 9 6), fabrication (1 9 4), open
similar when it comes to how the journals were ranked and the impact circuit voltage (1 6 8), conjugated polymer (1 5 9) and photovoltaics
they had on photovoltaic research. (1 5 8). Other keywords such as renewable energy, dye-sensitized solar
cells, silicon, solar energy were also predominant. The visualisation
clearly shows the trend of photovoltaic waste research, has leaned to
3.3. Co-word analysis wards solar performance and efficiency for the past few years. Studies
such as (Li, F. et al., 2012; Shen et al., 2013) looks at enhancing the
The analysis of the main concept and conceptual structure extracted performance of solar cells which could reduce the amount manufactured
from a research field is termed as co-word analysis (Cobo et al., 2011). in volume needed for residential and commercial installation therefore
The keywords extracted from the WoS database search through the title, reducing the amount of waste produced at the end-of-life of the PV
abstract and keywords are analysed to obtain the term co-occurrences of panel. Moreover, there is gradual shift into environmental sustainability
the documents. This section explains the analysis of the network of co- as old solar cells come to the end of their service life. There is therefore
occurring keywords and co-occurring subject categories. research into new ideas on how best these solar cells may become
environmentally friendly whiles producing less waste.
3.3.1. Network of co-occurring keywords
The analyses of keywords are essential in determining key research
3.3.1.1. Keyword clusters. Analysing keywords in clusters helps estab
areas (Shrivastava and Mahajan, 2016) across a field of study. Thus,
lishes emerging trends in literature. Clustering group keywords together
keywords characterise the core research of a published paper and shows
establishing a link within the same field of research. CiteSpace supports
the boundaries within which a research area is depicted (Su and Lee,
the selection of cluster labels based on Latent Semantic Indexing (LSI),
2010). The network of a keyword provides a good picture of the
Log-Likelihood Ratio Test (LLR) and Mutual Information (MI). More
knowledge area of a research giving insight into the association and
over, thematic labels of each cluster include terms selected by either LLR
organisation of topics within a research domain. This is calculated on the
which highlights the unique themes or LSI which identifies common
basis of publications within which both these keywords appear together
themes (Chen and Song, 2019). These two selections can indicate
through the weight of their links (van Eck and Waltman, 2014). The
548
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
Table 1 cluster with 52 members and a silhouette value of 0.696 and is labelled
Characteristics of top 20 journals. “dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC)” by LLR. The silhouette value of the
S/ Journal name No. of Citations JIF SJR JIF five clusters are all above 0. 65, indicating a robust and meaningful
N articles ranking results.
1 Solar Energy 204 6171 6.984 1.83 10 The alternative names are organic sensitizer and phenylenevinylene
Materials and Solar copolymer. The most active citer in the cluster is Yang et al. (Yang et al.,
Cells 2013), followed by cluster #2 with 45 members and a silhouette value of
2 ACS Applied 154 3405 8.758 2.57 6 0.760 that is labelled “dye-sensitized solar cell” by LLR. Alternative
Materials &
Interfaces
names are solar cells, photovoltaic modules and crystalline silicon.
3 Solar Energy 108 2142 4.608 1.54 12 Cluster #3 is the fourth cluster with 38 members and a silhouette value
4 Journal of 104 2864 11.301 3.43 4 of 0.765 and is labelled “CdTe solar cell” by LLR. Alternative names are
Materials solar cells electrodeposition and chalcopyrite thin film. Cluster #4 has
Chemistry A
the least members (12) and a silhouette value of 0.866 and is labelled
5 Journal of Physical 102 3964 4.189 1.48 13
Chemistry C “single-walled carbon nanotube” by LLR the alternative labels are solar
6 Organic Electronics 90 1743 3.310 0.90 16 cells, open circuit voltage and enhancement. Dye-sensitized solar cells
7 Renewable & 78 2756 12.110 3.63 3 have been under extensive studies due to its ease of production, low
Sustainable Energy toxicity and low cost since the early 2000s (Sharma et al., 2018). Cluster
Reviews
8 RSC Advances 70 588 3.119 0.74 17
#1 and #2 clearly shows the efforts of researchers that has gone into the
9 Applied Physics 68 2832 3.597 1.34 14 studies on dye-sensitized solar cells. The occurrence of mean year of
Letters both clusters between 2007 and 2009 depicts that, over the decade a lot
10 IEEE Journal of 67 885 3.052 1.00 18 of attention has gone into the performance and efficiency of DSSC. The
Photovoltaics
mean years of all the clusters shows that, they have been formed rela
11 Applied Energy 63 1585 8.848 3.61 5
12 Journal of Applied 61 1784 2.286 0.73 19 tively around old documents as the mean year ranges from 2003 to
Physics 2007.
13 Journal of Cleaner 61 754 7.246 1.89 9
Production
3.3.1.2. Citation bursts and betweenness centrality. The rate of change
14 Renewable Energy 59 1252 6.274 2.05 11
15 Thin Solid Films 58 1016 2.030 0.51 20 throughout a field is measured by its burstness. Through a period of
16 Advanced 57 7266 16.836 5.88 2 time, a sudden change in the frequency of an entity at a specific time
Functional shows its burstness. Burstness can be analysed through the use of Cite
Materials Space. When a node shows a strong burst (showed by the red colour) as
17 Progress in 53 1359 7.690 1.86 8
shown in Fig. 3, it signifies the attention the work has received within a
Photovoltaics
18 Energy Conversion 51 807 8.208 2.92 7 short period of time (Chen, 2016). The burstness of the keywords were
and Management measured within year groups. The keyword with the strongest burst
19 Advanced Energy 49 1670 25.245 9.51 1 (23.195) is “light emitting diode” which receive a lot of attention within
Materials
the 2003 to 2012-year period. This is followed by “solar cell” with a
20 Physical Chemistry 45 1002 3.430 1.14 15
Chemical Physics strength of 17.448 through the years of 1993 to 2004. It was realised
that within the year 2006 to 2009 the keyword “plastic solar cell” was
InCites Journal Citation Report /Scimago Journal and Country Ranking (2019).
very prominent with a burst strength of 5.492. This shows the attention
given to research on new technologies as alternatives, in achieving
different or similar themes. This study therefore uses the LLR in ana efficient improvements and more stable performance in its operation.
lysing the keywords. In giving a sound interpretation of the results, the The betweenness centrality of the keywords indicates the trans
silhouette and modularity has to be taken into consideration (Chen, formative potential of a contribution or the importance of that node in
2016). The average homogeneity of the clusters, thus, the clustering the network (Chen et al., 2012). Looking back at Fig. 2., the following
configurations quality is measured using the silhouette value (Chen shows the betweenness centrality of the keywords with Performance
et al., 2010). The modularity, however, measures the degree with which (0.12) having the highest value, and the second being efficiency (0.10),
a group of nodes in a network can be divided such that they are closer and the others are solar cell (0.19), thin film (0.08), film (0.06),
and tighter within the same group than in another different group (Chen morphology (0.06), photovoltaic cell (0.08), system (0.08), layer (0.02),
et al., 2012). The modularity and silhouette representing the results of polymer solar cell (0.03), energy (0.10), design (0.03), nanoparticle
this analysis are Q = 0.330 and 0.587 respectively. The details of the (0.05), photovoltaic (0.06), recombination (0.04), polymer (0.04),
twenty highest LLR labels are presented in the appendix Table A2. The fabrication (0.06), open circuit voltage (0.02), conjugated polymer
clusters are solar cell, dye-sensitized solar cell which appeared twice, (0.06) and photovoltaics (0.05). Performance and efficiency as
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar cell and single-walled carbon nanotube. explained previously has been an important part of photovoltaic
Table 2 gives the details of the characteristics of the clusters. research and will continue to be, because of the quest to find better and
Cluster #0 is the largest cluster with 64 members and a silhouette more efficient solar photovoltaics to prevent harmful waste to humans
value of 0.78 and is labelled “solar cell” by LLR. Other alternative labels and the environment.
are polythiophene and polymer nanoparticle. The most active citer in
cluster #0 is Xi et al. (Xi et al., 2010), who did experimental research on 3.3.2. Network of co-occurring subject categories
improving the performance of organic solar cells. This cluster indicates The subject category came up with a modularity of Q = 0.4676 and
the considerable research that has gone into organic solar cells in recent silhouette of 0.8723. Among the research subject categories discovered
years and how researchers are still finding ways to make organic solar were Materials Science; Materials Science, Multidisciplinary; Physics;
cells more efficient and productive. Organic solar cells in comparison Physics, Applied; Chemistry; Energy and Fuels; Science and Technology;
with other types of solar PV modules, create a number of possible ap Engineering; Chemistry, Physical; Nanoscience and Nanotechnology;
plications because they are potentially environmentally friendly, vari Chemistry, Multidisciplinary; Physics, Condensed Matter; Engineering,
able in colour, lightweight, flexible and cheap. Unfortunately, there are Electrical and Electronic; Green and Sustainable Science & Technology;
a lot of research being conducted on organic cells before they are ready Environmental Sciences and Ecology; Environmental Sciences;
for commercialization (Yin et al., 2020). Cluster #1 is the second largest
549
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
Table 2
Keywords cluster characteristics.
Cluster Size Silhouette Mean Cluster label (LLR) Other labels Articles
ID (Year)
0 64 0.780 2007 solar cell polythiophene, polymer nanoparticle (Nelson et al., 2009; Po et al., 2010; Yang et al.,
2011)
1 52 0.696 2007 dye-sensitized solar cell organic sensitizer, phenylenevinylene (Wang et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2010)
copolymer
2 45 0.760 2009 dye-sensitized solar cell solar cells, photovoltaic modules, (Friedel et al., 2009; McDonald and Pearce, 2010;
crystalline silicon, Yoon et al., 2010)
3 38 0.765 2003 CdTe solar cell solar cells electrodeposition, chalcopyrite (Heath et al., 2004; Lincot et al., 2004; Lupan et al.,
thin film 2010)
4 12 0.866 2005 single-walled carbon solar cells, open circuit voltage, (Mistry et al., 2011; Stevens et al., 2009; Szeifert
nanotube enhancement et al., 2009)
Engineering, Chemical; Engineering, Environmental; Electrochemistry; 3.3.2.1. Citation bursts and betweenness centrality. The highest ranked
Materials Science, Coatings and Films; Polymer Science; Thermody item by bursts is Physics (1991–2005), with burst score of 34.26. This
namics; Optics; Physics, Atomic, Molecular and Chemical; Water Re explains the attention physics as a subject area has received in the area
sources; Mechanics; Multidisciplinary Sciences; Metallurgy and of solar photovoltaics from 1991 to 2005. The second one is Physics,
Metallurgical Engineering; Environmental Studies; Engineering, Me Applied (1992–2005), with bursts of 31.83. It can be realised that,
chanical; Construction and Building Technology; Physics, Multidisci applied physics also receive the same attention around the same year as
plinary; Engineering, Civil; and Instruments and Instrumentation. physics, this shows the collaborative work between these two disciplines
The highest citation count is related to Materials Science, with 2178 on the work of solar photovoltaic waste research. The third is Polymer
citation followed by Materials Science Multidisciplinary with 2028, Science (2005–2013), with bursts of 11.05. The 4th is Physics, Multi
Physics with 1671, Physics Applied with1408, Chemistry with 1342, disciplinary (2006–2012), with bursts of 7.02. The 5th is Materials
Energy & Fuels with 1274, Science & Technology (2000) with 1095, Science, Coatings and Films (1991–2010), with bursts of 6.00. The 6th is
Engineering with 895, Chemistry, Physical with 892 and Nanoscience Physics, Condensed Matter (2006–2008), with bursts of 5.18. The 7th is
and Nanotechnology with 698 citation counts. The field of material Energy and Fuels (2001–2002), with bursts of 4.87. The 8th is Engi
science has received a major boost in terms of citation as well as physics neering, Electrical & Electronic (1999–2001), with bursts of 4.87.
and chemistry as these research areas lead the studies on solar photo From Fig. 4, the pink ring around the nodes depict the centrality of
voltaics waste management research. Thus, the emergence and pro each node. The bigger the ring the higher the centrality which shows the
duction of new materials for solar panels that are more efficient and importance of that node to the group. The highest ranked item by cen
effective are constantly researched to better perform when it comes to trality is Engineering, with centrality score of 0.52, followed by Energy
carbon emissions during production and after its end-of-life. Their and Fuels, Chemistry, Environmental Studies and Materials Science with
recycling and recovery capabilities are also significant areas of research. respective centrality values of 0.26, 0.18 and 0.14. Science and
550
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
Technology, Environmental Sciences and Ecology and Engineering, 3.4.2. Citation bursts and betweenness centrality
Chemical had a similar centrality value of 0.11; Biotechnology and The highest ranked item by bursts is Ma et al. (Ma et al., 2005) with
Applied Microbiology, had centrality value of 0.10 and Engineering, bursts of 43.83, followed by Kojima et al. (Kojima et al., 2015) with
Electrical and Electronic had centrality value of 0.09. bursts score of 42.41, Yang et al. (Yang et al., 2015) with 39.50, You
et al. (You et al., 2013) with 35.21, Padinger et al. (Padinger et al., 2003)
with 34.00, Zhang et al. (Zhang et al., 2016) with 33.79, Jeon et al.
3.4. Co-citation analysis
(Jeon et al., 2014) with 33.60, Kim et al. (Kim et al., 2005) with 33.33,
Shaheen and Ginley (Shaheen and Ginley, 2004) with 32.98, and Zhao
Co-citation explains the citation of two scholarly items such as
et al. (Zhao et al., 2017) with 32.97 bursts scores.
journals, references, documents and/or authors by the same article
(Olawumi and Chan, 2018; Wu, J. et al., 2019). The intellectual struc
3.4.3. Document co-citation network
ture within a scientific field can be analysed via co-citation (Cobo et al.,
The document co-citation is visualised in Fig. 6. CiteSpace recorded a
2011). The VOSviewer, Gephi and CiteSpace software was used to
modularity of 0.6947 and a Silhouette of 0.4812 during the mapping of
analyse the co-citation networks of the authors, documents and journals
the document co-citation network. The highest ranked item by citation
as explained in this section.
counts is Li et al. (Li et al., 2005) in Cluster #1, with citation counts of
185, followed by Ma et al. (Ma et al., 2005) in Cluster #1 with 162
3.4.1. Author co-citation network
citation counts, Burschka et al. (Burschka et al., 2013) in Cluster #2 with
Author co-citation explores the frequently cited authors in a research
148, Lee et al. (Lee et al., 2012) in Cluster #2 with 129, He et al. (He
field (McCain, 1991). Author co-citation network is visualised with the
et al., 2012) in Cluster #0 with 120, Liu et al. (Liu et al., 2014) in Cluster
aid of the VOSviewer software. The colours in Fig. 5 shows the pattern
#2 with 116, Li et al. (Li, G. et al., 2012) in Cluster #4 with 113, Jeon
and network of authors who are indirectly cited together whether
et al. (Jeon et al., 2014) in Cluster #2 with 112, Stranks et al. (Stranks
collaboratively or individually.
et al., 2013) in Cluster #2 with 111, and Li (Li, 2012) in Cluster #0 with
The highest ranked author is Li et al. (Li et al., 2006), with citation
104 citation counts.
counts of 631, followed by Green and Wenham (Green and Wenham,
Cluster #0 is the largest cluster with 83 members and a silhouette
1994) with 563, Krebs et al. (Krebs et al., 2005) 430, Brabec et al.
value of 0.761 and is labelled “efficient polymer” by LLR. Xin et al. (Xin
(Brabec, 2003) with 380, Gratzel (Grätzel, 2004) with 356, Yu (Yu et al.,
et al., 2010) is the most active citer to cluster #0 with his work on
2003) with 337, He et al. (He et al., 2012) with 323, Fthenakis and Wang
“polymer nanowire/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells: how
(Fthenakis and Wang, 2006) with 285, Ma et al. (Ma et al., 2005) with
nanostructure determines photovoltaic properties”. Cluster #1 (the
257, and Kim et al. (Kim et al., 2005) with 246 citation counts. The most
second largest) has 80 members and a silhouette value of 0.764, and is
cited paper, Li et al. (Li et al., 2006), looks at efficient inverted polymer
labelled “fullerene bulk heterojunction” by LLR. The most active citer to
solar cells. The second most cited paper by Green and Wenham (Green
the cluster is Liu et al. (Liu et al., 2010) on their paper “the mechanisms
and Wenham, 1994) explored novel parallel multijunction solar-cells.
551
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
for introduction of n-dodecylthiol to modify the P3HT/PCBM effectiveness and efficiency is still an ongoing study. That means, many
morphology”. Cluster #3 is the third largest cluster with 45 members of the silicon and cadmium based solar panels will be installed by the
and a silhouette value of 0.85, and is labelled “device architecture” by time other new technologies hit the market. There is therefore the need
LLR. The most active citer to the cluster is Kwong et al. (Kwong et al., to intensify the research on how to properly manage the waste from the
2004) on “CuPc/c-60 solar cells-influence of the indium tin oxide sub old PV technologies.
strate and device architecture on the solar cell performance”. Cluster #3, #4 and #5: These three clusters examines the charac
Cluster #0 and #1: The first and second clusters (#0 and #1) focus on teristics and properties of polymer solar cells. The article with the
the polymer solar cells performance especially the fullerene bulk het highest coverage in the fourth cluster (#3) which is Kwong et al. (Kwong
erojunction solar cells. The search for a more efficient and low-cost solar et al., 2004) investigated the performance of organic solar cells through
cells is trending in the photovoltaic waste research field as old panels the application of different indium tin oxide surface treatment and de
reach their end-of-life and the need to create less harmful and envi vice architecture. The performance of the organic solar cell, they real
ronmentally friendly solar cells. Research such as that of Xin et al. (Xin ised will be greatly improved through the use of a three-layer
et al., 2010), experimented on bulk heterojunction solar cells through architecture having a co-deposited mixed layer. Exploration and appli
the use of solvent and thermal annealing to vary the morphology of cation of multi-layer photodetectors (Xue and Forrest, 2004), oligo de
fullerene composites. The work of Po et al. (Po et al., 2010), delved into rivatives (Nierengarten, 2004; Nierengarten et al., 2004), and nanoscale
the current approaches and achievement in polymer solar cells. They morphology (Hoppe et al., 2004) to organic solar cells are some of the of
realised that the cost, durability and efficiency are the critical elements the characteristics and properties that several researchers are studying
to pivot the success of polymer solar cells. Other researchers (Canli et al., to improve the performance and efficiency of organic solar cells. This
2010; Hains et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2010; Tang et al., 2010) have also cluster (#4) describes the improvement made within the small molecule
examined different treatment and properties of polymer solar cells to based organic solar cells. Patil et al. (Patil et al., 2016) and Wang et al.
make it more efficient and low cost. A look at the five strongest citation (Wang et al., 2015) are some of the most referenced researchers on small
burst (see Fig. 7) reveals that the emerging trend on photovoltaic mod molecule based organic solar cells. Their studies investigate the
ules waste management research has been centred on polymer solar cells improvement of small molecule based organic solar cells through
(Coakley and McGehee, 2004; Li et al., 2005; Padinger et al., 2003; experimental tests. The sixth cluster (#5) demonstrates how solar cells
Shaheen et al., 2001; Yang et al., 2005) from the year 2004 to 2013. But perform through different treatments (Olson et al., 2007; Uhlrich et al.,
a critical look at the research on photovoltaic waste has been a gradual 2009a; Uhlrich et al., 2009b). The three clusters explained in this
process through the years. Even thou most of the earlier research is paragraph also looks at polymer solar cells. The trend in a past couple of
centred on polymer solar cells as the alternative to the old PV technol years has been centred on polymer solar cells, its characteristics and
ogies because of the less harmful effect on the environment, its advantages compare to the silicon based solar cells. Their characteristics
552
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
such as its lightweight, low cost and its low impact to the environment The burst within the years as visualised in Fig. 7, shows the citation
has made it the alternative solar technology compared to the old burst (showed by the red colour) of the references as sorted by years. The
technologies. beginning year 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2007 showed (indicated by the
Cluster #6, #15 and #22: The last three clusters examines sensitized, deep blue colour) the most strength in its burstness. From the years of
inverted and hybrid solar cells. As research progresses, experts are 2004 to 2011, Shaheen et al. (Shaheen et al., 2001), recorded the highest
finding new ways and methods to improve the performance and effi burst strength of 20.93. The year 2005 to 2009 saw the highest burst
ciency of solar cells as well as make them environmentally friendly. An strength of 6.30 from Brabec et al. (Brabec et al., 2001). With a burst
increase in the performance and efficiency of photovoltaics has been strength of 31.37, 21.58 and 16.95 the references Padinger et al.
recorded through the use of quantum dot sensitized solar cells (Jin et al., (Padinger et al., 2003), Yang et al. (Yang et al., 2005) and Coakley
2012; Pan et al., 2012). The same case is recorded in inverted polymer (Coakley and McGehee, 2004) respectively received one of the highest
solar cells through the modification of its cells (Cho et al., 2011; Sun strengths in the year period 2006 to 2013. Li et al. (Li et al., 2005),
et al., 2011). The last cluster (#22) discusses the improvement and received the highest burst within all the year groups with a burst of
treatment of hybrid solar cells. The studies conducted by Zhou et al. 57.17. in its year group from 2007 to 2010. The research on the articles
(Zhou et al., 2011) describes the enhancement of hybrid solar cells that received the highest burst were on polymer solar cells. For the past
through acid treatment. The last batch of clusters also look at different decade, attention of researchers has shifted towards the performance
PV technologies that might serve as an alternative to the current and efficiency of polymer solar cells. This is because of the quest to fight
installed ones. It is important to establish new innovations that are the harmful impact of waste from old solar panels and to easily produce
environmentally friendly and can help with reducing waste from solar new and low-cost solar panels.
PV technologies.
3.4.5. Journal co-citation network
3.4.4. Citation bursts and betweenness centrality. According to McCain (McCain, 1991), journal co-citation networks
The highest ranked item by bursts is Li et al. (Li et al., 2005) in establishes frequently co-cited journals. This shows the network of
Cluster #1, with bursts score of 57.17 followed by Ma et al. (Ma et al., documents that are mostly cited in these journals. The CiteSpace and
2005) in Cluster #1 with 48.98 bursts, Padinger and Rittberger Gephi software were used in analysing and visualising the networks
(Padinger et al., 2003) in Cluster #1 with 31.37, Kojima et al. (Kojima between the journals. The journal co-citation network has 216 nodes,
et al., 2009) in Cluster #2 with 29.58, He et al. (He et al., 2012) in the journals with the most cited papers are discussed. Table 1 as
Cluster #0 with 28.36, You et al. (You et al., 2013) in Cluster #0 with explained earlier describes the number of articles that were published in
27.85, Yang et al. (Yang et al., 2015) in Cluster #2 with 26.49, Jeon et al. some of these journals and their characteristics. Fig. 8 shows the
(Jeon et al., 2014) in Cluster #2 with 26.29, Liu et al. (Liu et al., 2014) in connection and links between the journals. The bigger and deeper the
Cluster #4 with 24.08, and Burschka et al. (Burschka et al., 2013) in colour of the node and edges the higher and stronger the frequency and
Cluster #2 with 23.10 bursts scores. connection between the citation of the journals.
553
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
554
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
The highest ranked item by citation counts is “Solar Energy Materials “Journal of Applied Physics” with centrality of 0.08. The 9th is “Japa
and Solar Cells” with 2091 citations followed by “Applied Physics Let nese Journal of Applied Physics” with centrality of 0.08. The 10th is
ters” with 2029, Advance Materials with 1938, “Journal of the American Physical Review B with centrality of 0.08.
Chemical Society” with 1747, “Advanced Functional Materials” with
1452, “Science” with 1441, “Journal of Applied Physics” with 142,
3.5. Co-author analysis
“Journal of Physical Chemistry C” with 1363, “Nano Letters” with 1295,
and “Energy and Environment Science” with 1292 citation counts.
Glänzel and Schubert (2005) argues that, the lack of scientific
Table A3 in the appendix shows the details of twenty journal sources
collaboration or co-authorship is seen as lower research productivity
with the highest citation count. This result shows the significant
within the scientific community. Thus, publications produced through
contribution these journals have made in the area of photovoltaic waste
collaboration serves as enough evidence as they receive more citations
research.
and are published in higher impact journals. This section explains the
scientific collaboration between authors through their publication,
3.4.6. Citation bursts and betweenness centrality
countries and institutions using the VOSviewer, CiteSpace and Gephi
The highest ranked item by bursts is “Nano Energy” with bursts of
software with an explanation of the publication distribution using
102.83. The second one is “Synthetic Metals” with bursts of 80.43. The
mapchart.net. The sections therefore explain the co-authorship net
third is “Nature Energy” with bursts of 74.00. The 4th is “Chemical
works, network of countries/regions and the network of institutions/
Physics Letters” with bursts of 65.44. The 5th is “Energy Policy” with
faculties.
bursts of 64.74. The 6th is “Scientific Reports” with bursts of 60.42. The
7th is “IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics” with bursts of 58.26. The 8th is
3.5.1. Co-authorship network
“Journal of Materials Chemistry A” with bursts of 51.91. The 9th is
The author to author publication network starts with researchers
“Nanotechnology” with bursts of 51.64. The 10th is “Journal of Mate
such as Li, Yongfang who has had about fifty-three collaborations, which
rials Chemistry C” with bursts of 50.47.
is the highest, collaborating with authors like Zou, Yingping; Zhang, Zhi-
The highest ranked item by centrality is “Applied Physics Letters”
guo (4th highest); Shen, Ping; Yuan, Jun; Sun, Chenkai; Cui, Chaohua;
with centrality of 0.26. The second one is “Solar Energy Materials and
Brabec, Christoph J.; Liu, Feng; and Chen, Yiwang (2nd highest).
Solar Cells” with centrality of 0.18. The third is “Journal of the Elec
Another prominent researcher Cao, Yong (3rd highest) has also made
trochemical Society” with centrality of 0.16. The 4th is “Solar Energy”
collaborations with several researchers among them are Kim, Jin Young
with centrality of 0.10. The 5th is “Renewable Energy” with centrality of
(5th highest); Wang, Jian; Woo, Han Young; Wang, Jing; Russell,
0.10. The 6th is “Solar Cells” with centrality of 0.09. The 7th is “Journal
Thomas P. and Liu, Feng. The colours in Fig. 9 represents the research
of the American Chemical Society” with centrality of 0.09. The 8th is
communities of the authors within the photovoltaic waste research field.
555
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
The top ten collaborators by the number of articles produced are Li, citations; Kim, Jin Young (19) with 1914 citations; Chen, Lie (15) with
Yongfang (53) with 2085 citations; Chen, Yiwang (24) with 373 cita 246 citations; Wu, Jihuai (15) with 250 citations; Brabec, Christoph J.
tions; Cao, Yong (22) with 702 citations; Zhang, Zhi-gou (21) with 279 (14) with 2185 citations; Yang, Renqiang (14) with 238 citations; and
556
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
Na, Seok-in (14) with 635 citations. Energy Laboratory with citation count of 84, the University of the Chi
nese Academy of Sciences with a citation count of 52, Soochow Uni
3.5.2. Network of countries/regions versity with citation counts of 50, Sungkyunkwan University with a
Fig. 10 shows the distribution of the number of published researches citation counts of 48, National Taiwan University with a citation count
by country worldwide. Countries like USA., China, England, Germany, of 43, North China Electric Power University with a citation count of 41,
Japan, South Korea, India all had more than 200 published articles on Nanyang Technology University with a citation count of 39, Zhejiang
photovoltaic waste research. Canada, Spain, France, Australia, Iran, University with a citation counts of 37, and the National University of
Turkey, Malaysia, Netherlands and Brazil were among the countries Singapore with a citation count of 35. Table A5 in the appendix shows
with about 51 to 200 documents. The rest of the countries including the details of twenty institutions with the highest citation count.
Algeria, Egypt, Russia, Poland, South Africa and the others shown on the
map produced 50 articles or less. This establishes the seriousness and 3.5.3.1. Citation bursts and betweenness centrality. The highest ranked
contribution of countries like the USA and China on the fight against item by bursts is the South China University of Technology with bursts of
photovoltaic waste through research and innovation. 7.76. The second one is National University of Singapore with bursts of
The highest ranked item by frequency is China with documents of 6.98. The third is Nanyang Technology University with bursts of 5.08.
1150 and a citation count of 25571, followed by the USA with 819 The 4th is National Taiwan University with bursts of 4.96. The 5th is
documents and 36,444 citation counts. Next is South Korea with 451 Industrial Technology Research Institute with bursts of 4.95. The 6th is
documents and 10,768 citation counts, Japan with 280 documents and University of California, Los Angeles with bursts of 4.89. The 7th is
7243 citation counts, India with 258 documents and 3035 citation Pusan National University with bursts of 4.80. The 8th is the Beijing
counts, Germany with 240 documents and 7075 citation counts, Italy Jiaotong University with bursts of 4.56. The 9th is Massachusetts
with 229 documents and 8859 citation counts, Taiwan with 222 docu Institute of Technology (MIT) with bursts of 4.56. The 10th is the Delft
ments and 4144 citation counts, England with 217 documents and 9086 University of Technology with bursts of 4.48.
citation counts, and France with 183 documents and 6621 citation The highest ranked item by centrality is the Chinese Academy of
counts. The details are documented as Table A4 in the appendix section Sciences with centrality of 0.37. The second one is National Renewable
of this paper. Energy Laboratory with centrality of 0.17. The third is National Chiao
Tung University with centrality of 0.13. The 4th is Sungkyunkwan
3.5.2.1. Citation bursts and betweenness centrality. The highest ranked University with centrality of 0.10. The 5th is Soochow University with
item by bursts is France with bursts of 21.71, followed by Japan with centrality of 0.09. The 6th is National University of Singapore with
bursts of 20.63, the USA with bursts of 17.73, Singapore with bursts of centrality of 0.08. The 7th is Nanyang Technology University with
10.91, Germany with bursts of 8.25, Taiwan with bursts of 6.16, and centrality of 0.08. The 8th is Seoul National University with centrality of
Austria with bursts of 4.08. France showed a lot of productive research 0.06. The 9th is Yeungnam University with centrality of 0.06. The 10th
from 1996 through to 2008. Fig. 10 shows a lot of productive research is Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne with centrality of 0.06.
being done across the globe. The links and collaborations between the
countries are very strong and very productive. Table 3 shows the 4. Discussion of emerging trends and future directions
burstness and betweenness centrality of the countries through the years
and at what point they have been productive. Recently, the PV market has seen the dominance of Si-crystalline
The highest ranked item by centrality is USA with centrality of 0.29, (mono or poly) panels, which has become the most used PV technol
followed by England with centrality of 0.25, Germany with centrality of ogy worldwide because of its high efficiency and low cost of production.
0.17, France with centrality of 0.16, Spain with centrality of 0.13, China Alternative technologies such as Hybrid and organic cells, CdTe and
with centrality of 0.11, Australia with centrality of 0.08, Japan with CIGS have been developed and others still under research. However, Si-
centrality of 0.07, Saudi Arabia with centrality of 0.07, and India with crystalline (mono or poly) panels, remains the most profitable (Padoan
centrality of 0.06. et al., 2019). The usage of toxic elements (Cd in CdTe) and rare/critical
substances in the production of these PV modules are the main concern
3.5.3. Network of institutions/faculties to their use extensively. Furthermore, the waste generation from the PV
Collaboration between institutions are very important in the growth module is being tagged as potentially harmful, similar to e-waste, and is
of research and development through the sharing of ideas and expertise liable to the European WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equip
within the same and different fields. Thus, collaborations between ment) Directive (2012). This has generated a lot of debate around the
various researchers both in the same field and interdisciplinary has policies and regulations, performance and efficiency, recovery and
grown recently. This has seen various institutions collaborating with recycling and end-of-life assessment of solar PV module waste man
others due to similar interest in several research fields. To reveal these agement. Drawing from the aforementioned analysis, the emerging
characteristics, CiteSpace was used to analyse the data retrieved from trends and future directions are discussed under four themes.
the WoS database. The results of the analysis revealed a modularity
score of 0.663 and a mean silhouette of 0.2719. This is visualised in
Fig. 11. 4.1. Policies and regulations
The highest ranked item by citation count is Chinese Academy of
Sciences with citation counts of 251, followed by National Renewable Several countries have been early promoters of solar energy. They
have focused on providing financial and investment aid in supporting
Table 3 initial policies and regulations. The introduction of feed-in tariffs (FiTs)
Burstness and centrality of collaborative countries. in Australia, United Kingdom, Portugal, Italy, Germany, France, Japan
and other countries has caused an increase in the installation of solar PV
No. Country Burst Centrality Span
panels in the residential sector (Pereira da Silva et al., 2019). There are
1 France 21.71 0.16 1996–2008
other policies by governments which also provided incentives for the
2 Japan 20.63 0.07 1998–2010
3 USA 17.73 0.29 1991–2009 increase in the use of solar PV worldwide, aiming to achieve intergov
4 Singapore 10.91 0.00 2011–2012 ernmental sustainability targets. This has informed many to turn to
5 Germany 8.25 0.17 2000–2005 renewable and sustainable energy sources. With photovoltaics as an
6 Taiwan 6.16 0.01 2008–2011 important solar energy generator, world leaders developed interest in
7 Austria 4.08 0.00 2011–2012
this particular source of energy and started initiating policies and
557
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
regulations for its use. However, the current problem to this is the harm wastes are yet to establish safe guidelines in regulating solar PV module
it can cause if not properly disposed at the end of its life. The attention waste. Polices and regulations are needed to guide the safe disposal of
generated by this threat has again brought governments together to these waste as well as the proper recycling and recovery of old panels.
search for a solution. Since policies and regulations keep changing when The results emphasised on the use of new materials such as organic cells
it comes to the solar PV industry, several countries have started devel which are more efficient and cheaper. Regulations should be made in the
oping new policies or modifying others to help in achieving the sus use of sustainable materials and easy to recycle materials after their end-
tainability goals. According to this analysis, the results clearly show the of-life.
less attention that is given to policies and regulations when it comes
solar PV waste research over the years. The analysis draws researcher’s
attention to the performance and efficiency of solar cells throughout the 4.2. Performance and efficiency
co-word and co-citation analysis. Nonetheless, recent research has
emphasised the need to establish policies and standards for PV disposal Performance and efficiency have been the centre of research in
(Nain and Kumar, 2020; Shubbak, 2019). photovoltaics for a very long time as the results suggests. This started
According to Xu et al. (2018) there should be an encouragement with the development of the first-generation photovoltaics which were
within government agencies in devising a recycling and safe disposal based mostly on silicon (i.e. solar cells which were either single-
policy for solar PV module waste. This has informed several countries crystalline or multi-crystalline). The second generation focused more
into developing policies that tackle solar PV waste at the end-of-life on thin-film modules and cells (i.e. amorphous silicon (a-Si), Cadmium
management. The European Union (EU) on their Waste Electrical and Telluride (CdTe) and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS)). The
Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive outlined guidelines for the third-generation technologies however in an innovative capacity in
collection, recycling and recovery of solar PV waste. Reinforcing the tegrates several organic, inorganic or hybrid-based solar cells. This has
responsibility of producers is an efficient approach in managing waste seen efficiency and technological development in the application of
from solar PV known as the extended producer responsibility (Fthenakis solar PV through technologies such as quantum dots solar cells (QDSCs),
et al., 2020). Many countries are introducing regulatory frameworks to perovskite solar cells (PSCs), full organic PV solar cells (OPCs) and dye
guide the management of PV module waste. The WEEE directive has sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) (Parisi et al., 2020). This technological
been a big influence in areas like Japan, South Korea, China and Cali innovation and improvement have been seen throughout the years and
fornia in the establishment of similar policies and regulations. There is in this analysis within the visualisation of the keyword clusters and
more to be done because of the potential waste that will come into the citation bursts. The highest frequency within the keywords analysis was
system in the years to come. Countries which produces most of these performance and efficiency. Solar PV performance has gone through
several technological advancement and research through the use of
558
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
different materials. Materials such as DSSCs was used a lot in these ex strategy in treating and recycling waste (Dominguez and Geyer, 2019;
periments. between 2003 and 2009, researchers studied the character Mahmoudi et al., 2019a). To do this, environmental and techno-
istics of DSSCs (Lupan et al., 2010; Xi et al., 2010; Yu et al., 2011), economic analysis are needed to ascertain the impacts of the waste
aiming to improve the performance and efficiency of these cells and also stream (Dominguez and Geyer, 2019) through assessment such risk and
application of organic and hybrid solar cells. These research leads to life cycle analysis. The results of these assessments inform governments
wards finding a more sustainable solar cell in the future. Researchers are and policy makers on the urgency of decreasing environmental impacts
encouraged to work on more sustainable an efficient solar cell to reduce through the establishment of recycling and recovery facilities, especially
the burden on waste from the end-of-life solar cell. with countries that do not have these facilities or regulations on PV
waste but in highly use of PV technology (Contreras Lisperguer et al.,
4.3. Recycling and recovery 2020).
Many PV modules such as the silicon-based PVs are coming to their
The rapid growth in the installation of solar PV systems and its end-of-life in the near future, others like the CdTe PV modules as stated
generation capacity has necessitated the implementation of recovery by Fthenakis et al. (2020) are not of an immediate concern because of
and recycling strategies of end-of-life PV panels by 2040. This action is their relatively low volume of installation and use. With their decom
anticipated to result in carbon dioxide emission reduction and therefore, missioned time slated for 25 to 30 years, a considerable growth in CdTe
positively address environmental sustainability targets. Solar module PV waste is anticipated. However, to deal with the considerable amount
recycling has been the focus when it comes to research and development of PV module waste in the near future (IRENA and IEA-PVPS, 2016),
in the US, Europe and Japan recently. Recycling types such as the their end-of-life management must be understood today to prevent
physical, thermal and chemical processes are the three types that are problems associated with sustainability in the coming years. There have
commonly applied to solar PV panels. Most importantly, the research been a lot of assessment on Solar PV waste ranging from Risk assess
focuses on the Si panels on how to recycle and recover the essential parts ment, material flow analysis, circular economy, Chemical treatment and
for remanufacture (Chowdhury et al., 2020). This has caused several life cycle analysis. A clear indication of the earlier results of the analysis
researchers to patent their recycling procedures. There are other recy reveals that, early research was based more on the performance and
cling processes such as the mechanical processes which has an advan efficiency of solar panels instead of its waste prospects. The term end-of-
tage of being inexpensive but requires more elaborate treatment when life was recently introduced within the solar PV research field because of
recovering high value materials (Padoan et al., 2019). From Vargas and the projection of PV waste in the coming years and the need for us to
Chesney (2020), in 2018 a joint effort between PV Cycle France and reach the sustainability goals and help protect the environment. Also,
Veolia lead to the installation of a recycling plant in France which was the issue of leaching and contamination of PV waste within the solar
the first in Europe. The facility by 2022 is expected to recycle over 4,000 research field needs more attention as this research and others (Nain and
tons of solar PV waste. Kumar, 2020) have shown.
The remanufacture of solar PV from recovered or recycled materials
is gaining a lot of attention recently. The analysis of the keywords shows 5. Conclusions
results of the clusters and citation burst mostly around the year 1992 to
2011, recycling and recovering was not covered by many researchers Emerging waste streams such as that from the solar technologies are
around these years. This is because, solar PV then and now are not now becoming a problem because of the growth and the need to satisfy
concentrated neither by content nor geography, with many applications the housing and energy demands as well as produce clean energy. This
dominated by stand-alone residential installations as well as off-grid has caused a quick rise in the installation of PV panels across the world.
power systems application on industrial areas. The collection as well Solar photovoltaic waste research is an emerging research area which
as the value of materials to be reclaimed are low (Fthenakis, 2000). has received more attention recently due to the health and environ
However, the first-generation of the solar photovoltaic panels are mental impacts associated with its disposal. This study reviewed the
coming to the end of their life. This has called for researchers to focus emerging trends and patterns of PV waste research over the years. The
more on the end-of-life treatment and production of a safer and more study revealed that, research on solar photovoltaics was first referenced
efficient photovoltaic cells in the future. Over the years, researchers as back as 1974 in the journal of applied physics, also the study has seen
(Dominguez and Geyer, 2017; Salim et al., 2019a) have proven the a gradual increase in the interest of solar photovoltaic waste research
harmful effect of waste from solar photovoltaics and the need to manage since 1974. Moreover, Advanced Energy Materials, Advanced Func
these wastes to help improve the environment. The research on envi tional Materials, Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Renewable and
ronmental impact from solar photovoltaics have been conducted a lot Sustainable Energy Reviews and ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces
with several recommendations on the need to properly manage the were ranked as the top five journals with the highest impact factor per
incoming influx of solar waste in the coming years. Options such as the 2019 incites citation report.
incineration, recycling, treatment and disposal has been some of the The co-word analysis established the keyword co-occurrence and
solutions up until now (Mahmoudi et al., 2019b; Shubbak, 2019). clusters as well as the subject categories which revealed performance
Recycling PV waste is beneficial to the environment and as well will and efficiency as the most frequent keywords, and this is because there is
become economically profitable with decreased initial investment cost a considerable effort going into research on the performance and effi
as PV module waste flow rises (Faircloth et al., 2019). More research and ciency of alternative PV technologies to replace the old ones. A good
development are needed in fighting negative impacts recycling pro mention is the polymer solar cell. The keyword clusters however pro
cesses have on the environment (Contreras Lisperguer et al., 2020). duced five clusters and they are solar cell, dye-sensitized solar cell which
More so the economic and social aspects are very important in achieving appeared twice, Cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar cell and single-walled
sustainability. carbon nanotube. The co-citation analysis discussed the author co-
citation, document co-citation and the journal co-citation networks.
4.4. End-of-life assessment The discussion revealed the attention that has been given to polymer
solar cells within the past few years as researchers continue to search for
With emerging increase in the research and development of PV a more efficient and strong performing material to alternatively replace
waste, there is still lack of data when it comes to waste from PV modules. the old technologies. It was realised in the discussion that, waste
There have been a lot of studies conducted by researchers to estimate the research towards the end-of-life solar panels started within the decade
waste from PV panels in the years to come. This is to help with the and continues to grow. The collaborative efforts of the authors were also
forecasting of PV waste volumes necessary for designing a proactive discussed with the USA and China proving to be the most collaborative
559
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
countries as well as researchers on solar PV waste research. The results Chen, C., Dubin, R., Kim, M.C., 2014. Orphan drugs and rare diseases: a scientometric
review (2000–2014). Expert Opin. Orphan Drugs 2 (7), 709–724.
posit that, little attention was given to reuse, recovery and recycling of
Chen, C., Hu, Z., Liu, S., Tseng, H., 2012. Emerging trends in regenerative medicine: a
solar PV modules throughout the years and with the previous in scientometric analysis in CiteSpace. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 12 (5), 593–608.
stallations coming to their end-of-life, interest in its management has Chen, C., Ibekwe-SanJuan, F., Hou, J., 2010. The structure and dynamics of cocitation
been one of the hot topics recently. clusters: A multiple-perspective cocitation analysis. J. Am. Soc. Inform. Sci. Technol.
61 (7), 1386–1409.
With most of the earlier research concentrating on the performance Chen, C., Song, M., 2019. Visualizing a field of research: A methodology of systematic
and efficiency of polymer solar cells, future research should aim at scientometric reviews. PLoS ONE 14(10), e0223994-e0223994.
finding solar cells that are easily recycled or recovered after its end-of- Chen, W., Liu, W., Geng, Y., Brown, M.T., Gao, C., Wu, R., 2017. Recent progress on
emergy research: A bibliometric analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 73,
life. Moreover, the commercialisation of organic solar cells should be 1051–1060.
prioritised because of its environmental benefits. Current research on PV Cho, N., Yip, H.L., Hau, S.K., Chen, K.S., Kim, T.W., Davies, J.A., Zeigler, D.F., Jen, A.K.
module waste, needs improvement because of the slow development of Y., 2011. n-Doping of thermally polymerizable fullerenes as an electron transporting
layer for inverted polymer solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. 21 (19), 6956–6961.
policies and regulations in countries with a high number of solar PV Chowdhury, M.S., Rahman, K.S., Chowdhury, T., Nuthammachot, N., Techato, K.,
installations. Furthermore, assessments (risk and life cycle analysis) Akhtaruzzaman, M., Tiong, S.K., Sopian, K., Amin, N., 2020. An overview of solar
should be conducted on waste disposal strategies and recycling tech photovoltaic panels’ end-of-life material recycling. Energy Strategy Reviews 27,
100431.
nologies to meet the requirements of the old and new PV modules. Clarivate Analysis, 2020. Web of Science Database.
Finally, future research should focus on assessing the emissions of cur Coakley, K.M., McGehee, M.D., 2004. Conjugated polymer photovoltaic cells. Chem.
rent solar PV modules and the easy remanufacture, recovery and reuse of Mat. 16 (23), 4533–4542.
Cobo, M.J., López-Herrera, A.G., Herrera-Viedma, E., Herrera, F., 2011. Science mapping
future solar PV modules.
software tools: Review, analysis, and cooperative study among tools. J. Am. Soc.
Inform. Sci. Technol. 62 (7), 1382–1402.
Declaration of Competing Interest Contreras Lisperguer, R., Muñoz Cerón, E., de la Casa Higueras, J., Martín, R.D., 2020.
Environmental impact assessment of crystalline solar photovoltaic panels’ End-of-
Life phase: Open and closed-loop material flow scenarios. Sustain. Prod.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Consumption 23, 157–173.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Curtin, J., McInerney, C., Ó Gallachóir, B., Hickey, C., Deane, P., Deeney, P., 2019.
Quantifying stranding risk for fossil fuel assets and implications for renewable
the work reported in this paper.
energy investment: A review of the literature. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 116,
109402.
Acknowledgement Directive, E., 2012. Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment, WEEE. Official J. Eur.
Union L 197, 38–71.
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support from The Dominguez, A., Geyer, R., 2017. Photovoltaic waste assessment in Mexico. Resour.
University of Adelaide under the Adelaide Scholarship International. Conserv. Recycl. 127, 29–41.
Dominguez, A., Geyer, R., 2019. Photovoltaic waste assessment of major photovoltaic
installations in the United States of America. Renew. Energy 133, 1188–1200.
Appendix A. Supplementary material Fahrenbr.Al, Bube, R.H., 1974. Heat-Treatment Effects in Cu2S-Cds Heterojunction
Photovoltaic Cells. J. Appl. Phys. 45(3), 1264-1275.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. Faircloth, C.C., Wagner, K.H., Woodward, K.E., Rakkwamsuk, P., Gheewala, S.H., 2019.
The environmental and economic impacts of photovoltaic waste management in
org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.06.036. Thailand. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 143, 260–272.
Fiandra, V., Sannino, L., Andreozzi, C., Corcelli, F., Graditi, G., 2019. Silicon
References photovoltaic modules at end-of-life: Removal of polymeric layers and separation of
materials. Waste Manage. 87, 97–107.
Fonteyn, P., Lizin, S., Maes, W., 2020. The evolution of the most important research
Aman, M.M., Solangi, K.H., Hossain, M.S., Badarudin, A., Jasmon, G.B., Mokhlis, H.,
topics in organic and perovskite solar cell research from 2008 to 2017: A
Bakar, A.H.A., Kazi, S.N., 2015. A review of Safety, Health and Environmental (SHE)
bibliometric literature review using bibliographic coupling analysis. Sol. Energ.
issues of solar energy system. Renew. Sustainable Energy Rev., 41, 1190-1204.
Mater. Sol. Cells 207, 110325.
Ardente, F., Latunussa, C.E.L., Blengini, G.A., 2019. Resource efficient recovery of critical
Friedel, B., Keivanidis, P.E., Brenner, T.J.K., Abrusci, A., McNeill, C.R., Friend, R.H.,
and precious metals from waste silicon PV panel recycling. Waste Manage., 91, 156-
Greenham, N.C., 2009. Effects of layer thickness and annealing of PEDOT:PSS layers
167.
in organic photodetectors. Macromolecules 42 (17), 6741–6747.
Bailón-Moreno, R., Jurado-Alameda, E., Ruiz-Baños, R., Courtial, J.P., 2005. Analysis of
Fthenakis, V., Athias, C., Blumenthal, A., Kulur, A., Magliozzo, J., Ng, D., 2020.
the field of physical chemistry of surfactants with the Unified Scienctometric Model.
Sustainability evaluation of CdTe PV: An update. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 123,
Fit of relational and activity indicators. Scientometrics 63 (2), 259–276.
109776.
Bang, Y.Y., Hong, N.J., Sung Lee, D., Lim, S.R., 2018. Comparative assessment of solar
Fthenakis, V.M., 2000. End-of-life management and recycling of PV modules. Energy
photovoltaic panels based on metal-derived hazardous waste, resource depletion,
Policy 28 (14), 1051–1058.
and toxicity potentials. Int. J. Green Energy 15 (10), 550–557.
Fthenakis, V.M., 2004. Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production.
Bastian, M., Heymann, S., Jacomy, M., 2009. Gephi: an open source software for
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 8 (4), 303–334.
exploring and manipulating networks, Third international AAAI conference on
Fthenakis, V.M., Moskowitz, P.D., 2000. Photovoltaics: Environmental, health and safety
weblogs and social media.
issues and perspectives. Prog. Photovoltaics 8 (1), 27–38.
Börner, K., Huang, W., Linnemeier, M., Duhon, R., Phillips, P., Ma, N., Zoss, A., Guo, H.,
Fthenakis, V.M., Wang, W., 2006. Extraction and separation of Cd and Te from cadmium
Price, M., 2010. Rete-netzwerk-red: analyzing and visualizing scholarly networks
telluride photovoltaic manufacturing scrap. Prog. Photovoltaics 14 (4), 363–371.
using the Network Workbench Tool. Scientometrics 83 (3), 863–876.
Garfield, E., 2004. Historiographic mapping of knowledge domains literature. J. Inf. Sci.
Brabec, C.J., 2003. Semiconductor Aspects of Organic Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells.
30 (2), 119–145.
In: Brabec, C.J., Dyakonov, V., Parisi, J., Sariciftci, N.S. (Eds.), Organic
Glänzel, W., Schubert, A., 2005. Analysing Scientific Networks Through Co-Authorship.
Photovoltaics: Concepts and Realization. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin,
In: Moed, H.F., Glänzel, W., Schmoch, U. (Eds.), Handbook of Quantitative Science
Heidelberg, pp. 159–248.
and Technology Research: The Use of Publication and Patent Statistics in Studies of
Brabec, C.J., Cravino, A., Meissner, D., Sariciftci, N.S., Fromherz, T., Rispens, M.T.,
S&T Systems. Springer, Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 257–276.
Sanchez, L., Hummelen, J.C., 2001. Origin of the open circuit voltage of plastic solar
Grätzel, M., 2004. Conversion of sunlight to electric power by nanocrystalline dye-
cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 11 (5), 374–380.
sensitized solar cells. J. Photochem. Photobiol., A 164 (1), 3–14.
Burschka, J., Pellet, N., Moon, S.-J., Humphry-Baker, R., Gao, P., Nazeeruddin, M.K.,
Green, M.A., Wenham, S.R., 1994. Novel parallel multijunction solar cell. Appl. Phys.
Grätzel, M., 2013. Sequential deposition as a route to high-performance perovskite-
Lett. 65 (23), 2907–2909.
sensitized solar cells. Nature 499 (7458), 316–319.
Hains, A.W., Liu, J., Martinson, A.B.F., Irwin, M.D., Marks, T.J., 2010. Anode interfacial
Canli, N.Y., Gunes, S., Pivrikas, A., Fuchsbauer, A., Sinwel, D., Sariciftci, N.S., Yasa, O.,
tuning via electron-blocking/hole-transport layers and indium tin oxide surface
Bilgin-Eran, B., 2010. Chiral (S)-5-octyloxy-2- {4-(2-methylbuthoxy)-phenylimino}-
treatment in bulk-heterojunction organic photovoltaic cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 20
methyl -phenol liquid crystalline compound as additive into polymer solar cells. Sol.
(4), 595–606.
Energ Mater. Sol Cells 94 (6), 1089–1099.
He, Z., Zhong, C., Su, S., Xu, M., Wu, H., Cao, Y., 2012. Enhanced power-conversion
Chen, C., 2006. CiteSpace II: Detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient
efficiency in polymer solar cells using an inverted device structure. Nat. Photonics 6
patterns in scientific literature. J. Am. Soc. Inform. Sci. Technol. 57 (3), 359–377.
(9), 591–595.
Chen, C., 2016. CiteSpace: A practical guide for mapping scientific literature. Nova
Heath, J.T., Cohen, J.D., Shafarman, W.N., 2004. Bulk and metastable defects in CuIn1-
Science Publishers, Incorporated.
xGaxSe2 thin films using drive-level capacitance profiling. J. Appl. Phys. 95 (3),
Chen, C., 2017. Science mapping: A systematic review of the literature. J. Data Inf. Sci. 2
1000–1010.
(2), 1–40.
560
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
Herbes, C., Ramme, I., 2014. Online marketing of green electricity in Germany—A Mahmoudi, S., Huda, N., Alavi, Z., Behnia, M., 2018. Material flow analysis of the end-of-
content analysis of providers’ websites. Energy Policy 66, 257–266. life photovoltaic waste in Australia. DEStech Transactions on Environment, Energy
Hood, W., Wilson, C., 2001. The literature of bibliometrics, scientometrics, and and Earth Sciences(iceee).
informetrics. Scientometrics 52 (2), 291–314. Mahmoudi, S., Huda, N., Alavi, Z., Islam, M.T., Behnia, M., 2019a. End-of-life
Hoppe, H., Niggemann, M., Winder, C., Kraut, J., Hiesgen, R., Hinsch, A., Meissner, D., photovoltaic modules: A systematic quantitative literature review. Resour. Conserv.
Sariciftci, N.S., 2004. Nanoscale morphology of conjugated polymer/fullerene-based Recycl. 146, 1–16.
bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 14 (10), 1005–1011. Mahmoudi, S., Huda, N., Behnia, M., 2019b. Photovoltaic waste assessment: Forecasting
Hosseini, M.R., Martek, I., Zavadskas, E.K., Aibinu, A.A., Arashpour, M., Chileshe, N., and screening of emerging waste in Australia. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 146,
2018. Critical evaluation of off-site construction research: A Scientometric analysis. 192–205.
Autom. Constr. 87, 235–247. Mahmoudi, S., Huda, N., Behnia, M., 2021. Critical assessment of renewable energy
IEA-PVPS, 2017. Snapshot of global photovoltaic markets. Report IEA PVPS T1-31:2017, waste generation in OECD countries: Decommissioned PV panels. Resour. Conserv.
ISBN: 978-3-906042-58-9. Recycl. 164, 105145.
IEA-PVPS, 2021. Snapshot of global photovoltaic markets. Report IEA PVPS T1-39:2021, McCain, K.W., 1991. Mapping economics through the journal literature: An experiment
ISBN:978-3-907281-17-8. in journal cocitation analysis. J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. 42 (4), 290–296.
IRENA, IEA-PVPS, 2016. End-of-life management: Solar photovoltaic panels. McDonald, N.C., Pearce, J.M., 2010. Producer responsibility and recycling solar
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the International Energy photovoltaic modules. Energy Policy 38 (11), 7041–7047.
Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems (IEA-PVPS). Mistry, K.S., Larsen, B.A., Bergeson, J.D., Barnes, T.M., Teeter, G., Engtrakul, C.,
Jeon, N.J., Noh, J.H., Kim, Y.C., Yang, W.S., Ryu, S., Seok, S.I., 2014. Solvent engineering Blackburn, J.L., 2011. n-type transparent conducting films of small molecule and
for high-performance inorganic–organic hybrid perovskite solar cells. Nat. Mater. 13 polymer amine doped single-walled carbon nanotubes. ACS Nano 5 (5), 3714–3723.
(9), 897–903. Miyata, S., Park, Y.H., Soeda, Y., Itoh, R., Tasaka, S., 1987. Effect of plasma treatment on
Jin, H., Choi, S., Velu, R., Kim, S., Lee, H.J., 2012. Preparation of multilayered CdSe photovoltaic properties in copper phthalocyanine. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Part 2 - Lett.
quantum dot sensitizers by electrostatic layer-by-layer assembly and a series of post- Express Lett. 26 (10), L1632–L1634.
treatments toward efficient quantum dot-sensitized mesoporous TiO2 solar cells. Mongeon, P., Paul-Hus, A., 2016. The journal coverage of web of science and scopus: a
Langmuir 28 (12), 5417–5426. comparative analysis. Scientometrics 106 (1), 213–228.
Kannan, R., Leong, K.C., Osman, R., Ho, H.K., Tso, C.P., 2006. Life cycle assessment study Montoya, F.G., Montoya, M.G., Gómez, J., Manzano-Agugliaro, F., Alameda-
of solar PV systems: An example of a 2.7kWp distributed solar PV system in Hernández, E., 2014. The research on energy in spain: A scientometric approach.
Singapore. Sol. Energy 80 (5), 555–563. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 29, 173–183.
Kim, Y., Choulis, S.A., Nelson, J., Bradley, D.D.C., Cook, S., Durrant, J.R., 2005. Device Moss, J., Coram, A., Blashki, G., 2014. Solar energy in Australia: Health and
annealing effect in organic solar cells with blends of regioregular poly(3- environmental costs and benefits. Australia Institute.
hexylthiophene) and soluble fullerene. Appl. Phys. Lett. 86 (6), 063502. Nain, P., Kumar, A., 2020. Initial metal contents and leaching rate constants of metals
Kojima, A., Teshima, K., Shirai, Y., Miyasaka, T., 2009. Organometal halide perovskites leached from end-of-life solar photovoltaic waste: An integrative literature review
as visible-light sensitizers for photovoltaic cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131 (17), and analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 119, 109592.
6050–6051. Nelson, J., Kwiatkowski, J.J., Kirkpatrick, J., Frost, J.M., 2009. Modeling charge
Kojima, H., Antia, H.M., Dugad, S.R., Gupta, S.K., Jagadeesan, P., Jain, A., Mohanty, P. transport in organic photovoltaic materials. Acc. Chem. Res. 42 (11), 1768–1778.
K., Rao, B.S., Hayashi, Y., Kawakami, S., Nonaka, T., Oshima, A., Shibata, S., Neto, D.d.C.e.S., Cruz, C.O., Rodrigues, F., Silva, P., 2016. Bibliometric Analysis of PPP
Tanaka, K., 2015. Dependence of cosmic ray intensity on variation of solar wind and PFI Literature: Overview of 25 Years of Research. J. Constr. Eng. Manage. 142
velocity measured by the GRAPES-3 experiment for space weather studies. Phys. (10), 06016002.
Rev. D 91 (12), 121303. Nierengarten, J.F., 2004. Oligo(triacetylene) derivatives with pendant long alkyl chains.
Krebs, F.C., Carle, J.E., Cruys-Bagger, N., Andersen, M., Lilliedal, M.R., Hammond, M.A., Helv. Chim. Acta 87 (6), 1357–1367.
Hvidt, S., 2005. Lifetimes of organic photovoltaics: photochemistry, atmosphere Nierengarten, J.F., Gu, T., Hadziioannou, G., Tsamouras, D., Krasnikov, V., 2004. A new
effects and barrier layers in ITO-MEHPPV: PCBM-aluminium devices. Sol. Energ. iterative approach for the synthesis of oligo(phenyleneethynediyl) derivatives and its
Mater. Sol. Cells 86 (4), 499–516. application for the preparation of fullerene-oligo(phenyleneethynediyl) conjugates
Kwong, C.Y., Djurisic, A.B., Chui, P.C., Chan, W.K., 2004. CuPc/C-60 solar cells-influence as active photovoltaic materials. Helv. Chim. Acta 87 (11), 2948–2966.
of the indium tin oxide substrate and device architecture on the solar cell Nieuwlaar, E., Alsema, E., van Engelenburg, B., 1996. Using life-cycle assessments for the
performance. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Part 1 - Regul. Pap. Brief Commun. Rev. Pap. 43 environmental evaluation of greenhouse gas mitigation options. Energy Conv.
(4A), 1305–1311. Manag. 37 (6), 831–836.
Lawrence, M.F., Dodelet, J.P., Dao, L.H., 1984. Improvement of Al/Al2O3/multilayer Niñerola, A., Sánchez-Rebull, M.-V., Hernández-Lara, A.-B., 2019. Six Sigma literature: a
array of chlorophyll a/Ag photovoltaic cell characteristics by treatment of the bibliometric analysis. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence 1–22.
aluminum electrode. J. Phys. Chem. 88 (5), 950–955. Olawumi, T.O., Chan, D.W.M., 2018. A scientometric review of global research on
Lee, M.M., Teuscher, J., Miyasaka, T., Murakami, T.N., Snaith, H.J., 2012. Efficient sustainability and sustainable development. J. Cleaner Prod. 183, 231–250.
hybrid solar cells based on meso-superstructured organometal halide perovskites. Olson, D.C., Shaheen, S.E., Collins, R.T., Ginley, D.S., 2007. The effect of atmosphere and
Science 338 (6107), 643. ZnO morphology on the performance of hybrid poly(3-hexylthiophene)/ZnO
Leydesdorff, L., Schank, T., 2008. Dynamic animations of journal maps: Indicators of nanofiber photovoltaic devices. J. Phys. Chem. C 111 (44), 16670–16678.
structural changes and interdisciplinary developments. J. Am. Soc. Inform. Sci. Padinger, F., Rittberger, R.S., Sariciftci, N.S., 2003. Effects of postproduction treatment
Technol. 59 (11), 1810–1818. on plastic solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 13 (1), 85–88.
Li, F., Chen, W., Yuan, K., Chen, Y.W., 2012a. Photovoltaic performance enhancement in Padoan, F., Altimari, P., Pagnanelli, F., 2019. Recycling of end of life photovoltaic panels:
P3HT/ZnO hybrid bulk-heterojunction solar cells induced by semiconducting liquid A chemical prospective on process development. Sol. Energy 177, 746–761.
crystal ligands. Org. Electron. 13 (11), 2757–2762. Pan, Z.X., Zhang, H., Cheng, K., Hou, Y.M., Hua, J.L., Zhong, X.H., 2012. Highly efficient
Li, G., Chu, C.-W., Shrotriya, V., Huang, J., Yang, Y., 2006. Efficient inverted polymer inverted type-I CdS/CdSe core/shell structure QD-sensitized solar cells. ACS Nano 6
solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 88 (25), 253503. (5), 3982–3991.
Li, G., Shrotriya, V., Huang, J., Yao, Y., Moriarty, T., Emery, K., Yang, Y., 2005. High- Parisi, M.L., Maranghi, S., Vesce, L., Sinicropi, A., Di Carlo, A., Basosi, R., 2020.
efficiency solution processable polymer photovoltaic cells by self-organization of Prospective life cycle assessment of third-generation photovoltaics at the pre-
polymer blends. Nat. Mater. 4 (11), 864–868. industrial scale: A long-term scenario approach. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 121,
Li, G., Zhu, R., Yang, Y., 2012b. Polymer solar cells. Nat. Photonics 6 (3), 153–161. 109703.
Li, Y., 2012. Molecular design of photovoltaic materials for polymer solar cells: toward Parto, S., Loorbach, D., Lansink, A., Kemp, R., 2007. 9. Transitions and Institutional
suitable electronic energy levels and broad absorption. Acc. Chem. Res. 45 (5), Change: The Case of the Dutch Waste Subsystem.
723–733. Patil, Y., Misra, R., Chen, F.C., Sharma, G.D., 2016. Small molecule based N-phenyl
Lincot, D., Guillemoles, J.F., Taunier, S., Guimard, D., Sicx-Kurdi, J., Chaumont, A., carbazole substituted diketopyrrolopyrroles as donors for solution-processed bulk
Roussel, O., Ramdani, O., Hubert, C., Fauvarque, J.P., Bodereau, N., Parissi, L., heterojunction organic solar cells. PCCP 18 (33), 22999–23005.
Panheleux, P., Fanouillere, P., Naghavi, N., Grand, P.P., Benfarah, M., Mogensen, P., Pereira da Silva, P., Dantas, G., Pereira, G.I., Câmara, L., De Castro, N.J., 2019.
Kerrec, O., 2004. Chalcopyrite thin film solar cells by electrodeposition. Sol. Energy Photovoltaic distributed generation – An international review on diffusion, support
77 (6), 725–737. policies, and electricity sector regulatory adaptation. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
Liu, J.G., Shao, S.Y., Wang, H.F., Zhao, K., Xue, L.J., Gao, X., Xie, Z.Y., Han, Y.C., 2010. 103, 30–39.
The mechanisms for introduction of n-dodecylthiol to modify the P3HT/PCBM Persson, O., Danell, R., Schneider, J.W., 2009. How to use Bibexcel for various types of
morphology. Org. Electron. 11 (5), 775–783. bibliometric analysis. Celebrating scholarly communication studies: A Festschrift for
Liu, Y., Zhao, J., Li, Z., Mu, C., Ma, W., Hu, H., Jiang, K., Lin, H., Ade, H., Yan, H., 2014. Olle Persson at his 60th Birthday 5, 9-24.
Aggregation and morphology control enables multiple cases of high-efficiency Phylipsen, G.J.M.a.A., E.A. , 1995. Environmental life-cycle assessment of
polymer solar cells. Nat. Commun. 5 (1), 5293. multicrystalline silicon solar cell modules. Netherlands Agency for Energy and the
Lupan, O., Guerin, V.M., Tiginyanu, I.M., Ursaki, V.V., Chow, L., Heinrich, H., Environment.
Pauporte, T., 2010. Well-aligned arrays of vertically oriented ZnO nanowires Po, R., Maggini, M., Camaioni, N., 2010. Polymer solar cells: recent approaches and
electrodeposited on ITO-coated glass and their integration in dye sensitized solar achievements. J. Phys. Chem. C 114 (2), 695–706.
cells. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A-Chem. 211 (1), 65–73. Porter, A.L., Cunningham, S.W., 2004. Tech mining: exploiting new technologies for
Ma, W., Yang, C., Gong, X., Lee, K., Heeger, A.J., 2005. Thermally stable, efficient competitive advantage. John Wiley & Sons.
polymer solar cells with nanoscale control of the interpenetrating network Salim, H.K., Stewart, R.A., Sahin, O., Dudley, M., 2019a. Drivers, barriers and enablers to
morphology. Adv. Funct. Mater. 15 (10), 1617–1622. end-of-life management of solar photovoltaic and battery energy storage systems: A
systematic literature review. J. Cleaner Prod. 211, 537–554.
561
D. Oteng et al. Solar Energy 224 (2021) 545–562
Salim, H.K., Stewart, R.A., Sahin, O., Dudley, M., 2019b. End-of-life management of solar Wassie, Y.T., Adaramola, M.S., 2019. Potential environmental impacts of small-scale
photovoltaic and battery energy storage systems: A stakeholder survey in Australia. renewable energy technologies in East Africa: A systematic review of the evidence.
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 150, 11. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 111, 377–391.
Shaheen, S., Ginley, D., 2004. Photovoltaics for the next generation: Organic-based solar Wise, J.A., 1999. The ecological approach to text visualization. J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. 50
cells. Encyclopedia Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2879. (13), 1224–1233.
Shaheen, S.E., Brabec, C.J., Sariciftci, N.S., Padinger, F., Fromherz, T., Hummelen, J.C., Wu, H.Y., Zuo, J., Zillante, G., Wang, J.Y., Yuan, H.P., 2019a. Status quo and future
2001. 2.5% efficient organic plastic solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 78 (6), 841–843. directions of construction and demolition waste research: A critical review.
Sharma, K., Sharma, V., Sharma, S.S., 2018. Dye-sensitized solar cells: fundamentals and J. Cleaner Prod. 240, 13.
current status. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 13 (1), 381. Wu, J., Wu, X., Zhang, J., 2019b. Development trend and frontier of stormwater
Shen, P., Bin, H.J., Xiao, L., Li, Y.F., 2013. Enhancing photovoltaic performance of management (1980–2019): A bibliometric overview based on CiteSpace. Water 11
copolymers containing thiophene unit with D-A conjugated side chain by rational (9), 1908.
molecular design. Macromolecules 46 (24), 9575–9586. Xi, X., Meng, Q.L., Li, F.X., Ding, Y.Q., Ji, J.J., Shi, Z.R., Li, G.H., 2010. The
Shi, Y., Liu, X., 2019. Research on the literature of green building based on the web of characteristics of the small molecule organic solar cells with PEDOT:PSS/LiF double
science: a scientometric analysis in CiteSpace (2002–2018). Sustainability 11 (13), anode buffer layer system. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells 94 (3), 623–628.
3716. Xin, H., Reid, O.G., Ren, G.Q., Kim, F.S., Ginger, D.S., Jenekhe, S.A., 2010. Polymer
Shrivastava, R., Mahajan, P., 2016. Artificial intelligence research in India: a nanowire/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells: how nanostructure determines
scientometric analysis. Sci. Technol. Libraries 35 (2), 136–151. photovoltaic properties. ACS Nano 4 (4), 1861–1872.
Shubbak, M.H., 2019. Advances in solar photovoltaics: Technology review and patent Xu, Y., Li, J.H., Tan, Q.Y., Peters, A.L., Yang, C.R., 2018. Global status of recycling waste
trends. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 115, 109383. solar panels: A review. Waste Manage. 75, 450–458.
Sica, D., Malandrino, O., Supino, S., Testa, M., Lucchetti, M.C., 2018. Management of Xue, J.G., Forrest, S.R., 2004. Carrier transport in multilayer organic photodetectors: II.
end-of-life photovoltaic panels as a step towards a circular economy. Renew. Sust. Effects of anode preparation. J. Appl. Phys. 95 (4), 1869–1877.
Energ. Rev. 82, 2934–2945. Yang, B.W., Tsai, M.Y., Cheng, W.H., Chen, J.S., Hsu, S.L.C., Chou, W.Y., 2013.
Stevens, D.M., Qin, Y., Hillmyer, M.A., Frisbie, C.D., 2009. Enhancement of the Synergistic amplification of short-circuit current for organic solar cells via
morphology and open circuit voltage in bilayer polymer/fullerene solar cells. modulation of P3HT:PCBM spatial distribution with solvent treatment. J. Phys.
J. Phys. Chem. C 113 (26), 11408–11415. Chem. C 117 (28), 14472–14478.
Stranks, S.D., Eperon, G.E., Grancini, G., Menelaou, C., Alcocer, M.J.P., Leijtens, T., Yang, L.Q., Zhang, T., Zhou, H.X., Price, S.C., Wiley, B.J., You, W., 2011. Solution-
Herz, L.M., Petrozza, A., Snaith, H.J., 2013. Electron-hole diffusion lengths processed flexible polymer solar cells with silver nanowire electrodes. ACS Appl.
exceeding 1 micrometer in an organometal trihalide perovskite absorber. Science Mater. Interfaces 3 (10), 4075–4084.
342 (6156), 341. Yang, W.S., Noh, J.H., Jeon, N.J., Kim, Y.C., Ryu, S., Seo, J., Seok, S.I., 2015. High-
Su, H.-N., Lee, P.-C., 2010. Mapping knowledge structure by keyword co-occurrence: a performance photovoltaic perovskite layers fabricated through intramolecular
first look at journal papers in Technology Foresight. Scientometrics 85 (1), 65–79. exchange. Science 348 (6240), 1234.
Sun, K., Zhang, H.M., Ouyang, J.Y., 2011. Indium tin oxide modified with sodium Yang, X., Loos, J., Veenstra, S.C., Verhees, W.J.H., Wienk, M.M., Kroon, J.M., Michels, M.
compounds as cathode of inverted polymer solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. 21 (45), A.J., Janssen, R.A.J., 2005. Nanoscale morphology of high-performance polymer
18339–18346. solar cells. Nano Lett. 5 (4), 579–583.
Szeifert, J.M., Fattakhova-Rohlfing, D., Georgiadou, D., Kalousek, V., Rathousky, J., Yoon, J., Jo, S., Chun, I.S., Jung, I., Kim, H.S., Meitl, M., Menard, E., Li, X.L., Coleman, J.
Kuang, D., Wenger, S., Zakeeruddin, S.M., Gratzel, M., Bein, T., 2009. “Brick and J., Paik, U., Rogers, J.A., 2010. GaAs photovoltaics and optoelectronics using
mortar” strategy for the formation of highly crystalline mesoporous titania films releasable multilayer epitaxial assemblies. Nature 465 (7296), 329–U380.
from nanocrystalline building blocks. Chem. Mat. 21 (7), 1260–1265. You, J., Dou, L., Yoshimura, K., Kato, T., Ohya, K., Moriarty, T., Emery, K., Chen, C.-C.,
Tang, H.W., Lu, G.H., Li, L.G., Li, J., Wang, Y.Z., Yang, X.N., 2010. Precise construction of Gao, J., Li, G., Yang, Y., 2013. A polymer tandem solar cell with 10.6% power
PCBM aggregates for polymer solar cells via multi-step controlled solvent vapor conversion efficiency. Nat. Commun. 4 (1), 1446.
annealing. J. Mater. Chem. 20 (4), 683–688. Yin, H., Yan, C., Hu, H., Ho, J.K.W., Zhan, X., Li, G., So, S.K., 2020. Recent progress of all-
Tao, J., Yu, S.R., 2015. Review on feasible recycling pathways and technologies of solar polymer solar cells–From chemical structure and device physics to photovoltaic
photovoltaic modules. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells 141, 108–124. performance. Mater. Sci. Eng.: R: Rep. 140, 100542.
Uhlrich, J.J., Franking, R., Hamers, R.J., Kuech, T.F., 2009a. Sulfide treatment of ZnO Yu, I.G., Kim, Y.J., Kim, H.J., Lee, C., Lee, W.I., 2011. Size-dependent light-scattering
single crystals and nanorods and the effect on P3HT-ZnO photovoltaic device effects of nanoporous TiO2 spheres in dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. 21
properties. J. Phys. Chem. C 113 (50), 21147–21154. (2), 532–538.
Uhlrich, J.J., Olson, D.C., Hsu, J.W.P., Kuech, T.F., 2009b. Surface chemistry and surface Yu, Z.T., Xu, J.J., Jiang, Y.S., Shi, Z., Guo, Y., Wang, D.J., Chen, J.S., 2003.
electronic properties of ZnO single crystals and nanorods. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 27 Photoluminescent and photovoltaic properties observed in a zinc borate Zn-2(OH)
(2), 328–335. BO3. J. Mater. Chem. 13 (9), 2227–2233.
van Eck, N., Waltman, L., 2009. Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for Zhang, H., Shi, J., Xu, X., Zhu, L., Luo, Y., Li, D., Meng, Q., 2016. Mg-doped TiO 2 boosts
bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics 84 (2), 523–538. the efficiency of planar perovskite solar cells to exceed 19%. J. Mater. Chem. A 4
Van Eck, N., Waltman, L., 2018. Manual for VOSviewer version 1.6. 8. CWTS Meaningful (40), 15383–15389.
Metrics. Universiteit Leiden. Zhao, N., Osedach, T.P., Chang, L.Y., Geyer, S.M., Wanger, D., Binda, M.T., Arango, A.C.,
van Eck, N.J., Waltman, L., 2014. Visualizing Bibliometric Networks. In: Ding, Y., Bawendi, M.G., Bulovic, V., 2010. Colloidal PbS quantum dot solar cells with high
Rousseau, R., Wolfram, D. (Eds.), Measuring Scholarly Impact: Methods and fill factor. ACS Nano 4 (7), 3743–3752.
Practice. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp. 285–320. Zhao, W., Li, S., Yao, H., Zhang, S., Zhang, Y., Yang, B., Hou, J., 2017. Molecular
Vargas, C., Chesney, M., 2020. End of life decommissioning and recycling of solar panels optimization enables over 13% efficiency in organic solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
in the United States. A real options analysis. J. Sustain. Finance & Investment 1–21. 139 (21), 7148–7151.
Wang, J.L., Yin, Q.R., Miao, J.S., Wu, Z., Chang, Z.F., Cao, Y., Zhang, R.B., Wang, J.Y., Zhou, Y.F., Eck, M., Veit, C., Zimmermann, B., Rauscher, F., Niyamakom, P., Yilmaz, S.,
Wu, H.B., Cao, Y., 2015. Rational design of small molecular donor for solution- Dumsch, I., Allard, S., Scherf, U., Kruger, M., 2011. Efficiency enhancement for bulk-
processed organic photovoltaics with 8.1% efficiency and high fill factor via multiple heterojunction hybrid solar cells based on acid treated CdSe quantum dots and low
fluorine substituents and thiophene bridge. Adv. Funct. Mater. 25 (23), 3514–3523. bandgap polymer PCPDTBT. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells 95 (4), 1232–1237.
Wang, N., Chen, Z., Wei, W., Jiang, Z.H., 2013. Fluorinated benzothiadiazole-based
conjugated polymers for high-performance polymer solar cells without any
processing additives or post-treatments. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135 (45), 17060–17068.
562