The Impact of The Coronavirus Crisis On European Societies What Have We Learnt and Where Do We Go From Here Introduction To The COVID Volume
The Impact of The Coronavirus Crisis On European Societies What Have We Learnt and Where Do We Go From Here Introduction To The COVID Volume
The Impact of The Coronavirus Crisis On European Societies What Have We Learnt and Where Do We Go From Here Introduction To The COVID Volume
To cite this article: Maria Grasso, Martina Klicperová-Baker, Sebastian Koos, Yuliya Kosyakova,
Antonello Petrillo & Ionela Vlase (2021) The impact of the coronavirus crisis on European societies.
What have we learnt and where do we go from here? – Introduction to the COVID volume,
European Societies, 23:sup1, S2-S32, DOI: 10.1080/14616696.2020.1869283
ABSTRACT
The coronavirus pandemic, which first impacted European societies in early 2020,
has created a twofold crisis by combining a health threat with economic turmoil.
While the crisis has affected all European societies very significantly, its impact
varies across countries, social groups, and societal domains. In an effort to
provide a first overview of the effect of the coronavirus crisis, in this editorial
we discuss contributions of 58 papers published as part of this special issue.
These early research papers illustrate the varied impact of the pandemic on
various areas of social life. The first group of studies in this special issue
analyzes the effect of the pandemic on social inequalities with respect to
gender, ethnic otherness, education, and work. A second stream of research
focuses on the psychological consequences of the pandemic, especially with
respect to wellbeing and resilience. Thirdly, the crisis is discussed on a societal
level, in regard to welfare states, social policies, and approaches to crisis
governance. In a fourth line of inquiry, several studies have analyzed the
impact of the pandemic on social solidarity and cohesion. A fifth strand of
research is devoted to examining the role of culture and lifestyles. This review
ends with a discussion of areas for future research trajectories.
Figure 1. Word cloud illustrating the word frequency based on titles, abstracts and key-
words of papers included in this special issue. Source: own illustration.
first attempt at carrying out a new social, economic, political, and terri-
torial planning could be pursued – it is argued – by transforming the
European Stability Mechanism (ESM) from a temporary instrument for
financial assistance during the crisis, into a proactive growth-promoting
fund for local economies and infrastructures.
Finally, the crisis has already started to have an impact on the welfare
state and social policies. One significant factor is childcare policy which
gained importance since many schools closed for protracted periods and
because of health risks for the elderly, grandparents often could not step
in to help with childcare even where they previously might have where
they lived close (Blum and Dobrotić 2020).
Coping with stress was linked to various aspects of the pandemic and rep-
resented another crucial theme that has emerged during these challen-
ging times. The negative psychological and psychiatric aspects such as
fear and depression attracted expert attention from the very onset of
the pandemic (Wang et al. 2020b). However, coping is also related to
adjustment and resilience. Both negative and positive aspects of coping
were captured in the submitted manuscripts.
In its initial phase, the pandemic represented an unknown danger and
triggered high levels of fear and anxiety even amongst healthy and resi-
lient individuals. As time progressed, there was a need to impose regu-
lations such as lockdown measures, isolation, quarantines, and physical
distancing. All these reasonable epidemiological methods involved
psychological drawbacks. Distance and isolation were potentially psycho-
logically detrimental for many people since social support, intimacy and
tactile contact are crucial factors in fostering resilience and well-being
among human beings. As a result, vulnerable individuals in particular
experienced psychological and also psychiatric problems. For many,
their mental condition, already weakened by limited social contact,
further deteriorated as a result of an additional economic blow.
The psychological aspects of the pandemic were routinely noted and
analyzed by many contributions to the special issue. The approaches
were varied and spanned from looking at individual coping mechanisms
to wider, group phenomena. Some studies focused on individual
responses to the pandemic in terms of risk perception (Breznau 2020;
Soiné et al. 2020), anxiety and behavioral adjustment (Buyukkececi
S14 M. GRASSO ET AL.
The pandemic has influenced various aspects of culture and several con-
tributions focused on these by studying values, changes in lifestyles,
leisure, and communication, among other phenomena. One of the funda-
mental sociological questions here related to the stability and change in
public opinion and values. With respect to the coronavirus pandemic,
one might wonder to what degree the world before and after the crisis
S16 M. GRASSO ET AL.
differs. The first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic did not cause opinions
and values in the Netherlands to change much and when so, there was a
tendency toward a positive shift (an increase in political support), illus-
trating the so-called ‘rally effect’, along with heightened civic concern
about privacy due to the new regulations (Reeskens et al. 2020).
An on-line survey experiment involving 1,846 individuals in a roman-
tic relationship (cohabiting or living apart together) studied how future
prospects affected marriage intentions. Respondents were randomly
assigned to one of five treatments, each suggesting a different expected
duration of the pandemic emergency, presented in a mock news bulletin.
The findings confirmed the assumptions that the prolonged vision of the
state of emergency would have a negative impact on marriage intentions
while cohabitation – in contrast to marriage – would be more compatible
with an uncertain world (Guetto et al. 2020).
Sport has been of significance for well-being in Germany, since lock-
down resulted in forced inactivity for many individuals. The results indi-
cated lower well-being in the aftermath of reduced sporting activities,
with the drop being particularly intensive when the reduction of sporting
was involuntary, such as in the case of lockdown measures. On the con-
trary, increased sporting behavior had a buffering effect on psychological
health (Mutz 2020).
Religion and religiosity during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy – one
of the earliest and hardest-hit European countries – played a significant
role in countering the feelings of insecurity, particularly among
persons for whom religiosity was already a cultural, emotional, or
social resource due to early religious socialization. The results revealed
increased religious behavior in form of more frequent attendance of reli-
gious activities and praying as a consequence of experiencing contagion
in the family (Molteni et al. 2020). Focusing on Switzerland, Bawidamann
et al. (2020) studied the ritual modifications prompted by the crisis in the
Roman Catholic Church and an Islamic organization via three categories:
‘change’, ‘shift’, and ‘cancellation’. With a focus on religious authority,
following Bourdieu, they show that the response to ritual restrictions
depends on the denomination’s degree of establishment within the
societal context and the division of religious labor in the community.
Another creative project, a literary contest of pandemic diaries in
Poland initiated by Łukianow et al. (2020) yielded a variety of over 400
submissions spanning from just a few lines of a poem to extensive elec-
tronic documents. Some diaries had a documentary character, others
were fictionalized and poetic. Most entries carried a distinct
EUROPEAN SOCIETIES S17
4.2. Solidarity
As the crisis continues, we may begin to see the signs of fatigue and the
reaching of a stage of exhaustion of both material and psychological
resources, followed by a decline in volunteering and the willingness to
share. While acts of solidarity stood out in the ‘heydays’ of the first lock-
down (e.g. the Czech altruistic wave of home-made production of face
masks (Trnka 2020)) at least in some countries (Carlsen et al 2020),
overall levels of social cohesion may have palpably declined, especially
among the most deprived communities (Borkowska and Laurence
2020). Thus, we need to better understand how acts of solidarity and
social cohesion are connected, and how patterns might differ across
countries and communities. In studying solidarity and cohesion, we
should not forget the impact of digitalization, as we may witness a rise
in virtual community life and activism.
The country-level dimension of solidarity is also relevant in terms of
understanding whether the crisis has led to changes in international soli-
darity. Are citizens willing to enable transfers to help other countries in
need and what conditions do they wish to apply to these? Will condition-
ality continue to be popular or rather is the haphazard nature of the current
crisis a reminder that any country could be faced with challenges and need
the help of others? The crisis might prove a powerful reminder that
cooperation and altruistic support could be essential for moving forward.
Family life was another area where the pandemic had a strong impact.
Questions in future research could involve looking at issues linked to interge-
nerational solidarity and support within nuclear families, care for children and
the elderly, and the bases for societal arrangements that are conducive to sup-
porting the right balance of responsibilities with other activities and duties.
While family issues were relatively well-covered in this special issue,
surprisingly little attention was paid to the elderly. Yet, solely on
account of their age, seniors are a high-risk group (The Centre for Evi-
dence-Based Medicine 2020). While seniors were asked to self-isolate,
in some countries that was a mandatory request, without concern
whether they had comorbidities or not. That had far-reaching effects
on their living conditions and well-being, almost irrespective of their
material conditions. We need to know more about agism, about the inter-
generation relations, about how older people cope with the crisis, what
are their resources for resilience and how they can be fostered.
Speaking of solidarity, one last group deserves more research and
attention, the first responders: the various professions which may be
hard to reach for research but who deserve to be recognized and well
cared for. We all owe them.
EUROPEAN SOCIETIES S21
Over the last decades, private forms of governance have been gaining
importance, supra-national institutions (such as the EU) have become
more powerful and austerity can be seen to have undermined the very
bases of social rights. The pandemic has, however, forcefully re-intro-
duced the (nation) state, as the crucial political institution in times of
crisis. Yet, the crisis threatens fundamental social and political rights.
The capability of different types of welfare states in buffering from the
effects of the pandemic is a major theme to be studied, as is the effective-
ness of the political measures to contain the virus. These will be impor-
tant research fields, which have strong implications for understanding
also the complex dynamics of social inequalities. In the beginning of
the crisis, non-traditional means of political participation, such as dem-
onstrations, have been mostly muted, but demonstrations later took place
across Europe, for example against government measures to fight
COVID-19 and over other questions, such as for example those in
France against the security bill restricting filming of the police etc.
The situation continues to evolve. Worried societies at the onset of the
pandemic were cooperative and willing to conform to the decisions of
their political leadership and to sacrifice their rights. However, this was
followed by increasing fatigue combined with growing economic fears
and placing the probability of more divided societies on the horizon.
The potential trend towards divisiveness for many societies has been
further underlined by their inability to develop a consensus on proper
and effective measures to deal with the pandemic. There were at the
same time people who continued to sew face masks and give them
away while others demonstrated not just against the possibility of a lock-
down but even against the wearing of face masks in public. With future
research, it is imperative to better understand what drives people to fall
for and help to spread the conspiracy theories, undermine trust, and
protest against any measure to contain the pandemic.
During the first wave, when the research for this issue was conceived,
most of us imagined, or perhaps hoped, that the COVID-19 crisis
EUROPEAN SOCIETIES S23
would come and go, almost like with seasonal flu. Now, coming to a year
later, we may well be concerned that we will have to learn to live with the
virus for a long time. If so, this would change not only our individual life-
styles but also societal culture in wider terms.
Moreover, a crucial issue seems to be that of the incompatibility of pre-
ferences (both individual and cultural). On an individual level, we see
clashes between face mask-wearers and mask-rejectors/regulation-rejec-
tors which can spill into large-scale demonstrations.
Indeed, it is not easy to find consensus among our individual, group,
and cultural lifestyle preferences. The pandemic offers several scenarios
and potential sociological experiments. The least imposing situation pro-
vides maximum individual freedom and requires least responsibility as
long as the infection curve is flat enough not to overburden the intensive
care units. The selective strategy focuses on the frail (usually the oldest)
who are put in isolation and leaves the younger population to be relatively
more free. The most cautious scenario strives for an infection-free society
at the cost of strict quarantining and temporary radical controls. Most
societies move between the strategies, recommendations of experts,
industrial lobbyists, the will of the people and the numbers of COVID
cases. In the pre-vaccination world it is very challenging to harmonize
the will of individuals and cultures, to find a compromise between econ-
omic interests and health requirements, and to develop sound, long-term
strategic planning in an increasingly unpredictable world.
The presence of the virus will ultimately affect our way of consuming,
not only in terms of shopping routines, but also what and how we
consume. Sites for cultural consumption have been closed and needed
to move online, but to move culture online in this way is only possible
to a limited degree. Eating practices are also likely to have transformed,
due to the closing of restaurants and canteens and increased eating at
home. The pandemic might have also changed what is perceived to be
ethical consumption and potentially challenged the diffusion of sustain-
able lifestyles (Boons et al 2020) Where, for instance, car use had risen,
the use of public transport declined, and consumption of single use
plastic skyrocketed. More than ever, our societal systems and the corre-
sponding quality of life will depend on our sense of social responsibility,
on civic and political culture, and on civility to overcome the dystopic
aspects of the current crisis (cf. Matthewman and Huppatz 2020). This
will be a test for our communities, nations, and ultimately, a test for
humanity in terms of its ability to rationally coexist. Coordinating our
cultural approaches within and across societies is a major challenge
S24 M. GRASSO ET AL.
that makes this time unique for the social sciences in general and for soci-
ology in particular.
5. Conclusion
Reading this special issue may be inspiring both by virtue of the theoreti-
cal wisdom and the rich empirical knowledge brought forth by the 58
papers included. We conclude with some broader observations on theor-
etical and empirical challenges. On a theoretical level, many studies have
adopted theories from their specific fields, supplemented often by some
generic understanding of the crisis and its impact. Some works have
employed specific understandings of what a crisis represents (e.g.
Condon (2020) based on Habermas). Others build on the experience of
collective trauma (Voicu et al. 2020). This opens the horizon for
further theoretical discussion on the concept of crisis and specifically
for theorizing the many mechanisms via which the thinking and
actions of people are affected.
On a critical methodological note, some (large-N) studies make use of
convenience samples, thus raising the issue of representativeness. While
this seems fine to get a first thorough impression, we should (and authors
did) nevertheless treat findings based on such data with some caution.
Future research could make use of existing panels and start collecting
more representative data, which can also allow for replication and thus
support more robust conclusions (Hoenig and Wenz 2020; Möhring
et al. 2020). In turn, some of the qualitative (small-N) studies were con-
fronted with difficulties in terms of gaining access to particular social
groups, particularly while social distancing measures were in place.
Additionally, using online media and exploring ‘new’ data sources
might also further boost future methodological variety.
Europe is an excellent setting for studying and understanding the
diversity of societies and governments and how these have been
affected by the coronavirus crisis. Some studies made good use of that
variety and already provide comparative perspectives, which should be
further expanded in future research.
Finally, the coronavirus crisis can be seen as a catalyst, speeding up
some social processes and bringing others to a close, uncovering social
tensions and divisions, inequalities and power imbalances, but also
revealing the capacity for collective problem-solving and solidarity
among European societies in late modernity.
EUROPEAN SOCIETIES S25
Acknowledgements
First of all, we would like to acknowledge all those who did and continue to do their
best to alleviate this crisis. In our field, these are scholars devoted to documenting
and making sense of the circumstances and thus providing some effort in helping
others cope with the pandemic. We were delighted by the great number and diversity
of authors who responded to our call and we were impressed by their thought-pro-
voking manuscripts. All contributions were appreciated although not all studies
could be accepted for publication as we had to respect the guidelines of an impact
factor journal. Our editorial team worked intensely during most of the summer
and part of the fall of 2020 to manage the great volume of submissions. Driven by
scientific enthusiasm and awareness of the special circumstances, we shortened tra-
ditional deadlines and turnover times. We are immensely grateful to all reviewers
who were very cooperative in completing quick and enlightening reviews. In
addition, we wish to thank Michalis Lianos and Agnes Skamballis at European
Societies for all their guidance, advice and help. We also want to thank Marco
Verweij for his support in editing the special issue. This special issue would not
exist without them. Finally, we are grateful to the publisher who at this time of
special global need facilitated the accessibility of this special issue.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes on contributors
Maria Grasso is Professor of Political Science and Political Sociology at the School of
Politics and International Relations, Queen Mary University of London, UK. She
holds a BA (Hons) in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE), an MSc in Soci-
ology with Distinction and a doctorate from the University of Oxford. She is Euro-
pean Editor of Mobilization and on the Editorial Boards of European Societies and
European Journal of Political Research. She is the author of Generations, Political Par-
ticipation and Social Change in Western Europe and co-author of Street Citizens:
Protest Politics and Social Movement Activism in the Age of Globalization and
Living with Hard Times: Europeans in the Great Recession. She has been published
in British Journal of Political Science, European Journal of Political Research, Euro-
pean Societies, European Political Science Review, International Political Science
Review, Electoral Studies, Journal of Elections, Public Opinion, and Parties, Political
Studies, Mobilization, Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change and
other journals.
Martina Klicperová-Baker is a Senior Research Scholar at the Institute of Psychol-
ogy, Czech Academy of Sciences; she is also affiliated with the Department of Politi-
cal Science, San Diego State University, U.S.A.. Her PhD is in Psychology. Her main
research interests are in the field of Political Psychology, especially in the area of
Psychology of Democracy, Transition to Democracy, and Post-Communism. She
S26 M. GRASSO ET AL.
ORCID
Maria Grasso http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6911-2241
Martina Klicperová-Baker http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9333-7339
Sebastian Koos http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6739-1649
Yuliya Kosyakova http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9621-1755
Ionela Vlase http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5117-3783
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