ED465995
ED465995
ABSTRACT
A case study explored the roles played by a teacher and her
students in a classroom learning community with diverse students as they
practiced and developed their literacy knowledge and skills to participate in
Book Club, a literature-based instruction program. Specifically, it examines
instructional scaffolding, a strategy which assists learners to extend the
current skills and knowledge they bring to the classroom to a higher level of
competence. The Book Club created the room and space for students to read
quality adolescent literature, to write responses to them and to talk about
the books together with peers. As time progressed, the dominant teacher-talk
and teacher-led talk at the beginning of the year changed to guided student
participation and eventually to student-led discussions. In this process of
gradual power transfer, the teacher employed various forms of instruction and
multiple mediational tools. The instructional forms included explicit
instruction, modeling, assisting student participation, building on students'
existing knowledge, and participating in the discussion as a participant. The
mediational tools included fishbowl discussions, writing prompts, flexible
grouping, and student self-evaluation checklists. In the case study,
scaffolding was shown to create opportunities for students to practice and
develop their literacy knowledge and skills. (Contains 42 references and 4
children's books cited.) (PM)
Ailing Kong
Saint Joseph's University
A . 41_1,18
of preparing all children with the knowledge, skills, and the dispositions to
through participating in the communal cultural practices and interacting with the
1985; Cole, 1997). The process of learning is a process of guided and mediated
meanings of the practice and develop the needed knowledge and skills with
support (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Tharp & Gallimore, 1989). Lave and Wenger
participation" to "full participation". Reading and writing are higher cultural and
psychological functions and there are certain ways of talking and ways of thinking
about texts (Englert & Mariage, 1996). In literacy education, teachers need to
Brock & Gavelek, 1998). The goal of instruction is to gradually release the
responsibility from the teacher to the students (Pearson & Gallagher, 1983) as they
develop their literacy knowledge and participation skills with the teacher's
This paper explores the roles played by a teacher and her students in a
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students' learning. The second section examines a case study where scaffolding is
further explored, including the context, the roles played by scaffolders and
scaffoldees, the scaffolding techniques, and the mediational tools. The last section
model of teaching. The latter defines teachers as knowledge holders who impart
their knowledge to the children in their care, while students are blank slate or
empty sponge waiting to absorb the knowledge delivered to them. This traditional
way of instruction emphasizes "rote learning and student passivity, facts and low-
perspective aims not only at creating opportunities for student active participation
in real literacy practices of a community, which is both the end goal and the means
of learning but also requiring teachers, who are the more knowledgeable persons of
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the community, to provide guidance and support to their students. Evidence shows
that opportunity for participation only is not enough for the students to make the
Wenger, 1991). Student performance needs to be guided and mediated in order for
learning to take place (Ma loch, 2001; Chinn, Anderson, & Waggoner, 2001).
and support to assist student performance. Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976)
problem, carry out a task, or achieve a goal which would be beyond his unassisted
efforts" (p.90). Like the scaffold that supports workers during the construction of a
building and the training wheels on a bicycle that support a child to gain the motor
skill of riding (Avery and Graves, 1997), instructional scaffolds assist learners to
extend the current skills and knowledge they bring to the classroom to a higher
the zone of proximal development (ZPD), defined as the distance between what
children can do without assistance and what they can accomplish with the
socially constructed and learning occurs through a child's interactions with the
more knowledgeable others who provide support within their ZPD in real practice.
Stone (1993) analyzed this scaffolding process in terms of semiotic mediation and
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scaffolding within a learner's ZPD. Stone (1993) cited Rommetveit (1974, 1979)
and defined prolepsis as "a communicative move in which the speaker presupposes
more knowledgeable adult and a child, prolepsis on the part of the adult directs the
task goal and of the appropriate means for achieving the goal" and responds
(1986). He defines them as words that trigger suppositions. For example, in the
sentence "He thanked the audience for their generous support to the program", the
word "thanked" presupposes that "the audience had made generous support to the
adults and others to provide assistance via language and cultural norms in their
interaction with the learners. They allow learners to operate in their zone of
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proximal development (ZPD) to solve problems and achieve goals that would be
instruction, which included (a) teacher support that helps students relate the new
information to their prior knowledge; (b) transfer of responsibility from the teacher
to the students; (c) dialogue which breaks from the traditional classroom discourse
to more student initiated talk; (d) non-evaluative collaboration that focuses on the
child's potential for new learning rather than evaluating the child's current
can do with assistance within his/her ZPD; (f) co-participation that creates
of gradual release of responsibility from the teacher to the students (Pearson &
Studies on scaffolding have shown that various types of strategies and tools
systems such as question words, story maps, think-sheets, writing prompts, ground
rules for talk, and reading materials (Raphael, 2000; Palinscar & Brown 1984;
Englert, Raphael, Anderson, Anthony, & Stevens, 1991; Mercer & Wegerif, 1999;
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functions of scaffolding comments (Roehler & Cant lon, 1997; Hogan & Pressley,
1997; Gaskins, Rauch, Gensemer, Cunicelli, O'Hara, Six, & Scott, 1997). Others
explore the use of mediational tools, including reading materials, rules for talk, and
Mesmer, 1999; Mercer & Wegerif, 1999; Day & Cordon, 1993). Still others sought
expository texts (Johnson & Graves, 1996/1997; Avery & Graves, 1997).
dialogic teaching and mediating their learning through cultural tools not only
enhance students' learning (Parlinscar and Brown, 1984; Englert, et al., 1991;
Mercer & Wegerif, 1999) but also enable them to retain the learning longer and to
scaffolding focus mostly on the interaction between the dyads: the learner and a
scaffolding led Searle (1984) to ask the question "Who's building whose
building?" Searle was concerned with the scaffolding practice in which teachers
make "children structure their experience to flt their teacher's structures". Thus,
more studies are needed to examine the community dynamics in which scaffolding
takes place and explore such questions as "Who decides what scaffolds to provide?
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student and the teacher, but also between the teacher and the whole class, and
shared practice (Rogoff, 1994; Brown, 1997). Teachers share their end vision of
the practice and assist the students to develop the knowledge and skills needed for
explicit instruction, modeling and scaffolding. At the same time, students construct
their own understanding of what the practice should be and appropriate and
internalize the knowledge and skills while being assisted in their participation in
the practice. In such context, teachers are facing new challenges in scaffolding
student learning. They confront not only such questions as "What scaffolds are
needed? When should they be delivered?" but also questions like "When and how
more capable peers to mediate other student learning?". By analyzing the data
participate in reading, writing, and talking about books, the current paper hopes to
explore what scaffolding strategies the teacher used in a learning community that
Data used for analysis in this paper is from a one-year study of a culturally
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was originally founded to meet the needs of children from the newly arrived
immigrant families in this area. When the year began, the class had 25 students, 10
fifth graders and 15 fourth graders, 14 boys and 11 girls. Ethnically, 6 were
and 1 Bosnian. Linguistically, over 60% of the students came from homes where a
language other than English was spoken. Over 90% of the students in this class had
program (see McMahon &, Raphael 1997) as the major part of her language arts
instruction. The class spent between 70 to 90 minutes every day engaging in Book
Club. After their initial fishbowl discussion phase of about 8 weeks, a typical Book
Club day began with book clubs (small group discussion), followed by community
share (whole class discussion), mini-lesson, group reading, and ended with
individual writing responses to prompt questions. During the school year, the class
1964, Tuck Everlasting, and Walk Two Moons. New book club groups were
A total of 56 visits of the classroom were made for data collection during
the year. Data used for analysis in this paper include mainly the researcher's field
notes, and transcripts of audio- and video-tapes of mini-lessons, small group, and
responsibility" (Pearson & Gallagher, 1983) from the teacher to the students in
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conducting Book Club group and whole class discussions over the school year
(Kong & Pearson, 2002). As time progressed, the dominant teacher-talk and
more responsibility in their group and whole class discussions. Their conversations
became more "expert like" and focused. They learned to "speak" to one another
through sharing thoughts and questioning each other on the common topic. They
meaning of the texts and of their own experiences. The students learned to
appreciate the literary texts and enjoy conversing with each other as well. As one
student who had been in this country from Vietnam for one year when the study
began said in her self-initiated letter to her "dear class" at the end of the school
Well, I do, I always felt that you're my best communities [sic] members I ever had.
I think that's why school year seem[ed] over too quickly because we enjoyed
working together and play[ing] together" (Thi's letter to class on June 12, 1999.
Analysis also shows that Ellen began the year by focusing on establishing a
learning environment in which all students felt respected and all ideas were
welcomed. She believed that all students had unique experiences valuable for their
own and each other's learning and she tried to foster a classroom learning
community in which all students believed that everyone in the class, not just the
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teacher, had good ideas to contribute to discussions and that they can all learn from
talking with each other about books. Ellen had high expectations of her students
and believed that they would acquire the skills and knowledge to participate in
In the next session, I will first examine the instructional strategies and the
scaffolding tools the teacher used in helping students develop the literacy
Then I will discuss the opportunities for peer scaffolding in such a community of
literacy practice.
The Book Club, as it was structured in Ellen's classroom, created the room
and space for her students to read quality adolescent literature, to write their
responses to them, and to talk about the books together with their peers. However
the process was not without challenges. Though at the beginning of the year Ellen
discussed the end view of the Book Club practices with her students and invited a
demonstration for her class, students would need assistance to develop their
community.
Data analysis shows that over the year Ellen assisted her students in
developing the knowledge and skills to engage with literary texts with her
preplanned and impromptu instruction and by using language and cultural tools.
Based on the needs of the students, Ellen's instruction and scaffolding changed
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from high teacher control to high student control over the year. At the beginning of
the year, Ellen focused on helping her students understand that "discussion is
different from sharing" (Transcript, September 22, 1998) and encouraged them to
respond to each other's sharing. She emphasized the need for students to respond
to writing prompts directly as their written response served as the basis for
discussions. She helped students distinguish "fat, juicy" from "skinny" questions
and taught them how to form those questions. However, being able to use the right
form of questions did not mean that they fully understood the function of the
questions (Cazden, 1981). Ellen then tried to make students understand that "you
[they] must have a point to make when you [they] ask a question" (Transcript,
December 3, 1998). Early in the year, she tried various ways to get students
talking. However, when she saw them bringing unwarranted assumptions and
assertions in their discussions, she stopped them. She told them "outlandish ideas
need to stay out of the discussion" (Transcript, February 9, 1999) as she saw the
need to guide the students in developing ways of talking and thinking at a higher
level that accorded with the norms and values of the larger literacy community (see
Author, in review, for detail). The process of the gradual release of responsibility
was dynamic and reciprocal where teacher instruction shaped student participation
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The mediational tools Ellen used included fishbowl discussions, writing prompts,
Scaffolding Strategies
programs utilized. They arranged the forms from high teacher control/low student
In the next session, I will examine how Ellen employed these instructional
strategies and others in assisting her students to develop their literacy knowledge
content to be taught and helps students to master the information and the strategies.
In Ellen's classroom, especially at the beginning of the year when she was
introducing Book Club, much of the instruction was given in this style. However,
Ellen's explicit instruction was not in the form of straight lecture, but rather in the
1991), where the teacher controls the topic of discussion and the turn taking and
2000, p.62). The following is an example of Ellen applying "dialogic teaching" and
involving her students in the knowledge construction while she set up the agenda.
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Ellen: I have two types of questions that I'm going to talk about. One type
Ellen: Yes, they have a big, fat question mark, and I call them fat, juicy
questions. ... If I ask you, Anca, what color is the boy's shirt? Is it a
Anca: No.
students to judge whether it was a fat, juicy question or not and why. At the end,
she defined the term, "A fat, juicy question has no "yes" or "no" answer. No right
answer. Because I want you to think about why things might be happening in the
book. ... and the answer you give is what you think." (Transcript, September 1,
1998). Through the teacher directed "interactive lecture" format, Ellen helped her
students understand the concept of "fat, juicy questions", the open-ended questions
explicitly (Roehler & Duffy, 1991). Ellen modeled various participation behaviors,
class discussions. Her modeling of these strategies not only helped contribute to
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their conversations about the books, but also provided students examples of
when she modeled what questions to ask and how to ask them.
Ellen: Wait, I have a question for you. (to Alicia) You said that Marty is a very
determined boy. I'd like to know what type of things he did that shows he
is determined.
thinking and language usage so that they would engage in the more in-depth,
to demonstrate how one should respond to them directly; other times, she would
challenge the students' ideas. Through these, students were pushed to examine
a house was white during a community share. She challenged him to think further,
asked him to think on his own feet, and at the same time provided him with hints
to guide his thinking. Also evident in this excerpt is the helpful role Andy's peers
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Andy: Yeah.
Student: (inaudible)
Ellen: Use your own thinking; don't use his thinking. I think you were
Andy: OH, because it is white, if you touch it, it'll get dirty.
concepts, Ellen used several different ways to make explicit the connections
between what students had already known and the new concepts they were
learning. Sometimes, Ellen asked students questions or engaged them in tasks they
already knew or were familiar with before introducing the new related concept and
task. Other times, Ellen used students' own experiences as examples to illustrate
the new concept. For example, she used a fight her class had with another fifth
grade class on the soccer ground during the recess to illustrate the concept of
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"point of view". Ellen asked the students to think about whether the story they told
about the fight would be the same as the one told by the students from the other
class and if not, why (Field notes, September 14, 1998). This helped her students
were able to do and the new learning, Ellen included her students as active and
knowledge.
helping students connect new knowledge to their prior knowledge, Ellen also
created opportunities when the knowledge and skills of the more knowledgeable
students in the class became public knowledge. Ellen achieved this in four ways.
First, she would draw the class attention to how the more knowledgeable peers
responded to text and interacted with each other. For example, Michael and Thahn
used paraphrasing and clarifying strategies when they tried to articulate their
View from Saturday. Ellen encouraged the students to use the strategy and also
A few times I heard people say, "I think what she means is...", or "I think
what he means is..." It sounds like that you're clarifying that and there's an
opportunity for the other person to say, "Yeah, yeah." or "No, that's not
model the task for the class, demonstrating how to think about, talk about, or
approach the task. For example, to illustrate what she meant by providing specific
evidence and support, Ellen asked the class about The View from Saturdays "Do
you think Ms. Olinski thought it was Julian who wrote the word 'cripple' on the
board? Why or why not?" Then she called on several students whom she knew
would be able to give evidence from the text to support what they said (Field
The third opportunity for peer learning occurred when new students joined
the class. On these occasions, Ellen would invite the "veteran" students to mentor
the new student. On the first day when Munira came, Alicia explained to her what
they were doing, "What we do in Book Club is we read the book and we write on
the prompts. Then the next day we'll discuss it and we'll have the whole class
discussion." Other students also explained to Munira why they did group and class
discussions, saying that if some people didn't understand the book, they could ask
the people in their group to clarify the confusion (Transcript, December 9, 1998).
Fourth, Ellen also used students' written responses to teach. She discussed
with the whole class the strengths of each sample writing as well as places for
rather with an authentic question to ask or a real urge to share something with the
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students . For example, in one of the discussions in May when the class was
talking about different expressions their family members used, Ellen shared a
saying by her husband following upon what one student said about his father,
`do you have a mouse in your pocket?' (The class laughed) ... Do you have
a mouse in your pocket means that IT will go with you because I AM not.
Do you understand? So he's [the student's father] saying that there's a rat
under the bed that did it, not him... You know what I am saying? (The class
laughed.)
human beings and they are mediated by tools and cultural artifacts. Engels (1940)
believed that human's ability to make tools is the "final, essential distinction
between man and other animals" (quoted by Vygotsky, 1978, p.7). Dewey (1934)
explained that human beings developed these tools or "works of art" to aid their
successful interaction with their natural living environment, both physical and
social. The tools included both material/physical tools, such as hammers and
between the functions of these tools and pointed out "while material tools are
aimed at the control over processes in nature, psychological tools master natural
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were not only invented for human beings to integrate with the environment, they
also became tools to mediate learning and human thinking. In her class, Ellen
employed such cultural tools to help students develop literacy knowledge and
skills needed for them to participate in Book Club activities. For example, she used
the fishbowl activity as a tool, which enabled her to model and mediate students'
participation in the public space of the whole class before moving into group
discussions. She used the writing prompts as a tool to push students to read and to
think critically and reflectively with open-ended but pointed questions. Ellen also
participate in literary talk about books in small groups, Ellen explained to them
what they should do, invited students she taught the previous year to demonstrate
in a fishbowl discussion, and finally engaged the class in taking turns conducting
fishbowl discussions. Ellen put two extra chairs at the fishbowl table, which
allowed the rest of the class to join the fishbowl discussion if they had questions to
ask or comments to make, instead of being a passive onlooker. The public space
created by the two extra chairs at the fishbowl table gave the more knowledgeable
members of this learning community, including both the teacher and the more
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questions grouped under topics such as Me and the Book, Point of View, Character
their understanding of the chapters they read and used their writing as the basis for
examine and analyze the text, synthesize it, interpret it, make personal and
evidences for their arguments. Students also learned about certain structural
techniques, such as ways of organizing and presenting ideas and ways of arguing
one's point. Over the school year, students wrote 122 responses, most of the time
anything they wanted in the book. The writing prompts, as an instrumental tool,
occasions to evaluate their own learning and each other performance. When
with questions that encouraged them to reflect on their experiences in the book unit
and assess their own performance. Students were asked how they liked the book,
what they liked about working with the book, what grade they would give
themselves, and what area(s) they would focus on for self improvement for the
next book. Students also chose one good response entry and wrote a sticky note
explaining why they believed it was their best. After Ellen graded their portfolio,
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students responded to her comments and grading by setting up new goals for
were given a checklist that focused their attention to listening and responding to
each other, asking open-ended questions, having positive attitudes, and other
behaviors that would lead to productive conversations about books (Field Notes,
Peer Scaffolding
Book Club routine created the opportunities for students to share ideas,
provide feedback, construct meanings together, and learn from each other. In a
are created for students to practice and develop the knowledge and skills needed
for participation in this practice. In the process, students interact with each other as
well as the teacher to construct the knowledge collaboratively. They modify their
perceptions and behaviors to achieve the end goal of a shared practice. In such a
community, scaffolding comes not only from the teacher, but also from the more
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from Ellen's classroom demonstrate this peer scaffolding and support as they
constructed meanings of the text collaboratively. The following are just three
examples.
early community share discussion about Number the Stars, Rico was helping
Thahn figure out why he felt there was a happy mood in the room. Rico rephrased
answer.
Rico: Like what part of the book that made you feel that mood?
Thahn: (inaudible)
Rico: Like happy, what part of the book that made you happy?
Rico: I think you mean that it's happy because mama didn't get caught?
Thahn: Yeah.
Andy, Thahn, and Michael explained the meaning of the word "divorce" upon
Thi's request. They told her that it meant "you sign paper" and became only
"friends" when you don't want to be married after marriage; in other words, "you
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members listened to each other, built on each other's ideas, and collaboratively
Thahn: And then you don't want to marry them and you sign paper
Andy: Then you get divorced and you can only be friends.
Michael: You dump them. [laughter and smiles from all group members]
discussion on the book Walk Two Moons, Andy said that he thought Grandma and
Grandpa were crazy because they stole a tire from a Senator's car in Washington.
Tu challenged his assumption and said they were only borrowing. In the following
presented in public. At the same time, they also provided support for their
opinions.
Andy: Of course they are crazy, because only crazy persons are going to
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Andy: So I go and steal someone's video games and I'm just borrowing
them?!
Tu: To them they are borrowing and to other people they are stealing.
Conclusion
students to participate and interact with each other in meaningful and authentic
activities. Book Club, with the opportunities for students to read, write responses,
and talk in both small groups and the whole class, created the time and space for
of the texts and their own experiences collaboratively. To make scaffolding work
participate in shared literacy practice requires teachers to believe that (a) students
are capable and knowledgeable beings, (b) students can learn, and (c) teachers can
make a difference (Langer, 2001). This case study demonstrated several necessary
instructional strategies and use the mediational tools offered by the program to
provide students with both direct instruction and the moment-to-moment assistance
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"two-way traffic" to allow teachers to provide the guidance and support within the
students' zones of proximal development. Third, space should be created for the
more capable peers in the community to demonstrate their literacy knowledge and
skills and to scaffold each other's learning. Students bring with them different
and they each could be the more capable peers in areas they have the expertise. In
talking, and thinking about books and assist their peers in their development of
these skills. Finally, as students increase their literacy knowledge and skills
teacher would gradually releases his/her responsibility to the students (Pearson &
Gallagher, 1983). The process for the class to develop a communal practice is at
the same time a literacy learning process for the students through their "assisted
performance" (Tharp and Gallimore, 1989). We can learn to swim only through
practicing swimming in the water and students can only learn to respond and talk
about literary texts through engaging in conversations about books with others.
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